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Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

Solution Manual for Chemistry A Molecular Approach 3rd Edition by Tro ISBN
0321809246 9780321809247
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Student Objectives

2.1 Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms

Describe scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and how atoms are imaged on surfaces.
Define atom and element.

2.2 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter

Describe the earliest definitions of atoms and matter (Greeks).

Know that greater emphasis on observation and the development of the scientific method led to
the scientific revolution.

2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It

State and understand the law of conservation of mass (also from Section 1.2).
State and understand the law of definite proportions.
State and understand the law of multiple proportions.
Know the four postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory.

2.4 The Discovery of the Electron

Describe J. J. Thomson’s experiments with the cathode ray tube and understand how they
provide evidence for the electron.
Describe Robert Millikan’s oil‐drop experiment and understand how it enables measurement of
the charge of an electron.

2.5 The Structure of the Atom

Define radioactivity, nucleus, proton, and neutron.

Understand Thomson's plum‐pudding model and how Ernest Rutherford’s gold‐foil
experiment refuted it by giving evidence for a nuclear structure of the atom.

2.6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms

Define atomic mass unit, atomic number, and chemical symbol.
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

Recognize chemical symbols and atomic numbers on the periodic table.

Define isotope, mass number, and natural abundance.
Determine the number of protons and neutrons in an isotope using the chemical symbol and
the mass number.
Define ion, anion, and cation.
Understand how ions are formed from elements.
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

2.7 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table

Define the periodic law.

Know that elements with similar properties are placed into columns (called groups) in the
periodic table.
Define and distinguish between metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.
Identify main‐group and transition elements on the periodic table.
Know the general properties of elements in some specific groups: noble gases, alkali metals, alkaline
earth metals, and halogens.
Know and understand the rationale for elements that form ions with predictable charges.

2.8 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms

Calculate atomic mass from isotope masses and natural abundances.

Define mass spectrometry and understand how it can be used to measure mass and
relative abundance.

2.9 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them

Understand the relationship between mass and count of objects such as atoms.
Define mole and Avogadro’s number.
Calculate and interconvert between number of moles and atoms.
Calculate and interconvert between number of moles and mass.

Section Summaries

Lecture Outline

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills

Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples
Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples

Misconceptions and Pitfalls
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

TeachingLctureOutlineTps

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

2.1 Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms Intro figure: tip of an STM
Description of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) moving across a surface
Introduction to macroscopic and microscopic Figure 2.1 Scanning Tunneling
perspectives. Microscopy
Definitions of atom and element. Figure 2.2 Imaging Atoms

2.2 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter

History of chemistry from antiquity (~450 bc)
Scientific revolution (1400s‐1600s)

2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It unnumbered figure: models and
Law of conservation of mass photos of Na and Cl 2 forming
o Matter is neither created nor destroyed. NaCl
o Atoms at the start of a reaction may recombine to Example 2.1 Law of Definite
form different compounds, but all atoms are Proportions
accounted for at the end. unnumbered figure: models of
o Mass of reactants = mass of products. CO and CO 2 illustrating the law of
Law of definite proportions multiple proportions
o Different samples of the same compound have Example 2.2 Law of Multiple
the same proportions of constituent elements Proportions
independent of sample source or size. Chemistry in Your Day: Atoms
Law of multiple proportions and Humans
John Dalton’s atomic theory
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

TeachingLctureOutlineTps
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

TeachingLctureOutlineTps

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

2.1 Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms STM is not actually showing

Other STM images can be found readily on the Internet. images of atoms like one might
It is useful to reiterate the analogies about size; the one imagine seeing with a light
used in the chapter compares an atom to a grain of sand microscope.
and a grain of sand to a large mountain range. Atoms are not colored spheres;
the images use color to
distinguish different atoms.

2.2 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter Theories are not automatically
The view of matter as made up of small, indestructible accepted and may be unpopular
particles was ignored because more popular philosophers for long periods of time.
like Aristotle and Socrates had different views. Leucippus Philosophy and religion can be
and Democritus may have been proven correct, but they supported by arguments; science
had no more evidence for their ideas than Aristotle did. requires that theories be testable
and therefore falsifiable.
Observations and data led scientists to question models;
the scientific method promotes the use of a cycle of
such inquiry.

2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It Measurements to establish early
That matter is composed of atoms grew from experiments atomic theories were performed
and observations. at the macroscopic level. The
Conceptual Connection 2.1 The Law of Conservation of scientists observed properties
Mass for which they could collect data
Investigating the law of definite proportions requires (e.g., mass or volume).
preparing or decomposing a set of pure samples of a
compound like water.
Investigating the law of multiple proportions requires
preparing or decomposing sets of pure samples from
related compounds like NO, NO 2 , and N 2 O 5 .
Conceptual Connection 2.2 The Laws of Definite and
Multiple Proportions
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

TeachingLctureOutlineTps

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

2.4 The Discovery of the Electron Figure 2.3 Cathode Ray Tube

Thomson’s cathode‐ray tube experiments unnumbered figure: properties of electrical

o High voltage produced a stream of charge
particles that traveled in straight lines. Figure 2.4 Thomson’s Measurement of the
o Each particle possessed a negative Charge‐to‐Mass Ratio of the Electron
charge. Figure 2.5 Millikan’s Measurement of the
o Thomson measured the charge‐to‐ Electron's Charge
mass ratio of the electron.
Millikan’s oil‐drop experiments
o Oil droplets received charge from
ionizing radiation.
o Charged droplets were suspended in
an electric field.
o The mass and charge of each oil drop
was used to calculate the mass and
charge of a single electron.

2.5 The Structure of the Atom unnumbered figure: plum‐pudding model

Thomson’s plum‐pudding model: negatively Figure 2.6 Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
charged electrons in a sea of positive charge Figure 2.7 The Nuclear Atom
Radioactivity unnumbered figure: scaffolding and
o Alpha decay provides the alpha empty space
particles for Rutherford’s experiment.
Rutherford’s experiment
o Alpha particles directed at a thin gold
film deflect in all directions, including
back at the alpha source.
o Only a concentrated positive
charge could cause the alpha
particles to bounce back.
Rutherford’s nuclear theory
o most mass and all positive charge
contained in a small nucleus
o most of atom by volume is
empty space
o protons: positively charged particles
o neutral particles with substantial
mass also in nucleus
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Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

TeachingLctureOutlineTps

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

TeachingLctureOutlineTps

Terms,SuggestionsConcepts,andExampleRelationships, Skills Figures, Tables,MisconceptionsandSolvedExamplePitfallsand

2.4 The Discovery of the Electron Millikan did not measure the
Review the attraction, repulsion, and additivity of charges. charge of a single electron; he
Discuss the physics of electric fields generated by measured the charge of a
metal plates. number of electrons and
A demonstration of a cathode ray tube will help students deduced the charge of a
better understand Thomson’s experiments. Demonstrate single electron.
how Millikan’s calculation works and why he could
determine the charge of a single electron.

