Lecture 7: Federal Safe

Clean Air Act

Stanley B. Grant
3104 Introduction to Environmental Engineering
2/10/25
Learning Objectives
• Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Background on Air Pollution
• Common Air Pollutants and Trends
• Climate Change and Wildfires
• Events leading up to the passage of the Clean Air Act
• Legislative History of the Clean Air Act
• Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Enforcement of EPA Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Organization of the Clean Air Act into “Titles”
• Summary of Key Points
Learning Objectives
• Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Background on Air Pollution
• Common Air Pollutants and Trends
• Climate Change and Wildfires
• Events leading up to the passage of the Clean Air Act
• Legislative History of the Clean Air Act
• Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Enforcement of EPA Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Organization of the Clean Air Act into “Titles”
• Summary of Key Points
Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Troposphere: lowermost
atmospheric layer, includes
air needed for plants and
animals; where weather
occurs and most water vapor
is found
• Stratosphere: layer above
the troposphere, less
turbulence. Where
commercial passenger
aircraft fly and location of
ozone layer which absorbs
and protects Earth from solar
UV radiation
Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere (cont.)
• Mesosphere: meteors
burn up here (due to speed
of travel and presence of
gaseous molecules).
Boundary between
mesosphere and
thermosphere is coldest
part of the atmosphere
• Thermosphere: can reach
temperatures up to 2000C
or higher; home to ISS and
low-Earth orbit satellites
Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere (cont.)
• Exosphere: outer layer of
the Earth’s atmosphere,
where most satellites orbit.
Marks the end of our
atmosphere and the
beginning of outer space
 Temperature structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Troposphere: Note that
temperature declines
more-or-less linearly with
altitude (an inversion
occurs when this pattern is
locally reversed—see later)
• Stratosphere:
temperature generally
increases with altitude—
very stable configuration
(reduced turbulence—why
commercial jets fly here)

“The Earth’s Atmosphere” by David P. Gradwell

 Chemical composition of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Remarkably consistent between sea level and an altitude of
about 300,000 feet!

“The Earth’s Atmosphere” by David P. Gradwell

 Chemical composition of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Remarkably consistent between sea level and an altitude of
about 300,000 feet!

Question:
What does “Concentration in
dry air (% by volume)” mean?

“The Earth’s Atmosphere” by David P. Gradwell

Learning Objectives
• Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Background on Air Pollution
• Common Air Pollutants and Trends
• Climate Change and Wildfires
• Events leading up to the passage of the Clean Air Act
• Legislative History of the Clean Air Act
• Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Enforcement of EPA Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Organization of the Clean Air Act into “Titles”
• Summary of Key Points
 Background on Air Pollution
• Air pollution refers to the presence of gas and particle
contaminants in the troposphere at concentrations harmful to
human health, ecosystems, or the climate
• Gaseous pollution includes sulfur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), certain toxic air pollutants and some
gaseous forms of metals.
• Particle pollution (PM2.5 and PM10) includes a mixture of
compounds that can be grouped into five major categories:
sulfate, nitrate, elemental (black carbon, organic carbon and
crustal material).
https://gispub.epa.gov/air/trendsreport/2019/#air_pollution
Particulate Air Pollution
Attribute PM₂.₅ (Fine Particulate Matter) PM₁₀ (Coarse Particulate
Matter)
Particle Size ≤ 2.5 µm in diameter ≤ 10 µm in diameter
Sources Combustion (vehicles, industrial Dust, pollen, mold, construction
processes, wildfires) sites, road dust
Health Effects Penetrates deep into lungs and Affects respiratory system; can
bloodstream; linked to heart cause irritation and exacerbate
disease, stroke, and lung cancer asthma
Regulation Regulated under NAAQS; stricter Regulated under NAAQS; less
limits due to severe health risks strict limits compared to PM₂.₅
Health Effects associated with Airborne PM
• PM2.5: Due to their small size, these particles can penetrate deep into
the lungs and enter the bloodstream, leading to:
1. Cardiovascular issues: (a) increased risk of heart attacks; (b) elevated blood
pressure; (c) development of heart diseases
2. Respiratory problems: (a) aggravated asthma; (b) decreased lung function; (c)
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
3. Other health impacts: (a) premature death in individuals with pre-existing
heart or lung conditions; (b) nonfatal heart attacks; (c) irregular heartbeat; (d)
increased respiratory symptoms, such as airway irritation, coughing, or
difficulty breathing
• PM10: These coarser particles can cause respiratory issues (worsening
of asthma, increased respiratory infections, irritation of the airways)
 Health Effects associated with Airborne PM
(cont.)
• Health Statistics:
1. Globally, exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is responsible for
nearly 4 million deaths annually from cardiopulmonary illnesses
2. In the U.S., studies have shown that for every 10 𝜇g/m3 increase in short
term PM2.5 exposure, there is a 2.8% increase in mortality*
3. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that air pollution,
including both PM2.5 and PM10, leads to approximately 6.7 million
premature deaths each year

