FLUIDS IN MOTION

Fluid motions manifest themselves in many different ways. Some can be described very easily, while
others require a thorough understanding of physical laws. In engineering applications, it is important
to describe the fluid motions as simply as can be justified. It is the engineer's responsibility to know
which simplifying assumptions (e.g., one-dimensional, steady-state, inviscid, incompressible, etc)
can be made.

A. Classification of Fluid Flows

1) Uniform flow; steady flow

If we look at a fluid flowing under normal circumstances - a river for example - the conditions (e.g.
velocity, pressure) at one point will vary from those at another point, then we have non-uniform flow.
If the conditions at one point vary as time passes, then we have unsteady flow.

Under some circumstances the flow will not be as changeable as this. The following terms describe
the states which are used to classify fluid flow:

Uniform flow: If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at every point in the flow it is
said to be uniform. That is, the flow conditions DO NOT change with position.

Non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point the flow is non-uniform.

Steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-section) may
differ from point to point but DO NOT change with time.

Unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow is described as
unsteady.

Combining the above we can classify any flow in to one of four types:

 Steady uniform flow. Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with time. An
example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant velocity.
 Steady non-uniform flow. Conditions change from point to point in the stream but do not
change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet -
velocity will change as you move along the length of the pipe toward the exit.
 Unsteady uniform flow. At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the same,
but will change with time. An example is a pipe of constant diameter connected to a pump
pumping at a constant rate which is then switched off.
 Unsteady non-uniform flow. Every condition of the flow may change from point to point and
with time at every point. An example is surface waves in an open channel.

You may imagine that one class is more complex than another – steady uniform flow is by far the
most simple of the four.

2) One-, two-, and three-dimensional flows

A fluid flow is in general a three-dimensional, spatial and time dependent phenomenon:-

V  V (r , t )  u(r , t )i  v(r , t ) j  w(r , t )k

1
  
where r   x, y, z  is the position vector, i , j , k are the unit vectors in the Cartesian coordinates,
and  u, v, w are the velocity components in these directions. As defined above, the flow will be
uniform if the velocity components are independent of spatial position  x, y, z  , and will be steady if
the velocity components are independent of time t.

Accordingly, a fluid flow is called three-dimensional if all

three velocity components are equally important.
Intrinsically, a three-dimensional flow problem will have the
most complex characters and is the most difficult to solve.

Fortunately, in many engineering applications, the flow can

be considered as two-dimensional. In such a situation, one of
the velocity components (say, w) is either identically zero or
much smaller than the other two components, and the flow conditions vary essentially only in two
directions (say, x and y). Hence, the velocity is reduced to V  ui  vj where  u, v  are functions of
 x, y  (and possibly t).This reduction in the velocity component and spatial dimension will greatly
simplify the analysis. Examples of two-dimensional flow typically involve flow past a long structure
(with the axis of structure being perpendicular to the flow):

Two-dimensional flow over a long weir.

Flow past a car antenna is approximately two-dimensional, except near the top and bottom of the
antenna.

It is sometimes possible to further simplify a flow analysis by assuming that two of the velocity
components are negligible, leaving the velocity field to be approximated as a one-dimensional flow
field. That is, V  ui where the velocity u may vary across the section of flow. Typical examples are
fully-developed flows in long uniform pipes and open-channels. One-dimensional flow problems
will require only elementary analysis, and can be solved analytically in most cases.

One-dimensional ideal flow along a pipe, where the velocity is uniform across the pipe section.

2
3) Viscous and inviscid flows

An inviscid flow is one in which viscous effects do not significantly influence the flow and are thus
neglected. In a viscous flow the effects of viscosity are important and cannot be ignored.

