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CIE A Level Maths: Pure 3 Your notes

7.3 Further Vectors

Contents
7.3.1 Equation of a Line in Vector Form
7.3.2 Parallel, Intersecting & Skew Lines
7.3.3 The Scalar ('Dot') Product
7.3.4 Uses of the Scalar Product

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7.3.1 Equation of a Line in Vector Form

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Equation of a Line in Vector Form
How do I find the vector equation of a line?
You need to know:
The position vector of one point on the line
A direction vector of the line (or the position vector of another point)
There are two formulas for getting a vector equation of a line:
r = a + t (b - a)
use this formula when you know the position vectors a and b of two points on the line
r=a+td
use this formula when you know the position vector a of a point on the line and a direction
vector d
Both forms could be compared to the Cartesian equation of a 2D line
y = mx + c
The point on the line a is similar to the “+c” part
The direction vector d or b – a is similar to the “m” part
The vector equation of a line shown above can be applied equally well to vectors in 2 dimensions and to
vectors in 3 dimensions
Recall that vectors may be written using i , j , k reference unit vectors or as column vectors
It follows that in a vector equation of a line either form can be employed – for example,
⎛⎜ 3 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟
⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
r = 3i + j − 7k + t (i − 2j ) and r = ⎜⎜⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ + t ⎜⎜ −2
⎟⎟ ⎜⎜
⎟⎟
⎟⎟
⎝ −7 ⎠ ⎝ 0
⎜
⎠
show the same equation written using the two different forms
How do I determine if a point is on a line?
Each different point on the line corresponds to a different value of t
For example: if an equation for a line is r = 3i + 2j - k + t (i + 2j)
the point with coordinates (2, 0, -1) is on the line and corresponds to t = -1
However we know that the point with coordinates (-7, 5, 0) is not on this line
No value of t could make the k component 0

Can two different equations represent the same line?

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Why do we say a direction vector and not the direction vector? Because the magnitude of the vector
doesn’t matter; only the direction is important
we can multiply any direction vector by a (non-zero) constant and this wouldn’t change the Your notes
direction
Therefore there are an infinite number of options for a (a point on the line) and an infinite number of
options for the direction vector
For Cartesian equations – two equations will represent the same line only if they are multiples of each
other
x − 2y = 5 and 3x − 6y = 15
For vector equations this is not true – two equations might look different but still represent the same
line:
⎛5 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ −2 ⎞⎟
r = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + t ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and r = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + t ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝0 ⎠ ⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠

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Exam Tip
Remember that the vector equation of a line can take many different forms. This means that the
answer you derive might look different from the answer in a mark scheme.
You can choose whether to write your vector equations of lines using reference unit vectors or as
column vectors – use the form that you prefer!
If, for example, an exam question uses column vectors, then it is usual to leave the answer in
column vectors, but it isn’t essential to do so - you’ll still get the marks!

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7.3.2 Parallel, Intersecting & Skew Lines

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Parallel, Intersecting & Skew Lines
In two dimensions, lines are either parallel or they intersect at a single point. If they are parallel, then either
they have no points in common, or they share every point in common.
In three dimensions, there is a further possibility: a pair of lines might not be parallel and have no points of
intersection. We say that the lines are skew.
How do I tell if two lines are parallel?
Two lines are parallel if, and only if, their direction vectors are parallel
This means the direction vectors will be scalar multiples of each other
⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ −1 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
For example, the lines whose equations are r = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ + s ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ and r = ⎜⎜ −1 ⎟⎟ + t ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ −7 ⎠ ⎝ −8 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ −1 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
are parallel since their direction vectors ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ and ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ are parallel vectors as
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ −8 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ −1 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = − 2 ⎜⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ −8 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠

There are two possibilities for two parallel lines: either they never intersect or they are the identical
Recall that the vector equation of a line can take many forms – for example, the lines represented
⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ −4 ⎞⎟ ⎛ −3 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟
by the equations r = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + s ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and r = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + t ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ are actually the same
⎝ −8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠
line even though the equations look entirely different

To see that the lines are identical, first check that they are parallel
⎛⎜ −4 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
they are because ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = − 4 ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and so the direction vectors are parallel
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠

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Next, determine whether any point on one of the lines also lies on the other.
In the example above, is the position vector of a point on the first line – does it also lie on the
⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ −3 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ Your notes
second line? Yes, because ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 4 ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ −8 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠
If two parallel lines share any point, then they share all points – i.e. they are identical

What are skew lines?

First, start with another question: do lines which are not parallel necessarily intersect?
In 2 dimensions, the answer is yes
However, lines in 3 dimensions do not necessarily intersect
Lines that are not parallel and which do not intersect are called skew lines

How do I determine whether lines in 3D are parallel, skew, or intersecting?