*Itai, K. et al. (2013) “Long- and Short-Term Exposure to PM2.5 and Mortality Using Novel Exposure
Models” Epidemiology 24, 555-561.
Sources of air pollution include…
• Stationary fuel combustion sources (such as electric utilities and
industrial boilers)
• Industrial and other processes (metal smelters, petroleum
refineries, cement kilns, dry cleaners)
• Highway vehicles
• Non-road mobile sources (e.g., recreational and construction
equipment, marine vessels, aircraft and locomotives)
• EPA and states track direct emissions of air pollutants and
precursor emissions--which are emissions that contribute to the
formation of other pollutants in the atmosphere
 Six Criteria Pollutants* Regulated under the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Pollutant Abbreviation Major Sources Health & Environmental Effects

Carbon Monoxide CO Vehicle emissions, industrial Reduces oxygen delivery to

combustion, wildfires organs, dangerous at high levels.

Lead Pb Leaded gasoline (historically), Neurotoxin affecting brain

metal smelting, battery development, especially in
manufacturing children.
Nitrogen Dioxide NO₂ Vehicles, power plants, industrial Respiratory issues, smog
combustion formation, acid rain precursor.

Ozone (Ground-Level) O₃ Secondary pollutant formed from Causes lung irritation, worsens
NOₓ & VOCs in sunlight asthma, damages vegetation.

Particulate Matter PM₁₀ & PM₂.₅ Diesel engines, industrial Linked to heart disease, lung
sources, wildfires, dust disease, and premature death.

Sulfur Dioxide SO₂ Coal-fired power plants, Causes respiratory issues,

industrial processes, volcanoes precursor to acid rain.

*called “criteria pollutants” because EPA was required to develop “scientific criteria documents” that summarize
the health and environmental impacts of each pollutant before setting regulatory standards
Lots of cool videos showing change in air
pollution across the globe with time…

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d538jQc-pCM
Lots of cool videos showing change in air
pollution across the globe with time…

Question:
What strikes you about
the trends in this map?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d538jQc-pCM
https://gispub.epa.gov/air/trendsreport/2019/#air_pollution
Learning Objectives
• Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Background on Air Pollution
• Common Air Pollutants and Trends
• Climate Change and Wildfires
• Events leading up to the passage of the Clean Air Act
• Legislative History of the Clean Air Act
• Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Enforcement of EPA Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Organization of the Clean Air Act into “Titles”
• Summary of Key Points
 Atmospheric Emissions of NOx and SO2
Emissions throughout the U.S.
• Atmospheric emissions
substantially reduced
since the 1970s, especially
in the eastern U.S.
• Reductions primarily
attributed to emission
controls required under
the Clean Air Act and its
amendments and rules

Sullivan, T.J. et al. (2018) “Air pollution success stories in the United States: The value of long-term observations” Environ. Sci. Policy 84, 69-73.
 Atmospheric Deposition of NOx and SO2
Huntington Forest and Big Moose Lake, N.Y.
• Atmospheric deposition of
N and S has also been
dropping since the 1970s
• Wet deposition refers to
pollutants removed from
the atmosphere by rain,
snow, or fog
• Dry deposition refers
pollutants removed by
gravity or gas absorption