2.5 The Structure of the Atom Students often don’t understand

It may be useful to give a brief description of radioactivity. the source of alpha particles in
Rutherford’s experiment makes more sense if one knows Rutherford’s experiments.
some properties of the alpha particle and from where it
comes.
Thomson identified electrons and surmised the existence
of positive charge necessary to form a neutral atom. The
plum‐pudding model is the simplest way to account for
the observations.
The figure about scaffolding supports discussion about an
atom being mostly empty space but still having rigidity
and strength in the macroscopic view. This is another
example of apparent differences between the
microscopic and macroscopic properties.
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

TeachingLctureOutlineTps

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

2.6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and unnumbered figure: baseball

Electrons in Atoms Table 2.1 Subatomic Particles
Properties of subatomic particles unnumbered figure: lightning and charge
o atomic mass units (amu) imbalance
proton, neutron: ~1 amu Figure 2.8 How Elements Differ
electron: ~0.006 amu Figure 2.9 The Periodic Table
o charge unnumbered figure: portrait of Marie Curie
relative value: 1 for electron, Example 2.3 Atomic Numbers, Mass
+1 for proton Numbers, and Isotope Symbols
absolute value: 1.6 1019 C Chemistry in Your Day: Where Did Elements
Atomic number (number of protons): Come From?
defining characteristic of an element
Isotope: same element, different mass
(different number of neutrons)
Ion: atom with nonzero charge
o anion: negatively charged (more
electrons)
o cation: positively charged (fewer
electrons)
2.7 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the unnumbered figure: discovery of the
Periodic Table elements
Periodic law and the periodic table Figure 2.10 Recurring Properties
o generally arranged by ascending Figure 2.11 Making a Periodic Table
mass o recurring, periodic properties; unnumbered figure: stamp featuring Dmitri
elements with similar properties Mendeleev
arranged into columns: groups (or Figure 2.12 Metals, Nonmetals, and
families) Metalloids
Major divisions of the periodic table Figure 2.13 The Periodic Table: Main‐Group
o metals, nonmetals, metalloids o and Transition Elements
main‐group elements, transition unnumbered figure: the alkali metals
elements unnumbered figure: the halogens
Groups (families) Figure 2.14 Elements That Form Ions with
o noble gases (group 8A) Predictable Charges
o alkali metals (group 1A) Example 2.4 Predicting the Charge of Ions
o alkaline earth metals (group 2A)
Chemistry and Medicine: The Elements of
o halogens (group 7A)
Life
Ions with predictable charges: based on
stability of noble‐gas electron count Figure 2.15 Elemental Composition of
o group 1A: 1+ Humans (by Mass)
o group 2A: 2+
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

TeachingLctureOutlineTps

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

o group 3A: 3+
o group 5A: 3 o
group 6A: 2
o group 7A: 1
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

LectureTachingOutlinepsT

SuggestionsTerms,Concepts,andExampleRelationships, Skills Figures, Tables,MisconceptionsandSolvedExampleandPitfalls

2. 6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms Students sometimes

The analogy of the baseball and a grain of rice to a proton and an confuse the mass number
electron is meant to illustrate the difference in mass but not size. as being equal to the
Electrical charge can be demonstrated with static electricity. number of neutrons, not
Two balloons charged with wool or human hair will repel each the number of neutrons
other. plus the number of
Names of elements come from various sources. Tom Lehrer’s protons.
“Element Song” can be found on the Internet. Students logically (but

Isotopic abundances are invariant in typical lab‐sized samples mistakenly) presume that
because of such large numbers of atoms. the mass of an isotope is
Conceptual Connection 2.5 The Nuclear Atom, Isotopes, and Ions equal to the sum of the
The history of chemistry involves considerable cultural and masses of the protons and
gender diversity. Examples include both Lavoisiers (French), neutrons in that isotope.
Dalton (English), Thomson (English), Marie Curie
(Polish/French), Mendeleev (Russian), Millikan (American),
Robert Boyle (Irish), Amedeo Avogadro (Italian).
The Chemistry in Your Day box gives a broad description of the
origin of atoms.

2.7 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table The periodic table is
Other displays of the periodic table can be found in journals better at predicting
(Schwartz, J. Chem. Educ . 2006, 83, 849; Moore, J. Chem. Educ. microscopic properties,
2003, 80, 847; Bouma, J. Chem. Educ. 1989, 66, 741), books, though macroscopic
and on the Internet. properties are also
Periodic tables are arranged according to the periodic law but often illustrated.
can compare many features, e.g. phases of matter, sizes of atoms,
and common ions. These are presented as a series of figures in
the text.
Chemistry and Medicine: The Elements of Life provides an
opportunity to relate the topics to everyday life. Some of the
other elements in the figure and table represent trace
minerals that are part of good nutrition. The periodic law
accounts for why some are necessary and others are toxic.
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

LectureTachingOutlinepsT

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

LectureTachingOutlinepsT

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

2.8 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an unnumbered figure: periodic table box for Cl
Element’s Atoms Example 2.5 Atomic Mass
Average atomic mass is based on Figure 2.16 The Mass Spectrometer
natural abundance and isotopic masses. Figure 2.17 The Mass Spectrum of Chlorine
Mass spectrometry
o atoms converted to ions and
deflected by magnetic fields to
separate by mass
o output data: relative mass vs.
relative abundance

2.9 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing unnumbered figure: pennies containing ~1 mol of
Them Cu
Mole concept and Avogadro’s number unnumbered figure: 1 tbsp of water contains ~1

Converting between moles and number mol of water

of atoms Example 2.6 Converting between Number of
Converting between mass and number Moles and Number of Atoms
of moles unnumbered figure: relative sizes of Al, C, He
unnumbered figure: balance with marbles and
peas
Example 2.7 Converting between Mass and
Amount (Number of Moles)
Example 2.8 The Mole Concept–Converting
between Mass and Number of Atoms
Example 2.9 The Mole Concept
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Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

LectureTachingOutlinepsT

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

LectureTachingOutlinepsT
Terms, Concepts, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Example Pitfalls

2.8 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element's Atoms The Students are tempted to
masses of isotopes must be reconciled with an element calculate average atomic mass
having only whole number quantities of protons and by adding together isotopic
neutrons; the values should be nearly integral since the masses and dividing by the
mass of electrons is so small. number of isotopes.
Mass spectrometry is an effective way to demonstrate Atomic mass on the periodic
where values of natural abundance are obtained. table is usually not integral
even though elements have only
whole numbers of protons and
neutrons.

2.9 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them Many students are intimidated
Review the strategy for solving numerical problems: by estimating answers in
sort, strategize, solve, check. calculations involving powers
Estimating answers is an important skill; the number of of ten.
atoms will be very large (i.e. some large power of
ten) even from a small mass or small number of
moles. Conceptual Connection 2.7 Avogadro’s Number
Conceptual Connection 2.8 The Mole
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

Additional Problem for Converting between Calculate the number of moles of iron in a sample that
23
Number of Moles and Number of Atoms has 3.83 x 10 atoms of iron.
(Example 2.6)
23
Sort Given 3.83 x 10 Fe atoms
You are given a number of iron atoms and Find mol Fe
asked to fi nd the amount of iron in moles.

Strategize Conceptual Plan

Convert between number of atoms and atoms mol
number of moles using Avogadro’s number.
1 mol Fe
23
6.022 10 Fe atoms

Relationships Used
23
6.022 x 1 0 = 1 mol (Avogadro’s number)
Solve Solution

Follow the conceptual plan. Begin with 3.83 x 23 1 m ol Fe

23
23
10 Fe atoms and multiply by the ratio that 3.83 10 Fe atoms 6.022 10 Fe atoms = 0.636 mol Fe

equates moles and Avogadro’s number.

Check The sample was smaller than Avogadro’s number so the

answer should be a fraction of a mole. The value of the
sample has 3 significant figures, and the answer is
provided in that form.
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

Additional Problem for Converting between Calculate the number of grams of silver in an
Mass and Number of Moles (Example 2.7) American Silver Eagle coin that contains

0.288 moles of silver.

Sort Given 0.288 mol Ag

You are given the amount of silver in moles and Find g Ag

asked to fi nd the mass of silver.