To model an inviscid flow analytically, we can simply let the viscosity be zero; this will obviously
make all viscous effects zero. It is more difficult to create an inviscid flow experimentally, because
all fluids of interest (such as water and air) have viscosity. The question then becomes: are there
flows of interest in which the viscous effects are negligibly small? The answer is "yes, if the shear
stresses in the flow are small and act over such small areas that they do not significantly affect the
flow field." The statement is very general, of course, and it will take considerable analysis to justify
the inviscid flow assumption.

Based on experience, it has been found that the primary class of flows, which can be modeled as
inviscid flows, is external flows, that is, flows of an unbounded fluid which exist exterior to a body.
Inviscid flows are of primary importance in flows around streamlined bodies, such as flow around an
airfoil (see the sketch below) or a hydrofoil. Any viscous effects that may exist are confined to a thin
layer, called a boundary layer, which is attached to the boundary, such as that shown in the figure;
the velocity in a boundary layer is always zero at a fixed wall, a result of viscosity. For many flow
situations, boundary layers are so thin that they can simply be ignored when studying the gross
features of a flow around a streamlined body. For example, the inviscid flow solution provides an
excellent prediction to the flow around the airfoil, except possibly near the trailing edge where flow
separation may occur. However the boundary layers must be accounted for when the skin friction
force on the body is to be calculated.

External flow around an airfoil. Viscous flow in a boundary layer.

Viscous flows include the broad class of internal flows, such as flows in pipes, hydraulic machines,
and conduits and in open channels. In such flows viscous effects cause substantial "losses" and
account for the huge amounts of energy that must be used to transport oil and gas in pipelines. The
no-slip condition resulting in zero velocity at the wall, and the resulting shear stresses, lead directly
to these losses.

Viscous internal flow: (a) in a pipe; (b) between two parallel plates.

3
4) Incompressible and compressible flows

All fluids are compressible - even water - their density will change as pressure changes. Under
steady conditions, and provided that the changes in pressure are small, it is usually possible to
simplify analysis of the flow by assuming it is incompressible and has constant density. As you will
appreciate, liquids are quite difficult to compress – so under most steady conditions they are treated
as incompressible. In some unsteady conditions very high pressure differences can occur and it is
necessary to take these into account - even for liquids. Gases, on the contrary, are very easily
compressed, it is essential in cases of high-speed flow to treat these as compressible, taking changes
in pressure into account.

More formally an incompressible flow is defined as one in which the density of each fluid particle
remains relatively constant as it moves through the flow field. This however does not demand that
the density is everywhere constant. If the density is spatially constant, then obviously the flow is
incompressible, but that would be a more restrictive condition. Atmospheric flow, in which (z),
where z is vertical, and flows that involve adjacent layers of fresh and salt water, as happens when
rivers enter the ocean, are examples of incompressible flows in which the density varies.

Low-speed gas flows, such as the atmospheric flow referred to above, are also considered to be
incompressible flows. The Mach number is defined as

V
M
c
where V is the gas speed and c is the speed of sound. The Mach number is useful in deciding whether
a particular gas flow can be studied as an incompressible flow. If M < 0.3, density variations are at
most 3% and the flow is assumed to be incompressible; for standard air this corresponds to a velocity
below about 100 m/s. If M > 0.3, the density variations influence the flow and compressibility
effects should be accounted for. Compressible flows include the aerodynamics of high-speed aircraft,
airflow through jet engines, steam flow through the turbine in a power plant, airflow in a compressor,
and the flow of the air-gas mixture in an internal combustion engine.

5) Laminar and turbulent flows

In the experiment shown above, a dye is injected into the middle of pipe flow of water. The dye
streaks will vary, as shown in (b), depending on the flow rate in the pipe. The top situation is called
laminar flow, and the lower is turbulent flow, occurring when the flow is sufficiently slow and fast,
respectively. In laminar flow the motion of the fluid particles is very orderly with all particles
moving in straight lines parallel to the pipe wall. There is essentially no mixing of neighboring fluid
particles. In sharp contrast, mixing is very significant in turbulent flow, in which fluid particles
4
move haphazardly in all directions. It is therefore impossible to trace motion of individual particles
in turbulent flow. The flow may be characterized by an unsteady fluctuating (i.e., random and 3-D)
velocity components superimposed on a temporal steady mean (i.e., along the pipe) velocity.