Sullivan, T.J. et al. (2018) “Air pollution success stories in the United States: The value of long-term observations” Environ. Sci. Policy 84, 69-73.
 Ambient Air Concentrations of Lead
• Another CAA success story
is the banning of lead-
based fuel additives
• Resulted in a >95%
reduction in the
concentration of Pb in air
• Strong linear correlation
between Pb-levels in
human blood and in air*

Sullivan, T.J. et al. (2018) “Air pollution success stories in the United States: The value of long-term observations” Environ. Sci. Policy 84, 69-73.
*Thomas, V.M. (1999) “Effects of reducing lead in gasoline: an analysis of the international experience. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33, 3942-3948.
 Atmospheric Haze
Shining Rock Wilderness, NC

• Affects how far we see

• Associated with light
scattering and light
absorption from gases and
particles in the air
• In the eastern U.S.,
important source of haze is
ammonium sulfate from
emissions of sulfur dioxide
and ammonia
• Smoke from forest fires is an
increasing cause of haze
Sullivan, T.J. et al. (2018) “Air pollution success stories in the United States: The value of long-term observations” Environ. Sci. Policy 84, 69-73.
 Atmospheric Ozone
Shining Rock Wilderness, NC

• The pollutant in this case is

“ground-level ozone” or
tropospheric ozone (NOT
stratospheric ozone!)
• A gaseous component of
smog, formed by
atmospheric reaction of
NOx and VOCs in the
presence of sunlight
• Adverse health effects

Sullivan, T.J. et al. (2018) “Air pollution success stories in the United States: The value of long-term observations” Environ. Sci. Policy 84, 69-73.
 Overall, Clean Air Act has been very effective
at reducing air pollution in the U.S.

Aldy, J.E. et al. (2022) “Looking Back at 50 years of the Clean Air Act” J. Econ. Literature, 60, 179-232.
Learning Objectives
• Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Background on Air Pollution
• Common Air Pollutants and Trends
• Climate Change and Wildfires
• Events leading up to the passage of the Clean Air Act
• Legislative History of the Clean Air Act
• Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Enforcement of EPA Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Organization of the Clean Air Act into “Titles”
• Summary of Key Points
PM2.5 and Wildfires
• Wildfires are becoming increasingly common in North America
due to climate change
• This increase in wildfires is stalling, or in some states even
reversing, the gains in PM2.5 reduction achieved under the CAA
• See next couple of slides
Burke et al. (2023) “The contribution of wildfire to PM2.5 trends in the USA” Nature 622, 761-766
Burke et al. (2023) “The contribution of wildfire to PM2.5 trends in the USA” Nature 622, 761-766
Learning Objectives
• Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Background on Air Pollution
• Common Air Pollutants and Trends
• Climate Change and Wildfires
• Events leading up to the passage of the Clean Air Act
• Legislative History of the Clean Air Act
• Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Enforcement of EPA Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Organization of the Clean Air Act into “Titles”
• Summary of Key Points
Events leading up to the passage of the Clean
Air Act
• Air pollution has been a significant public health issue since the
Industrial Revolution
• Major early air pollution disasters:
1. 1948 Donora Smog (PA)
2. 1952 Great London Smog
• Early air pollution control efforts in the U.S. were largely state or
local
• The need for federal intervention became apparent due to
interstate nature of air pollution (remember the interstate
commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution!)
 1948 Donora (PA) Smog Event
• Date & Location: October 27–31, 1948, Donora,
Pennsylvania
• Cause: Industrial emissions trapped by a
temperature inversion
• Pollutants: Sulfur dioxide (SO₂), carbon monoxide
(CO), metal particulates
• Health Impact: 20 deaths, 6,000+ illnesses (severe
respiratory distress)
• Environmental Conditions: No wind/rain,
pollutants trapped near the ground
• Legacy: Raised awareness, led to stronger air
pollution laws, influenced the Clean Air Act (1970)
 1952 Great London Smog
• Date & Location: December 5-9, 1952, London,
United Kingdom
• Cause: High coal burning emissions combined with
a temperature inversion
• Pollutants: Sulfur dioxide (SO₂), smoke, particulates
• Health Impact: ~4000 immediate deaths; later
estimates suggest 10,000 to 12,000 deaths overall
• Environmental Conditions: Cold weather led to
increased coal combustion and temperature
inversion trapped thick smog over London
• Legacy: Led to passage of the UK Clean Air Act
(1956); highlighted danges of coal pollution and air
stagnation events
What causes an atmospheric inversion?
• Through the troposphere, air temperature normally decreases
with altitude (see earlier slides)