Strategize Conceptual Plan

Convert amount (in moles) to mass using the molar mol Ag g Ag
mass of the element.
107.87 g Ag
1 mol Ag

Relationships Used
107.87 g Ag = 1 mol Ag
Solve Solution
Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem. 107. 87 g Ag
0.288 mol Ag = 31.07 g Ag
Start with 0.288 mol, the given number, and multiply 1 mol Ag
by the molar mass of silver.
31.07 g = 31.1 g Ag

Check The magnitude of the answer makes sense since

we started with an amount smaller than a mole.
The molar amount and answer both have 3
significant figures.
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

22
Additional Problem for the Mole Concept— What mass of iron (in grams) contains 1.20 10
Converting between Mass and Number of atoms of Fe? A paperclip contains about that number
Atoms (Example 2.8) of iron atoms.
22
Sort Given 1.20 10 Fe atoms
You are given a number of iron atoms and asked Find g Fe
to find the mass of Fe.

Strategize Conceptual Plan

Convert the number of Fe atoms to moles using Fe atoms mol Fe g Fe

Avogadro’s number. Then convert moles Fe into

grams of iron using the molar mass of Fe. 1 mol Fe 55.85 g Fe

23
6.022 10 Fe atoms 1 mol Fe

Relationships Used
6.022 10 23
= 1 mol (Avogadro’s number)
55.85 g Fe = 1 mol Fe
Solve Solution
Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem. 1 mol Fe 55.85 g Fe
22
1.20 10 Fe atoms
Begin with 1.20 x 1022 atoms of Fe, multiply by 6.022 10
23
Fe atoms 1 mol Fe

the ratio derived from Avogadro’s number, and = 1.11 g Fe

finally multiply by the atomic mass of Fe.

Check The units and magnitude of the answer make sense.

The sample is smaller than a mole. The number of
atoms and mass both have 3 significant figures.
Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements Chapter 2. Atoms and Elements

22
Additional Problem for the Mole Concept An iron sphere contains 8.55 10 iron atoms.
(Example 2.9) What is the radius of the sphere in centimeters?
3
The density of iron is 7.87 g/cm .
22
Sort Given 8.55 10 Fe atoms

3
You are given the number of iron atoms in a sphere d = 7.87 g/cm
and the density of iron. You are asked to find the Find radius (r) of a sphere
radius of th e sphere.

Strategize Conceptual Plan

The critical parts of this problem are density, which Fe atoms mol Fe g Fe V
3
relates mass to volume, and the mole, which relates (cm )
number of atoms to mass:
3
1 mol Fe 55.85 g Fe 1 cm
23
(1) Convert from the number of atoms to the 6.022 10 Fe atoms 1 mol Fe 7.87 g Fe
number of moles using Avogadro’s number;
3
V (cm ) r (cm)
(2) Convert from the number of moles to the
4
3
number of grams using the molar mass of iron; V= 3 r

(3) Convert from mass to volume using the density

Relationships Used
of iron;
23
6.022 x 10 = 1 mol (Avogadro’s number)
(4) Find the radius using the formula for the volume

of a sphere. 55.85 g Fe = 1 mol Fe

3
d (density of Fe) = 7.87 g/cm
3
V = 4/3 r [volume of a sphere with
a radius of r]
Solve Solution
Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem. 22 1 mol Fe 55.85 g Fe
22 toms 23
Begin with 8.55 x 10 Fe atoms and convert to 8.55 10 a atoms 1 mol Fe
6.022 10
3
moles, then to grams and finally to a volume in cm . 3
1 cm 3
Solve for the radius using the rearranged equation. = 1.00757 cm
7.87 g Fe

3
3V 3 1.00757 cm
3
r = 3 = = 0.622 cm
4 4

Check The units (cm) are correct and the magnitude of the
answer makes sense compared with previous
problems.
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wanderings she discovers the skeletons of Hoffman’s father, and of
Prince Otho, for whose death her lover’s murderer is also
responsible. Eventually the mischief caused by the first shock is
undone by a second; Lucibella recovers her reason. Hear her in her
first ravings:

“Oh [Oh] a sword, I pray you, kill me not,

For I am going to the river’s side,
To fetch white lilies and blue daffodils,
To stick in Lod’wick’s bosom, where it bled,
And in mine own . . . .
‘We must run all away, yet all must die’
’Tis so;—I wrought it in a sampler.
’Twas heart in hand, and true love’s knots and words,
All true stitch, by my troth, the posy thus—
‘No flight, dear love, but death shall sever us.’
Neither did that! He lies here, does he not?”

She cannot make up her mind whether her lover is really dead or
not. Only conscious of a vague calamity, she cries:

“Tell Lod’wick, Lucibell would speak with him!

I’ve news from heav’n for him, he must not die;
I’ve robb’d Prometheus of his moving fire:—
Open the door!—I must come in, and will;
I’ll beat myself to air, but I’ll come in!”

So saying, she knocks violently at the door of the vault; those who
surround her fear that she will “do violence upon herself.” She
understands:

“Oh, never fear me! there is somewhat cries

Within me, ‘No!’ tells me there’re knaves abroad;
Bids me be quiet, lay me down, and sleep.”[98:1]

Her violence is noteworthy; three or four men attempt to hold her;

but she succeeds in freeing herself from them, and wanders abroad.
When we next see her the second shock is at work and Lucibella
is returning to sanity. Mathias, Lodowick’s brother, still fears for her
life, having seen her “clamb’ring upon the steepness of the rock,”
but what she has seen in Hoffman’s cave has saved her mental life.
She talks still with the fierce sarcasm of mania.
Shewing the skeletons, she cries:

“Is it not like

I keep a princely house, when I have such
Fat porters at my gate.”

Still, as before, she lards her speech with scraps of song:

“Here, look here!

Here is a way goes down!
Down, down, down,
Hey down, down!”

This ditty is reminiscent of the descent to the cave, but the next
moment the memory of that is gone and only the consciousness of
her loss remains:

“I sang that song while Lod’wick slept with me:”

But at length, gradually and before our eyes, she recovers her lost
reason. Her speech to the Duchess of Luneberg shews what seems
to be the wandering of her still distraught mind. She displays the
rich clothes of Otho:

“A poor maiden, mistress, has a suit to you,

And ’tis a good suit, very good apparel.”

And she breaks into song again. But shortly afterwards she
recognises the two corpses, and as Lorick unfolds the ghastly story
of Hoffman’s crime the princess comes to her right mind again. At
the end of the scene she declares her complete sanity:

“Nay I will come; my wits are mine agen,

 Now faith grows firm to punish faithless men.”[99:1]
For a moment now we may look at the madness of Cardenes,
which enters into the plot of Massinger’s “A Very Woman.” He is son
to the Duke of Messina and a rival of Don John Antonio, the Prince
of Tarent, for the hand of Almira, daughter of the Viceroy of Sicily. In
a violent quarrel with Antonio, who is enraged at not being the
favoured suitor, Cardenes is wounded—it is at first thought mortally,
but he recovers, though for a time he loses his senses. Eventually he
is restored by a physician named Paulo. We see very little of him in
his mad condition. First we learn that his disease is

“Melancholy
And at the height, too, near akin to madness . . .
. . . His senses are distracted,” says Paulo,
“Not one, but all; and if I can collect them
With all the various ways invention
Or industry e’er practised, I shall write it
My masterpiece.”[100:1]

When Cardenes actually appears,[100:2] any maniacal excitement

which may have disturbed him has disappeared, and he appears to
be in a state of simple melancholia:

“Farewell, farewell, for ever, name of mistress!

Out of my heart I cross thee; love and women
Out of my thoughts.”

This is the burden of his discourse. Paulo encourages him by mild

half-contradictions:

“And yet I’ve heard of many virtuous women.”

But Cardenes’ new-learned philosophy remains unchanged:

“Not many, doctor; there your reading fails you:

 Would there were more, and in their loves less dangers.”
The treatment recommended for this “strange melancholy” by the
physician, who is of good reputation and has received many gifts
from the Duke of Messina and others, is most noteworthy. He is no
friend of prevailing customs: The patient “must take air.” Though, as
the surgeons protest, “he hath lost already . . . much blood,”

“To choke up his spirits in a dark room,

Is far more dangerous.”