First, look to see if the direction vectors are parallel:
if the direction vectors are parallel, then the lines are parallel
if the direction vectors are not parallel, the lines are not parallel
If the lines are parallel, check to see if they are identical:
If they share any point, then they are identical
If any point on one line is not on the other line, then the lines are not identical

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If the lines are not parallel, check whether they intersect:

Using different letters, e.g. s and t, for the parameters, write down coordinates for a general point
on each line Your notes
Supposing that the lines do intersect: equate the two coordinates and write down three equations
One for each component (i, j, k)
Solve any two pairs of these equations simultaneously to find s and t
Check whether the values of s and t you have found satisfy the third equation
If all three equations are satisfied, then the lines intersect
If not all three equations are satisfied, then the lines are skew
If a pair of lines are not parallel and do intersect, the unique point of intersection can be found by
substituting the value of one of the parameters you have found into the coordinates for points on the
appropriate line.

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Exam Tip
Make sure that you use different letters, e.g. s and t, to represent the parameters in vector
equations of different lines.

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7.3.3 The Scalar ('Dot') Product

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The Scalar ('Dot') Product
The scalar product is an important link between the algebra of vectors and the trigonometry of vectors. We
shall see that the scalar product is somewhat comparable to the operation of multiplication on real
numbers.
What is the scalar (dot) product?
The scalar product between two vectors a and b is represented by a · b
This is also called the dot product because of the symbol used
The scalar product between two vectors a = a i + a j + a k and b = b i + b j + b k is
1 2 3 1 2 3
defined as a · b = a b + a 2b 2 + a 3b 3
1 1
The result of taking the scalar product of two vectors is a real number
i.e. a scalar
For example,
(3i − k) · (2i + 9j + k) = 3 × 2 + 0 × 9 + (−1) × 1 = 6 + 0 − 1 = 5
and

⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ −8 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ · ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2 × (−8) + 7 × 2 = − 16 + 14 = − 2
⎝7 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
The scalar product has some important properties:
The order of the vectors doesn’t affect the result:
a · b= b ·a
In effect we can ‘multiply out’ brackets:
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c
This means that we can do many of the same things with vectors as we can do when operating on real
numbers – for example,
( a − b) · ( a − b) = a · a − 2a · b + b · b
The scalar product between a vector and itself is equal to the square of its magnitude:
a · a =  a 2
For example,

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⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟  ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟  2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ · ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 22 + 72 = 53 and  ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟  = 22 + 72 = 53
⎝7 ⎠ ⎝7 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠ Your notes
What is the connection between the scalar product and trigonometry?
There is another important method for finding a · b involving the angle between the two vectors θ :
a · b =  a   b  cos θ
Here θ is the angle between the vectors when they are placed ‘base to base’
when the vectors are placed so that they begin at the same point
This formula can be derived using the cosine rule and expanding ( a − b) · ( a − b)

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Worked example
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Exam Tip
When writing a scalar product, it’s important to write a distinctive dot between the vectors –
otherwise your meaning will not be clear.

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7.3.4 Uses of the Scalar Product

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Uses of the Scalar Product
This revision note covers several applications of the scalar product for vectors – namely, how you can use
the scalar product to:
find the angle between vectors or lines
test whether vectors or lines are perpendicular
find the closest distance from a point to a line
How do I find the angle between two vectors?

Recall that a formula for the scalar (or ‘dot’) between vectors a and b is
a · b =  a   b  cosθ
where θ is the angle between the vectors when they are placed ‘base to base’
that is, when the vectors are positioned so that they start at the same point
We arrange this formula to make cos θ the subject:
To find the angle between two vectors
Calculate the scalar product between them
Calculate the magnitude of each vector
Use the formula to find cos θ
Use inverse trig to find θ

How do I find the angle between two lines?

To find the angle between two lines, find the angle between their direction vectors
For example, if the lines have equations r = a + s d and r = a + t d , then the angle θ
1 1 2 2
between the lines is given by
⎛⎜ d1 · d2 ⎞⎟
θ = cos−1 ⎜⎜⎜  d   d 
⎟⎟
⎟
⎝  1   2  ⎠

How do I tell if vectors or lines are perpendicular?

Two (non-zero) vectors a and b are perpendicular if, and only if, a · b = 0
If the a and b are perpendicular then:

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θ = 90° ⇒ cos θ = 0 ⇒  a   b  cos θ = 0 ⇒ a · b = 0

If a · b = 0 then:
 a   b  cos θ = 0 ⇒ cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ = 90° ⇒ a and b are perpendicular Your notes
  
For example, the vectors 2i − 3j + 5k and −4i − j + k are perpendicular since
(2i − 3j + 5k ) · (−4i − j + k ) = 2 × (−4) + (−3) × (−1) + 5 × 1 = − 8 + 3 + 5 = 0
How do I find the shortest distance from a point to a line?
Suppose that we have a line l with equation r = a + t d and a point P not on l
Let F be the point on l which is closest to P (sometimes called the foot of the perpendicular)
Then the line between F and P will be perpendicular to the line l
To find the closest point F
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯
Call f = OF and p = OP
Since F lies on l , we have f = a + t d , for a unique real number t
0 0
⎯⎯⎯
Find the vector FP using p − f
⎯⎯⎯
FP is perpendicular to d so form an equation using ( p − f ) · d = 0
Solve this equation to find the value of t
0
Use the value of t to find f
0
The shortest distance between the point and the line is the length
Note that the shortest distance between the point and the line is sometimes referred to as the length
of the perpendicular

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Exam Tip
It can be easier and clearer to work with column vectors when dealing with scalar products.

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