Net result is that air

Hotter air Cooler air
pollution gets
is less is more “mixed” vertically,
dense and dense
lowering its
rises and falls concentration

Normal atmospheric temperature gradient

What causes an atmospheric inversion?
• An inversion occurs when this normal “temperature gradient” is
inverted—i.e., when warmer air “sits” on top of colder air, trapping
pollution close to the ground (more common in valleys and
coastal cities)

“Inversion Layer:” Net result is that there is less

Less dense hot vertical mixing of the air column,
air “sits” on more warmer and consequently air pollutant
dense cold air— concentrations close to the
colder ground can rise
stable condition,
little vertical
mixing Atmospheric temperature inversion
Why is warmer air less “dense”
!
Density is mass per unit volume, 𝜌 =
"

To calculate the mass of gas, you multiply the average molecular weight, or Air Composition
“molar mass”, of gas in air 𝑀#$% (kg/mole) times the number of moles of gas in
an air parcel, 𝑛: 𝑚 = 𝑛×𝑀#$%

As indicated in the pie chart the “molar mass” of gas is the weighted
average of the molecular masses of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and
carbon dioxide. The weighted average accounts for the percent by Nitrogen Oxygen Argon Carbon Dioxide
volume of each gas (see earlier discussion):

𝑀#$% = 0.7808×28.0134 + 0.2095×31.9988 + 0.0093×39.948 + 0.0004×44.0095 = 28.97g/mol

Why is warmer air less “dense” (cont.)
Ideal Gas Law: 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

𝑃 = pressure (Pa)
𝑉 =volume (m3)
𝑛 =moles of gas
𝑅 =ideal gas constant
𝑇 =temperature (K)
Density is mass per volume, so given the molar mass of air (see last slide) and the Ideal
Gas Law, we can express the density of an air parcel as follows:

𝑛𝑀#$% 𝑛 𝑃
𝜌= = 𝑀#$% = 𝑀#$%
𝑉 𝑉 𝑅𝑇

Because T is in the denominator of this expression, at constant pressure, a gas will have higher density at
lower temperature. This is why warm air normally rises. However, during an inversion warm air traps cold air
below, preventing pollutants from dispersing.
Example: marine layer in Los Angeles
View of the San Gabriel Mountains from Caltech during a smoggy day in the mid-1970s—the mountains are
only about 10 miles away from the main campus
Learning Objectives
• Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Background on Air Pollution
• Common Air Pollutants and Trends
• Climate Change and Wildfires
• Events leading up to the passage of the Clean Air Act
• Legislative History of the Clean Air Act
• Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Enforcement of EPA Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Organization of the Clean Air Act into “Titles”
• Summary of Key Points
Legislative history of the Clean Air Act (CAA)
• 1955: Air Pollution Control Act (first federal air pollution law,
focused on research)
• 1963: Clean Air Act (provided funding but no strict standards)
• 1967: Air Quality Act (introduced Air Quality Control Regions but
lacked enforcement)
• 1970: Clean Air Act-- Major overhaul that created EPA, National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) and enforcement
mechanisms
Amendments to the Clean Air Act
• 1977: Strengthened regulations for nonattainment areas
• 1990: Expanded to address acid rain, ozone depletion, and
hazardous air pollutants
• 2007: Supreme Court ruled CO₂ is a pollutant under the CAA
(Massachusetts v. EPA)
• 2022: Supreme Court ruling (West Virginia v. EPA) limited EPA’s
power to regulate CO₂ without Congressional approval
Learning Objectives
• Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Background on Air Pollution
• Common Air Pollutants and Trends
• Climate Change and Wildfires
• Events leading up to the passage of the Clean Air Act
• Legislative History of the Clean Air Act
• Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Enforcement of EPA Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Organization of the Clean Air Act into “Titles”
• Summary of Key Points
Regulations under the CAA
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)—sets limits for six
criteria pollutants (CO, Pb, NO2, O3, PM, SO2)
• State Implementation Plans (SIPs)—States must create plans to meet
NAAQS
• Emission Standards—Includes New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS) for industry and National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAPs) for toxic air pollutants
• Vehicle Emission Standards—Regulates transportation-related
pollutants
• Acid Rain and Ozone Depletion Programs—Uses market-based
approaches (e.g., SO2 cap-and-trade)
 Six Criteria Pollutants* Regulated under the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Pollutant Abbreviation Major Sources Health & Environmental Effects