The remainder of the cure is not unlike the prescription of Corax.

The physician applies himself to all the patient’s “humours,”
“checking the bad and cherishing the good.”

“For these I have

Prepared my instruments, fitting his chamber
With trapdoors, and descents; sometimes presenting
Good spirits of the air, bad of the earth,
To pull down or advance his fair intentions.
He’s of a noble nature, yet sometimes
Thinks that which, by confederacy, I do,
Is by some skill in magic.”[101:1]

Who can wonder, for “Protean Paulo” with his quaint devices shews
a truly super-human versatility. At all events, he succeeds in
gathering the “scatter’d sense” of Cardenes, who thanks him
profusely for having been

“My friar, soldier (and) philosopher,

My poet, architect, physician.”

Paulo is indeed a disinterested and enthusiastic doctor, and is really

more interesting than Cardenes himself.
The madness of Sir Giles Overreach is worth our notice, as being
introduced merely as a stage device, to emphasise the defeat of the
cruel extortioner and to serve as a climax to the comedy. The last
act of the play, into which he is introduced, shows every sign at the
outset of being the usual type of “last act” of a tragi-comedy.
Overreach, with “distracted looks,” has learned how he has been
tricked both by his creature, Marall, and by his daughter Margaret,
who, against his will, has married her lover, and now appears with
him, as his wife. The usurer is overcome by the double shock. “My
brain turns,” he cries. His rage passes all bounds. He attempts to kill
his daughter and threatens to make the house “a heap of ashes.”
Flourishing his sword, he raves of his courage; those standing
around are, to his disordered mind,

“hangmen,
That come to bind my hands, and then to drag me
Before the judgment seat: now they are new shapes,
And do appear like Furies, with steel whips
To scourge my ulcerous soul. Shall I then fall
Ingloriously and yield? No! spite of Fate,
I will be forced to hell like to myself.
Though you were legions of accursed spirits,
Thus would I fly among you.”[102:1]

He flings himself on the ground, foaming and biting the earth, only
to be disarmed, bound and carried “to some dark room.” He will be
tended by physicians from Bedlam, who will try

“What art can do for his recovery.”[103:1]

The climax could hardly be more effective, were it not for Lord
Lovell, who, before winding up the business of the play, thinks it
necessary to point the moral in the most objectionable manner, only
surpassed by Massinger himself elsewhere:

“Here is a precedent to teach wicked men,

That when they leave religion, and turn atheists,
Their own abilities leave them.”[103:2]
 With Overreach may be compared Webster’s Ferdinand, who,
after causing his sister, the Duchess of Malfi, with her little children,
to be murdered, is driven by remorse to self-questionings and fears,
and thence to raving madness. Webster’s presentation of insanity is
far superior, in these scenes, to that by Massinger just cited. For the
ravings of Ferdinand come upon us with the greatest force after the
awful tragedy for which he has been responsible—we are spared the
comments of Justice Greedy on the situation. Further, the madness
of Ferdinand is what we should expect from one of so passionate a
nature, and its course, as will now be seen, is depicted with realistic
force to its terrible end.
His insanity takes the form, so we are told, of lycanthropia,[103:3]
victims of which, we learn imagine themselves transformed into
wolves and do deeds of violence to dead bodies; the Duke has
already been found at night, has “howled fearfully” and seems in
danger of his life. When he enters, he is persecuted by a fear of his
shadow, which he tries unreasoningly to kill. The Doctor approaches
him, but can do nothing with his patient beyond extracting one
expression of fear: “Hide me from him; physicians are like kings,
they brook no contradiction.” But the timidity lasts but a moment,
and Ferdinand leaves the stage in a fit of insane passion.
When he reappears, it is but for a moment; his words are few but
tense, and recall the terrible crime he has committed. “Strangling is
a very quiet death . . . So, it must be done in the dark: the Cardinal
would not for a thousand pounds the doctor should see it.” In the
next scene, he is more violent. Interrupting a struggle between
Bosola, his bloody instrument, and his brother the crafty Cardinal, he
wounds them both, in spite of the latter’s cry for assistance, and is
himself stabbed by Bosola, who stigmatises him as “thou main cause
of my undoing.” In his last moments he recovers something of his
reason.

“He seems to come to himself,” says Bosola,

“Now he’s so near the bottom.”
And in truth the last words which fall from the Duke’s lips reiterate
the remorse which he feels for his crime.
As concluding examples of the presentation of the madman, in
the most usual sense of the word, may be taken two of Fletcher’s
characters and one of Jonson’s. Fletcher’s productions shall be
considered briefly in succession: they are “The Passionate Madman,”
in the play, with that sub-title, usually known as “The Nice
Valour,”[105:1] and Shattillion in “The Noble Gentleman.”
“The Passionate Madman,” who has no name besides, is inspired,
like many of his fellows, rather by a desire to please the public than
by a passion for probability. His peculiar mania takes the form of a
succession of “fits,” characterised as the “love fit,” the “merry fit,” the
“angry fit” and so on. There is seldom any reason adduced for the
change from one state to another, which is probably governed by the
dramatic situation. There seems to be no authority for the
classification of insanity in so many compartments in this manner; if
the author ever thought about this at all, he probably arrived at a
generalisation of the most common attribute of mania—the violent
and rapid succession of emotions—in much the same way as Jonson
generalised traits of character into “humours.”
The madman of this play is a kinsman to the Duke of Genoa. He
makes his appearance at the end of the first act,[106:1] coming on
with a wooden smile and making “a congee or two to nothing.” He
selects a courtier for the object of his affections, makes love to him
as if to a lady, and as the object of his choice is quite willing to
sustain the delusion, he works himself up to a great state of
excitement. In the next scene[106:2] it appears “by his flattering and
his fineness” that “he is still in his love-fit,” and his mistress, thinking
it well to humour him, disguises herself as Cupid and persuades him
that if he comes away she will make all ladies follow him. She really
hopes to cure him:

“She keeps this shape. . . .

To see if she can draw all his wild passions
 To one point only, and that’s love, the main point.”[106:3]
She has every opportunity of trying, for at this moment the “love
fit” obligingly gives way to the “angry fit.” Galoshio, the clown, has
been “almost beaten blind” by the Passionate Madman, “twice
thrown down stairs, just before supper,” and “pluck’d and tugg’d by
th’ hair o’ th’ head about a gallery half an acre long.”[106:4] The
Passionate Lord, after giving this foretaste of his achievements, is
not long in appearing, “rudely and carelessly apparelled, unbraced
and untrussed,”[107:1] and followed by the Lady, still in disguise. The
fit would seem at first to be one of melancholy, which rejects all the
Lady’s blandishments and stigmatises those of her sex as “fair
mischiefs.” As Lapet, Galoshio’s master, approaches, the “furious fit”
succeeds. Lapet is struck down and discreetly shams death, while
the madman accompanies his truncheon-blows with wild snatches of
song. We see no more of our madman after this until the fifth act
when the “merry fit” has sway. The burden of his speech is “Ha! ha!
ha!” and his songs are wildly merry: he begins to be “song-
ripe.”[107:2] The Lady once more appears, followed by several others
dressed as fools. But a cure is unexpectedly wrought more quickly
than she could accomplish it. “The Soldier” (brother to Chamont, the
chief character of the play) has been insulted by the madman at an
earlier stage in it, and, much to the dismay of the Lady and her
attendants, he now stabs the Passionate Lord, and makes his
escape. He only re-appears at the end of the play, cured of his
wound and at the same time of his madness. La Nove explains this
to the Duke:

“Death cannot be more free from passions, sir,

Than he is at this instant; he’s so meek now,
He makes those seem passionate were never thought
of;
And, for he fears his moods have oft disturbed you, sir,
He’s only hasty now for his forgiveness.”[108:1]
There is little to add to this sketch, which is sufficiently expressive.
The Lord is not interesting, still less striking, as a character; no
attempt is made to introduce a vestige of reality into the madness,
and thus the comedy leaves us unmoved. We cannot even be
indignant at it—it is so feeble.
Is it necessary to complete the story by adding that the
Passionate Lord marries the Lady?
As a slightly different example of Fletcher’s work, we may
consider his “Noble Gentleman” and the madman Shattillion. We can
diagnose his case more readily than that of the Passionate Lord. He
suffers from a kind of persecutory delusion, being

“strong opinion’d that the wench he lov’d

Remains close prisoner by the King’s command,
Fearing her title.”[108:2]

At the same time, he believes that certain enemies have designs on

his life. Meeting his cousin Cleremont, he enquires of him his
“faction,” and being told:

“I know no parties nor no factions, sir,”

he commands him:

“Then wear this cross of white,

And where you see the like, they are my friends;
Observe them well, the type is dangerous.”[109:1]

A touch of the pathetic (often mingled with the comic), accompanies

the “poor, grieved gentlewoman” who once refused his suit and for
love of whom Shattillion’s mind became unhinged, who:

“Follows him much lamenting, and much loving,

In hope to make him well.”[109:2]
But, says Longueville, a courtier,

“he knows her not,

Nor any else that comes to visit him.”[109:2]

Shattillion is plainly created for a dramatic purpose. The main

story concerns the gulling of a gentleman named Mount-Marine by
his wife, who persuades him that the King has granted him many
high honours, and that he is Duke of Burgundy. Shattillion, whose
delusions persuade him that he has himself a claim to the crown, is
worked into the plot with considerable skill, and his quarrel in the
fifth act with the “Duke” and his servant unites the two plots with
great effect.
A short study of the “mad scenes” will shew the strength and the
weakness of this character. The particular form of his mania is
brought out very clearly. The madman is perfectly sure about the
plots laid for him; his friends are really enemies disguised to “sift
into” his words; he “can see and can beware”; he has his wits about
him and thanks Heaven for it! The burst of laughter with which the
audience would greet this assertion is at once hushed as the Lady
laments the o’erthrow of her lover’s noble mind;

“That was the fairest hope the French court bred,

The worthiest and the sweetest-temper’d spirit,
The truest, and the valiantest, the best of
judgment.”[110:1]

She is remorse-stricken at being the cause of it all, and prays

Heaven to be merciful; she will do all she can to restore her lover to
his senses.
A long interval elapses before Shattillion is again introduced.
[110:2] Now he has heard of the “new duke” and he is suspicious and
curious, so much so that he is gesticulating and enquiring about it in
the open street. The Lady appears and begs Madam Marine to take
him into her house “from the broad eyes of people.” She does so.
Shattillion, now believing that he is “betray’d” and about to be
beheaded, is led away giving his last instructions. Before long, we
see him once more, this time in Marine’s house, proving to Marine
that he (Shattillion) is of the blood royal, and but for the interference
of his friends he would seize Marine as a traitor. In the next act he
persuades Jacques, Marine’s old servant, that he too is in danger of
his life, and drags him into his house for shelter. As they go in, the
Lady appears, and, knocking at Shattillion’s door, is repulsed as
another enemy. The madman’s imagination goes so far as to see
“some twenty musketeers in ambush,” and he suspects his love of
being their captain. Meanwhile Jacques, disguised as a woman, is
leaving the house, when his preserver stops him, accuses him of
being

“A yeoman of the guard,

Disguised in woman’s clothes, to work on me,
To make love to me and to trap my words
And so ensnare my life.”[111:1]

Jacques at length escapes, and after another adventure returns as

servant to the “Duke.” In this capacity he is forced into a fierce
quarrel with Shattillion, who, in his furious loyalty, seizes Marine and
throws him to the ground. Hereupon the Lady has a remedy to
propose:

“A strange conceit hath wrought this malady;

Conceits again must bring him to himself;
My strict denial to his will wrought this,
And if you could but draw his wilder thoughts
To know me, he would, sure, recover sense.”

Longueville undertakes the charge. Assuring Shattillion that the King

has rewarded his loyalty, he presents to him the Lady, who, he says,
has been released from prison for his sake. Shattillion is overcome,
and after a few minutes falls asleep. Longueville knows that this is a
good sign:
 “His eyes grow very heavy. Not a word,
That his weak senses may come sweetly home.”[111:2]

He wakes, indeed, still “weak and sickly,” but himself again.