Carbon Monoxide CO Vehicle emissions, industrial Reduces oxygen delivery to

combustion, wildfires organs, dangerous at high levels.

Lead Pb Leaded gasoline (historically), Neurotoxin affecting brain

metal smelting, battery development, especially in
manufacturing children.
Nitrogen Dioxide NO₂ Vehicles, power plants, industrial Respiratory issues, smog
combustion formation, acid rain precursor.

Ozone (Ground-Level) O₃ Secondary pollutant formed from Causes lung irritation, worsens
NOₓ & VOCs in sunlight asthma, damages vegetation.

Particulate Matter PM₁₀ & PM₂.₅ Diesel engines, industrial Linked to heart disease, lung
sources, wildfires, dust disease, and premature death.

Sulfur Dioxide SO₂ Coal-fired power plants, Causes respiratory issues,

industrial processes, volcanoes precursor to acid rain.

*called “criteria pollutants” because EPA was required to develop “scientific criteria documents” that summarize
the health and environmental impacts of each pollutant before setting regulatory standards
Regulations under the CAA
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)—sets limits for six
criteria pollutants (CO, Pb, NO2, O3, PM, SO2)
• State Implementation Plans (SIPs)—States must create plans to meet
NAAQS
• Emission Standards—Includes New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS) for industry and National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAPs) for toxic air pollutants
• Vehicle Emission Standards—Regulates transportation-related
pollutants
• Acid Rain and Ozone Depletion Programs—Uses market-based
approaches (e.g., SO2 cap-and-trade)
State Implementation Plans (SIPs)
• The SIP is the federally-enforceable plan for each state which
identifies how that state will attain and/or maintain the NAAQS
• Establish a mix of emission limits and other measures to control
each criteria pollutant
• A specific plan for each nonattainment area
• States submit SIPs and NAAQS attainment demonstrations for
EPA approval
• EPA must formally approve or disapprove a SIP
Regulations under the CAA
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)—sets limits for six
criteria pollutants (CO, Pb, NO2, O3, PM, SO2)
• State Implementation Plans (SIPs)—States must create plans to meet
NAAQS
• Emission Standards—Includes New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS) for industry and National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAPs) for toxic air pollutants
• Vehicle Emission Standards—Regulates transportation-related
pollutants
• Acid Rain and Ozone Depletion Programs—Uses market-based
approaches (e.g., SO2 cap-and-trade)
Emission Standards—New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS)
• Prevents deterioration of air quality from: (1) construction of new
sources of air pollution; (2) major modification of existing sources
of air pollution
• Focus on criteria pollutants
• Organized by industry or type of operation
• EPA has established NSPS regulations for approximately 100
source categories. For example, Steel Plants, Residential Wood
Heaters, Kraft Pulp Mills, Rubber Tire Manufacturing,…
Emission Standards—National Emission
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
(NESHAPs)
• Unlike NSPS which focuses on criteria pollutants, NESHAPs
address emissions of Hazardous Air Pollutants or HAPs
• HAPs are specifically designated by regulation (currently 188
regulated HAPs)
• EPA is required by law to develop a list of sources emitting those
HAPs in significant quantities
• For those sources, EPA then develops Maximum Achievable
Control Technologies (MACT) standards for new and existing
major sources.
Regulations under the CAA
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)—sets limits for six
criteria pollutants (CO, Pb, NO2, O3, PM, SO2)
• State Implementation Plans (SIPs)—States must create plans to meet
NAAQS
• Emission Standards—Includes New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS) for industry and National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAPs) for toxic air pollutants
• Vehicle Emission Standards—Regulates transportation-related
pollutants
• Acid Rain and Ozone Depletion Programs—Uses market-based
approaches (e.g., SO2 cap-and-trade)
Vehicle Emission Standards
• Key pollutants regulated include CO, NOx, PM, hydrocarbons
(HC), greenhouse gases (CO2, methane)
• Major Regulatory Programs:
1. Tailpipe Emission Standards—Limits on pollutants from cars, trucks
and buses
2. Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards—Fuel efficiency targets
to reduce CO2 emissions
3. Reformulated Gasoline Program—Requires cleaner burning fuels in
high-smog areas
4. California Waiver and State Programs—California can set stricter
vehicle emissions standards (adopted by other states)
5. Vehicle Recalls and Penalties—EPA can recall noncompliant vehicles
and fine manufacturers
Regulations under the CAA
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)—sets limits for six
criteria pollutants (CO, Pb, NO2, O3, PM, SO2)
• State Implementation Plans (SIPs)—States must create plans to meet
NAAQS
• Emission Standards—Includes New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS) for industry and National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAPs) for toxic air pollutants
• Vehicle Emission Standards—Regulates transportation-related
pollutants
• Acid Rain and Ozone Depletion Programs—Uses market-based
approaches (e.g., SO2 cap-and-trade)
Acid Rain Program
• Goal: reduce sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions
from power plants to combat acid rain
• Major Regulatory Mechanisms:
1. Cap-and-Trade System—First large-scale emissions trading program
2. SO2 Allowance Trading—Power plants receive emission allowances and can
buy/sell them
3. NOx Emission Limits—Specific controls on power plants
4. Continuous Emissions Monitoring (CEM)—required tracking of SO2 and NOX
emissions
• Major Impact—SO2 emissions reduced by ~90% since 1990,
significant decline in acid rain damage to lakes, forests and buildings,
model for market-based environmental regulations
Ozone Depletion Program
• Goal: Phase out substances that destroy the stratospheric ozone
layer, protecting the earth against UV radiation exposure
• Key Pollutants Regulated:
1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—used in refrigeration, aerosols
2. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)—temporary replacements for CFCs
3. Halons, Carbon Tetrachloride, Methyl Bromide –industrial uses
• Regulatory Mechanisms: (1) Montreal Protocol (1987); Production
and Import Bans; Substitutes Program
• Major Impact—99% reduction in ozone-depleting substances; Ozone
layer recovery underway; significant reduction in skin cancer cases
linked to UV exposure
Learning Objectives
• Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Background on Air Pollution
• Common Air Pollutants and Trends
• Climate Change and Wildfires
• Events leading up to the passage of the Clean Air Act
• Legislative History of the Clean Air Act
• Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Enforcement of EPA Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Organization of the Clean Air Act into “Titles”
• Summary of Key Points
Three Key Features of the CAA: Enforcement
• State and federal enforcement—States enforce air quality
through SIPs, but the EPA can intervene
• Nonattainment penalties—If an area fails to meet NAAQS,
stricter pollution controls are required
• Permit System—Major polluters need permits specifying
emission limits
• Fines and Legal Action—EPA can issue fines or take violators to
court
Key Distinctions between “Regulation” and
“Enforcement” in the CAA
Term Definition Examples in the CAA
Regulation The rules and standards created NAAQS, NSPS, NESHAPs, vehicle
by the EPA (or other agencies) emission limits, permit
under authority granted by the requirements
Clean Air Act.
Enforcement The process of ensuring Fines for exceeding emissions
compliance with regulations limits, SIP compliance checks,
through monitoring, penalties, lawsuits against polluters
and legal actions.
Learning Objectives
• Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Background on Air Pollution
• Common Air Pollutants and Trends
• Climate Change and Wildfires
• Events leading up to the passage of the Clean Air Act
• Legislative History of the Clean Air Act
• Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Enforcement of EPA Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Organization of the Clean Air Act into “Titles”
• Summary of Key Points
Organizing CAA into “Titles”
• The CAA was originally passed in 1970 without a “Title” structure.
• As the CAA became progressively more complex, as part of the
1990 amendments Congress reorganized the Act into Titles
• Today, the CAA Titles provide the legal framework for different
types of air pollution control—from NAAQS (Title 1) to vehicle
emissions (Title II) to acid rain (Title IV)…
 “Titles” in the Clean Air Act (CAA)
Title Focus Legislative Action
Title I – Air Pollution Prevention and Establishes NAAQS, defines nonattainment 1970 Clean Air Act
Control areas, requires State Implementation Plans (SIPs)