The general impression left by this comedy is, on the whole,
pleasant, that part of it concerned with Shattillion included. The
antics of the madman himself are certainly comic, especially on the
stage, and the lighter side of his mania is persistently put forward.
The only pathetic touch is, in fact, the genuine sorrow of his Lady.
This predominance of the comic may be regretted, though in a play
of the farcical nature of “The Noble Gentleman” little else could be
expected. However, the sound, realistic basis of the disease,
together with the simple and unassuming cure—which, nevertheless,
would hardly be successful in real life,—makes the treatment of
Shattillion as far superior to the treatment of the Passionate Lord as
the one play is to the other. Considered absolutely, the
representation of Shattillion is chiefly remarkable for its reality, its
skilful weaving into the plot, and its mingling of pathos with broad
humour. On the other hand the pathos would not be so artificial if
the entrance of the lady were somewhat less mechanical—we could
almost certainly predict when she will enter in the last two acts.
Fletcher’s almost total blindness to everything but the comic and its
possibilities also detracts from the effect of Shattillion, and the very
obvious dramatic motive for his introduction does not, on reflection,
improve matters.
We have now passed from the heights of tragedy, through its
pathos, and the ill-blended pathos and broad humour of inferior
tragi-comedy to the pure and simple inanity of “The Nice Valour”—a
work which certainly appears to be unfinished. In considering
Shattillion, we have risen as high as we can hope to do within the
limits of comedy, and before leaving the raving lunatic for another
class of madman we must descend slightly as we consider Ben
Jonson’s comedy of “Bartholomew Fair,” and his madman, Trouble-
all.
 The plot has already been outlined, and it will be seen that the
place of the madman is an important one. Theoretically, he is of
prime importance to the play, since it is foretold that Dame
Purecraft, who has already had two suitors, shall “never have happy
hour unless she marry within this sen’night; and when it is it must
be a madman,” and it is Quarlous, dressed in Trouble-all’s clothes
and affecting his malady, who eventually marries her. As a matter of
fact, the main portion of the play is concerned with other things, and
we only meet our madman in the fourth act. From this point onward,
the author shews great ingenuity in his handling of him; the burden
of his remarks alone serves as a point d’appui for the spectator (who
by this time is probably getting wearied), while the humorous
situations which he provokes, culminating in the acuteness of
Quarlous and its success, are largely responsible for the undoubted
popularity of the comedy with both reader and spectator.
This is, of course, very much to the credit of a comedy which
professedly deals with low life; it is more to our purpose to remark
that as a picture of madness the character of Trouble-all is
exceptionally correct. Gifford’s note to Cunningham’s edition of Ben
Jonson remarks that “Even the trifling part of Trouble-all, in any
other writer than Jonson, would be thought deserving of praise for
its correct delineation of a particular species of insanity, too
inoffensive for fear and too slight for commiseration.”[114:1] Gifford is
right, both in what he states and in what he implies. We expect
correctness from Jonson and we are not disappointed.
A sketch of the madman should make this clear. He was “an
officer in the court of pie-poudres last year and put out of his place
by Justice Overdo.”[114:2] His affliction is marked by the idée fixe; he
raves continually about the Justice, and will do nothing—not even
the simplest actions of daily life—without satisfying himself that he
has Overdo’s warrant for it. How true to life this feature is may be
read in any modern book on insanity. He appears first of all in the
fair, where Overdo is being put into the stocks: “If you have Justice
Overdo’s warrant,” he says, “’tis well; you are safe: that is the
warrant of warrants.”[115:1] He is walking to and fro, with all the
restless impatience of mania, demanding to be shewn Adam Overdo.
In his frantic wanderings he comes upon Dame Purecraft, who
apparently thinks him more suitable for her than any madman she
has yet seen and cries: “Now heaven increase his madness and bless
and thank it.” Trouble-all’s reply does not vary: “Have you a warrant?
an you have a warrant, shew it.”[115:1] Person after person presents
himself but the madman’s reply is always the same. Every
conversation he interrupts with his query, and, when he is ignored,
he turns away in disgust. Once he exasperates a watchman, who
strikes him. The latent rage of the lunatic shews itself, but the
madman’s rationalisation first provides it with an excuse: “Strikest
thou without a warrant? take thou that.” When Quarlous personates
the lunatic[115:2] our author rightly depicts him as only partially
successful, though his end is nevertheless as well reached as if he
had been wholly so. He raves occasionally about a warrant, but it is
not hard to see his sanity peeping through the veil of assumed
madness. Much of his talk is comparatively coherent, and beyond his
occasional references to the warrant he makes no attempt to play
the madman. To turn his literal phrase into metaphor, he is “mad but
from the gown outward.”[116:1] Trouble-all himself, when Quarlous’
purpose is accomplished, makes one furious entry, armed “with a
dripping pan,”[116:1] but he does no mischief, and soon disappears.
Trouble-all is a noteworthy character, though a small one; yet, for
more than one reason, the character is less praiseworthy than
Fletcher’s Shattillion. Considerable care is shewn in the sketch, but
little or no sympathy; and, if madness is to be utilised in comedy, the
comic element should at least, as has been seen, be mingled with
some touches of pathos. As it is, any other character than the
madman would have served Jonson equally well, provided that it
had supplied him with the same dramatic advantages. When Overdo
says: “Alas, poor wretch! how it yearns my heart for him!” we
believe him about as readily as if Jonson had made the same remark
in an “author’s footnote.”
 In one respect, and in one respect only, can any claim be made
on behalf of Jonson’s character to rank above Fletcher’s “Noble
Gentleman.” Fletcher makes us look at madness from the point of
view of the madman, and tries to put us in sympathy with him. We
have seen that he is only partially successful. Jonson, on the other
hand, treats madness in quite an objective way, uses it frankly for a
subsidiary dramatic purpose, and portrays his madman with the
utmost conscientiousness and care. It may be just a question—
though the writer himself does not think so—whether from the point
of view of art Jonson’s production is not the more praiseworthy.
Be that, however, as it may, it is nevertheless absolute Ben
Jonson!
 FOOTNOTES:
[61:1] From the Alleyn MS.
[62:1] “Spanish Tragedy.”
[63:1] “Spanish Tragedy,” iii., 12a.
[64:1] “Spanish Tragedy,” iii., 12.
[65:1] Ibid., iii., 12a.
[65:2] Ibid., iii., 8.
[65:3] Ibid., iv., 2.
[65:4] Other examples of conventional madness abound. See
page 151, Note 1. (Ann Ratcliff, in “The Witch of Edmonton.”)
Peele, in the “Old Wives’ Tale,” presents us with a character,
Venelia, sent mad by a sorcerer, Sacrapant:

She “runs madding, all enraged, about the woods

All by his cursèd and enchanting spells.”

But, apart from this, she does nothing!

[66:1] “Shakespeare, His Mind and Art,” p. 272.
[67:1] “King Lear,” i., 1, 125-6.
[68:1] “King Lear,” i., 1, 296, etc.
[68:2] Ibid., i., 4, 207-8.
[68:3] Ibid., i., 4, 292-4.
[69:1] “King Lear,” i., 5, 50-1.
[69:2] Ibid., ii., 4, 56-8.
[70:1] “King Lear,” ii., 4, 285-9.
[70:2] “The Mad Folk of Shakespeare,” p. 194.
[70:3] “King Lear,” iii., 2, 67.
[71:1] “King Lear,” iii., 4, 49-50.
[71:2] Ibid., iii., 4 passim.
[71:3] Ibid., iii., 6.
[72:1] “King Lear,” iv., 6, 81, etc.
[72:2] l. 85.
[73:1] ll. 109-10.
[73:2] “King Lear,” iv., 7.
[74:1] “King Lear,” iv., 7, 68-9.
[74:2] l. 70.
[74:3] l. 84.
[74:4] Ibid., v., 3, 272-4.
[75:1] “King Lear,” v., 3, 305, etc.
[77:1] “Hamlet,” iv., 5, 4, etc.
[77:2] Ibid., iv., 5, 23, etc.
[77:3] ll. 29-32.
[78:1] “Hamlet,” iv., 5, 35, etc.
[78:2] ll. 68-70.
[78:3] Ibid., iv., 5, 155, etc.
[78:4] l. 173.
[79:1] ll. 188-9.
[79:2] Ferriar, quoted by Dr. Bucknill, p. 155 (op. cit.)
[80:1] “Hamlet,” iv., 7, 167, etc.
[82:1] “Two Noble Kinsmen,” iv., 3.
[82:2] Ibid., ii., 1.
[83:1] Ibid., iii., 2.
[84:1] Ibid., iii., 4.
[84:2] Ibid., iii., 5.
[85:1] Ibid., iv., 1.
[85:2] Ibid., iv., 1, 104, etc.
[86:1] Ibid., iv., 3.
[86:2] Ibid., v., 2.
[89:1] Ward, Eng. Dram. Lit., ii., 300. The original criticism, as Dr.
Ward points out, is Gifford’s. Cf. the latter’s edition of Ford, vol. i.,
p. 337.
[90:1] “Elizabethan Literature,” p. 408.
[90:2] “The Broken Heart,” iv., 4.
[91:1] “The Lover’s Melancholy,” iii., 3.
[92:1] Ibid., i., 1.
[92:2] A similar device is found in Brome’s play, “The Antipodes,”
where, however, the physician uses the fantastic but less morbid
device of a “play within a play.” See page 136.
[93:1] Ibid., iv., 2.
[93:2] Ibid., ii., 2.
[93:3] Ibid., ii., 2.
[94:1] Ibid., iv., 2.
[95:1] Ibid., v., 1.
[96:1] Acted in 1602; first printed in 1631.
[98:1] “Hoffman,” iv., 1.
[99:1] Ibid., v., 2.
[100:1] “A Very Woman,” ii., 2.
[100:2] Ibid., iii., 3.
[101:1] Ibid., iv., 2.
[102:1] “A New Way to Pay Old Debts,” v., 1.
[103:1] Ibid., v., 1.
[103:2] Ibid., v., 1.
[103:3] “The Duchess of Malfi,” v., 2.
[105:1] It is referred to, however, in the following pages as “The
Passionate Madman.”
[106:1] “The Passionate Madman,” i., 1.
[106:2] Ibid., ii., 1.
[106:3] Ibid., iii., 1.
[106:4] Ibid., iii., 2.
[107:1] Compare “Hamlet,” ii., 1, 77, etc.

Ophelia: “My lord, as I was sewing in my closet,

Lord Hamlet, with his doublet all unbrac’d,
No hat upon his head . . he comes before
me.”
[107:2] “The Passionate Madman,” v., 1.
[108:1] Ibid., v., 3.
[108:2] “The Noble Gentleman,” i., 2.
[109:1] Ibid., i., 3.
[109:2] Ibid., i., 2.
[110:1] Ibid., i., 3.
[110:2] Act iii., Sc. 2.
[111:1] Ibid., iv., 3.
[111:2] Ibid., v., 1.
[114:1] p. 210.
[114:2] “Bartholomew Fair,” iv., 1.
[115:1] Ibid., iv., 1.
[115:2] Ibid., v., 2.
[116:1] Ibid., v., 3.
 CHAPTER V.
Mad Folk in Comedy and Tragedy.
(ii.) Imbecility.

“I ask’d her questions and she answered me

So far from what she was, so childishly,
So sillily, as if she were a fool,
An innocent.”

(“Two Noble Kinsmen.”)

Of the few sketches of imbeciles which we find in the drama
under consideration there is hardly one which can properly be called
a full-length portrait. As a class, the idiots come in for a fair share of
attention; the “fool” as well as the “madman” is shewn us in the
asylums of Fletcher and Middleton, but no dramatist seems to have
thought the tragic or the comic possibilities of the “lunatic lean-
witted fool” sufficiently promising to justify the inclusion of him as a
prominent character of a play. This is not altogether surprising; the
imbecile—we shall take the term as nearly as possible in its precise
signification[118:1]—was not considered as an ordinary madman; he
was treated like the half-developed creature he really was, looked
after more carefully than the madman, and trained in simple things
just like a child. So the fool occupied a subordinate place, in drama
as well as in life.
The word “fool” as has been explained,[119:1] is used in our plays
in more senses than one, and a few characters who answer to the
description “simple,” “idiot” or “imbecile” may now be mentioned.
They demand little space, for, though serving a dramatic purpose,
they have little interest or importance in themselves. Nearest sanity
is Pogio of Chapman’s “Gentleman Usher,” whose half-witted
condition seems to be largely pose; it is a strange way of carrying
out his own dictum that “gentility must be fantastical.” Bergetto, too,
in Ford’s play, “’Tis pity she’s a Whore,” though consistently spoken
of as “fool’s head,” “dunce” and the like, could hardly be called
anything more serious than a foolish fellow. Jerome, in Chettle’s
“Tragedy of Hoffman,” and Cloten, the “empty purse” of Cymbeline,
have both something of the true congenital idiot about them. With
Jerome, however, our judgment is influenced more by impression
than by anything he says or does in the play. Hoffman and others
call him an “idiot,” and he himself owns “They say I am a fool,” after
which he speaks of seeking out “my notes of Machiavell.” But this is
mere foolish talk, as, indeed, are most of his speeches. In a quaint
scene he addresses the people as their King, but is outdone by a
later speech of Hoffman’s, which he himself solicits saying, “I charge
you all, upon pain of death, that you hear my cousin.” The action of
a fool, indeed, but was it not also the action of honest Brutus?
Therefore we must cling to our estimate of Jerome, framed from his
own speeches, as justification for including him in this category. Both
the actions and the words of Shakespeare’s Cloten are those of a
man mentally deficient; Guiderius was not far from the truth when
he said:

“not Hercules
Could have knock’d out his brains, for he had none”;
[120:1]

and everyone who knows him wonders

“That such a crafty devil as is his mother

Should yield the world this ass.”[120:2]

A quaint pair of simples may be seen in Lyly’s “Mother Bombie.”

Memphio, an avaricious old man, has a supposed son, Accius by
name, whom he wishes to marry to Silena; both parties being
mentally defective, the old man takes it for granted that their
offspring will be sane. Silena is described as “no natural fool”; and
though this would at first seem to be untrue, it becomes doubtful
later if the author had any very clear idea of the nature of her
malady. She begins by being “passing amiable, but very simple,” but
before long her condition approaches mania. Her first speech is
typical: “My name is Silena. I care not who know it, so I do not; my
father keeps me close, so he does; and now I have stolen out, so I
have; to go to old Bombie to know my fortune, so I will.” Candius,
who listens to her, thinks her at first a “fool,” but decides that as “so
fair a face cannot be the scabbard of a foolish mind,” she must be
mad. In her meeting with Accius, in the fourth act of the farce, she
justifies this conclusion by mistaking him for a “joint-stool.”[121:1]
Before leaving the imbeciles, we must make a bare mention of
Shakespeare’s Caliban—bare, because we are hardly justified in
calling him a human being at all. The son of a witch,

“A freckled whelp hag-born—not honour’d with

A human shape,”[121:2]

he is only distinguished, as Coleridge says, from the brutes by his

dim understanding (bereft, however, of moral reason) and the
absence in him of all the instincts of absolute animals. Schlegel gives
perhaps the best account of Shakespeare’s creation when he says:
“It is as though the use of reason and human speech should be
communicated to a stupid ape.”[121:3] Such a being as this can
certainly not be classed with such “simples” and “fools” as have just
been mentioned.
To the ordinary reader of drama the word “fool” describes, not a
natural imbecile, but a peculiar type of character in the tragedy and
comedy of Shakespeare. The Shakespearean fool has a significance
which it would be out of place to dwell upon here; he is, however,
speaking generally, perfectly sane, and rather rich than defective in
intellect. Thus he has nothing in common with the “naturall fooles
. . . suted in long coats” mentioned by Nash,[122:1] and but little
with the “fool” of many a country village. For this strange character
is most often a half-demented fellow with a gift for making curt,
cutting remarks, and a tongue which, since its owner fears nobody,
invariably vents whatever his breast may forge. There would seem to
be only one of Shakespeare’s fools who is really half-witted, and that
one is, of course, the fool in “King Lear.”
This point is well made by Dr. Bradley: “To suppose that the Fool
is, like many a domestic fool at that time, a perfectly sane man
pretending to be half-witted, is surely a most prosaic blunder. There
is no difficulty in imagining that, being slightly touched in the brain,
and holding the office of fool, he performs the duties of his office
intentionally as well as involuntarily—it is evident that he does so.
But unless we suppose that he is touched in the brain, we lose half
the effect of his appearance in the Storm-scenes. The effect of those
scenes (to state the matter as plainly as possible) depends largely
on the presence of three characters and on the affinities and
contrasts between them; on our perception that the differences of
station in King, Fool, and beggar-noble, are levelled by one blast of
calamity; but also on our perception of the differences between
these three in one respect,—viz., in regard to the peculiar affliction
of insanity. . . . The insanity of the King differs from that of the
beggar, not only in its nature, but also in the fact that one is real and
the other simply a pretence. Are we to suppose then that the
insanity of the third character, the Fool, is in this respect a mere
repetition of the second, the beggar,—that it is _mere_ pretence? To
suppose this is not only to impoverish miserably the impression
made by the trio as a whole, it is also to diminish the heroic and
pathetic effect of the character of the Fool.”[123:1] If further proof
were needed it could be found in the expressions and the turns of
thought which characterise him throughout the play,—they are not
the expressions of mania, nor yet of perfect self-possession; they are
often, indeed, the expressions which one would expect of a feeble
mind. Can one suppose,—to take only one example—that any sane
man, even in the position of a Court fool, would insist, as mercilessly
as the Fool does in the first scenes, upon the ingratitude of Lear’s
daughters? None of Shakespeare’s other fools will be found to probe
a wound so deep, but it is exactly what one would expect from a
Fool whose brain is really slightly touched. It is true that he also
diverts the King’s attention from his troubles in the same scenes, but
it is only to return to them again with an even more piercing sting.
Still further, if we assume the actual imbecility of the Fool, a flood
of light is at once thrown upon the question of his age—not that it
matters in the least what his age is, but some critics have found a
difficulty in reconciling the references which seem to make him now
a boy, now a man. He is, in fact, a man, but his feeble intellect,
together perhaps with a certain physical frailty, causes him to be
treated occasionally as a boy, much in the same way that Antonio is
treated by Lollio in the “Changeling.” We need not stay longer,
however, to defend this view, for, as Dr. Bradley says: “Arguments
against the idea that the Fool is wholly sane are either needless or
futile; for in the end they are appeals to the perception that this idea
almost destroys the poetry of the character.”[125:1]
Alone, then, in this division of our subject, we place the Fool of
“King Lear.” Demented persons may occur here and there in our
plays (such is Cassandra in “Troilus and Cressida”) and there may
even be some congenital imbeciles (as Cloten in “Cymbeline”). But
such cases of dementia are hard to distinguish from those of mania.
In both cases—especially in the second—it is often hard to say
whether or no the author intended the idea of idiocy to be conveyed.
So Lear’s Fool remains unrivalled and we are glad of it. For nowhere
in drama is there a more delicate intermingling of laughter and
tears, of terror and pathos, than in this play of “King Lear.” The Fool
needs no more lengthy description. To see him (whether as we
watch or as we read) alone suffices, and nothing else will do so.
When we have looked on him, we have seen “sunshine and rain at
once”; there is no “better way.”
 FOOTNOTES:
[118:1] Strictly speaking, the insanity of the imbecile is
congenital; the general conformation of his brain is faulty, and the
mental phenomena of his condition are for the most part
“dissociated from active bodily disease.” (See Encyl. Brit., s.v.
Insanity.)
[119:1] Above, p. 37 ff.
[120:1] “Cymbeline,” iv., 2, 114.
[120:2] Ibid., iv., 1, 57.
[121:1] Cf. “Lear,” iii., 6, 54. The expression was proverbial, it is
true.
[121:2] “Tempest,” i., 2.
[121:3] It is interesting to compare the higher conception of
Caliban seen in Browning’s “Caliban upon Setebos,” where,
though the brute sprawls “with elbows wide, fists clenched to
prop his chin,” in the “cool slush,” he nevertheless reasons
vaguely upon such problems as the existence of evil, of pain, and
of a law governing the universe.
[122:1] In “Have with you to Saffron Walden.” The “fool’s coat” is
often mentioned in our plays.
[123:1] “Shakespearean Tragedy,” pp. 311-12.
[125:1] “Shakespearean Tragedy,” p. 312.
 CHAPTER VI.
Mad Folk in Comedy and Tragedy.
(iii.) Melancholy.