Title II – Mobile Source Pollution Regulates vehicle emissions and fuel quality, 1970 Clean Air Act
Control introduces tailpipe standards and alternative
fuels
Title III – Hazardous Air Pollutants Regulates hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), sets 1990 Clean Air Act
Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) Amendments
standards
Title IV – Acid Deposition Control Cap-and-trade program for SO₂ and NOₓ, targets 1990 Clean Air Act
acid rain reduction Amendments
 “Titles” in the Clean Air Act (CAA) (cont.)

Title Focus Legislative Action

Title V – Permitting System for Major Requires operating permits for major industrial 1990 Clean Air Act
Sources polluters, ensures compliance through state- Amendments
administered permits

Title VI – Stratospheric Ozone Phases out ozone-depleting substances (CFCs, 1990 Clean Air Act
Protection HCFCs) under the Montreal Protocol, regulates Amendments
refrigerants, aerosols, and solvents
Title VII – Enforcement Strengthens EPA’s authority to enforce the Clean 1990 Clean Air Act
Air Act, establishes penalties, fines, and legal Amendments
actions for violations
Learning Objectives
• Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Background on Air Pollution
• Common Air Pollutants and Trends
• Climate Change and Wildfires
• Events leading up to the passage of the Clean Air Act
• Legislative History of the Clean Air Act
• Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Enforcement of EPA Regulations under the Clean Air Act
• Organization of the Clean Air Act into “Titles”
• Summary of Key Points
Great video overview of the Clean Air Act

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-SH3kJpVA4
Key Takeaways from the Clean Air Act
• Established (1970):
1. NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards)
2. EPA Authority to Regulate Air Pollution
3. State Implementation Plans (SIPs) for Enforcement
• Expanded (1990):
1. Acid Rain Program (Cap-and-Trade for SO2 and NOX)
2. Hazardous Air Pollutants (MACT standards)
3. Stratospheric Ozone Protection (CFCs, Montreal Protocol)
4. Title-Based Organization of the CAA
• Recent Legal Challenges
1. Massachusetts v EPA (2007) ->EPA can regulate CO2 as a pollutant
2. West Virginia v EPA (2022) -> Limits EPA’s power to impose CO2 regulations
without Congress
Clean Air Act—Regulation vs. Enforcement
Aspect Regulation (What’s Required?) Enforcement (How It’s
Enforced?)
NAAQS Air quality limits for six criteria EPA monitors compliance and
pollutants penalizes nonattainment areas
SIPs States develop customized EPA approves or rejects SIPs;
pollution control plans states enforce
New Source Performance (NSPS) Sets emission limits for EPA approves or rejects SIPs;
Standards (NSPS) industrial sources states enforce
Vehicle Emissions Regulates tailpipe emissions, Automakers face fines & recalls
fuel quality for noncompliance
Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) MACT standards for toxic air Title VII allows EPA to take legal
pollutants action