“Many new and old writers have spoken confusedly of

it, confounding melancholy and madness.”
(Burton: “Anatomy of Melancholy.”)

The representation of “melancholy” and of the disease which we

know as “melancholia” was extremely common in seventeenth
century drama. Its popularity with playwrights of all kinds can be
traced to several causes. In the first place it gave ample opportunity
for introducing poetry of no mean order, which seems to have been
more popular on the stage a few centuries ago than it is to-day.
Then “melancholy” was commonly associated with unrequited love,
and the sad lover has always been a favourite character both in
comedy and in tragedy. Again, a hero or heroine afflicted with
“melancholy” was, after all, in the seventeenth-century acceptation
of the term, quite sane. “Melancholy,” then, became a kind of
“humour”—as in the eyes of the mediæval physician it literally had
been—and it was not regarded in at all the same way as other
species of mental disorder.
We must distinguish, however, between the variety of ways in
which the word “melancholy” is used in these dramas, where there
are “large volumes of it in print to very slender purpose.”[127:1]
When Shakespeare says in “Cymbeline”

“O melancholy!
Who ever yet could find thy bottom? find
The ooze, to show what coast thy sluggish crare
 Might easiliest harbour in,”[127:2]
he is expressing feelings shared by anyone who tries to fathom the
treatment of melancholy by Shakespeare’s own contemporaries.
There was no common and generally recognised conception of
melancholy as of the more obvious forms of insanity. Hence it
becomes impossible to consider the question of melancholy from the
standpoint of medicine, still less to make any division such as the
threefold medical division of to-day, into acute melancholia, excited
melancholia, and that alternation of depression and excitement
known as “folie circulaire.” We shall instead divide our subject more
broadly and simply into Melancholy True and Melancholy False,
taking but a few typical cases to illustrate each of these divisions in
turn.
By Melancholy True is meant what we call nowadays
“melancholia,”—that is, a mental disease in which the prevailing
symptom is depression,—a mental disease from the author’s point of
view and not merely from ours. Some cases which would come
under this heading have already, for convenience’ sake, been treated
above. There is the melancholia of Penthea, hardly distinguishable
from madness, and utilised dramatically in a similar way. There is
also the melancholy of Palador, which seems to us less a case for the
physician than it did to the author. Ford’s conception of melancholy
as a disease is clearly influenced by Burton, and he would no doubt
have agreed with the doctors of Christopher Sly that “Melancholy is
the Nurse of frenzy,”[128:1] if, indeed, he would not have gone
farther and declined to distinguish between them. Other cases of
melancholia are merely described, and will hardly repay study. Such
is Viola’s well-known description of one (imaginary) girl who

“Never told her love,

But let concealment, like a worm i’ the bud
Feed on her damask cheek: she pined in thought
And with a green and yellow melancholy
She sat like Patience on a monument,
 Smiling at grief.”[128:2]
Shakespeare’s King John is thinking of another kind of melancholy
when he says to Hubert:

“. . . that surly spirit, melancholy,

Had baked thy blood and made it heavy-thick.”[128:3]

In the two characters which we shall now study,—Aspatia of the

“Maid’s Tragedy” and Euphrasia in “Philaster”—we shall see that
there is with Beaumont and Fletcher a considerable lightening of the
subject, with a consequent artistic gain, but possibly a loss in force
and impressiveness.
Aspatia is, of course, throughout the play, subordinated to
Evadne, and she appears only in the first two acts and the last, her
death occurring in the last scene. From her first appearance, after
her betrothed husband has taken Evadne to wife at the King’s
command, the pitiableness of her situation and the nobility and the
purity of her character endear her to us unchangeably. None of the
indecency which mars the play clings to the wronged Aspatia; many
would go so far as to consider her laments more effective, because
less revolting, than those of Ophelia. Wherever we see her

“Nothing but sad thoughts in her breast do dwell.”[129:1]

When Melantius offers her his ill-timed congratulations on the

marriage which he supposes to have been hers, her reply is short:

“My hard fortunes

Deserve not scorn; for I was never proud
When they were good.”[129:2]

In the next scene, however, when the presence of the bride makes
the hurt keener, her tongue is loosened. No sweeter song, in spite of
the rather vulgar criticism of Evadne, can be found outside
Shakespeare than the only one Aspatia gives us:
 “Lay a garland on my hearse,
Of the dismal yew,
Maidens, willow trenches bear;
Say I died true;
My love was false, but I was firm
From my hour of birth.
Upon my buried body lie
Lightly, gentle earth.”[130:1]

“Fie on’t madam!” says Evadne, “The words are so strange, they are
able to make one dream of hobgoblins.”
The effect of Aspatia’s appearances enhances enormously the
effect of the play as a whole.

“She carries with her an infectious grief,

That strikes all her beholders.”[130:2]

Her father is distressed beyond measure; her betrothed, “servile

‘iure divino’ royalist” as he is, is stricken with the keenest remorse.
Even the apparently buoyant Evadne is moved to pity.
Perhaps, in the scene between Aspatia and her waiting women,
the wronged woman loses a little of our sympathy. The dramatists
have evidently succumbed to the Muse of Poetry and Aspatia’s
laments become drawn-out and a little monotonous. Yet the poetry
is at times almost perfect; it is only her continual harping on the
subject of “Man, Oh that beast man!”[130:3] which makes us fear lest
melancholy become raving madness. When she subsides at last into
“dull silence,” our love for her is at its height: she is indeed “like
Sorrow’s monument.”
In the last act she appears once more,[131:1] in the disguise of a
supposed brother, with the seeming intention of killing her faithless
lord. A tragic Viola indeed, she succeeds in getting wounded, and
eventually dies, not without witnessing the death of Evadne and
holding Amintor’s hand in token of reconciliation.