Time dependence of fluid velocity at a point.

Whether the flow is laminar or not depends on the Reynolds number,

Vd
Re    density,   viscosity, V  section-mean velocity, d  diameter of pipe


and it has been demonstrated experimentally that

  2, 000 laminar flow


Re between 2,000 and 4,000 transitional flow
  4, 000
 turbulent flow

B. Flow Visualization

There are four different types of flow lines that may help to describe a flow field.

1) Streamline
A streamline is a line that is everywhere tangent to the velocity vector at a given instant of time. A
streamline is hence an instantaneous pattern.

5
Equation for a streamline

dr dx dy dz
  
V u v w

Streamlines are very useful to help visualize the flow pattern. Another example of the streamlines
around a cross-section of an airfoil has been shown earlier on page 3.

When fluid is flowing past a solid boundary, e.g., the surface of an aerofoil or the wall of a pipe,
fluid obviously does not flow into or out of the surface. So very close to a boundary wall the flow
direction must be parallel to the boundary. In fact, the boundary wall itself is also a streamline by
definition.

It is also important to recognize that the position of streamlines can change with time - this is the
case in unsteady flow. In steady flow, the streamlines do not change.

Some further remarks about streamlines

 Because the fluid is moving in the same direction as the streamlines, fluid cannot cross a
streamline.
 Streamlines cannot cross each other. If they were to cross, this would indicate two different
velocities at the same point. This is not physically possible.
 The above point implies that any particles of fluid starting on one streamline will stay on that
same streamline throughout the fluid.
 The mathematical expression of a streamline can also be obtained from
V  dr  0
where V is the fluid velocity vector and dr is a tangential vector along the streamline. The
above cross product is zero since the two vectors are in the same direction.
 A useful technique in fluid flow analysis is to consider only a part of the total fluid in
isolation from the rest. This can be done by imagining a tubular surface formed by
streamlines along which the fluid flows. This tubular surface is known as a streamtube,
which is a tube whose walls are streamlines. Since the velocity is tangent to a streamline, no
fluid can cross the walls of a streamtube.

2) Streakline

A streakline is an instantaneous line whose points are occupied by particles which have earlier
passed through a prescribed point in space. A streakline is hence an integrated pattern. A streakline
can be formed by injecting dye continuously into the fluid at a fixed point in space. As time marches
on, the streakline gets longer and longer, and represents an integrated history of the dye streak.

6
3) Pathline

A pathline is the actual path traversed by a given (marked) fluid particle. A pathline is hence also an
integrated pattern. A pathline represents an integrated history of where a fluid particle has been.

4) Timeline

A timeline is a set of fluid particles that form a line segment at a given instant of time. A timeline is
also an integrated pattern. For example, consider simple shear flow between parallel plates. A
timeline follows the location of a line of fluid particles, which can be a straight line initially.
Timelines of later time are composed of the same particles, and will continually distort with time, as
shown in the sketch. Notice the no-slip condition in action. The top and the bottom of the timelines
stay in the same location at all times, because the boundaries are not moving.

Note: For steady flow, streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines are all identical. However, for unsteady
flow, these three flow patterns can be quite different. In a steady flow, all particles passing a given
point will continue to trace out the same path since nothing changes with time; hence the pathlines
and streaklines coincide. In addition, the velocity vector of a particle at a given point will be tangent
to the line that the particle is moving along; thus the line is also a streamline.

7
C. Elementary Equations of Motion

In analyzing fluid motion, we might take one of two approaches: (1) seeking to describe the detailed
flow pattern at every point (x,y,z) in the field, or (2) working with a finite region, making a balance
of flow in versus flow out, and determining gross flow effects such as the force, or torque on a body,
or the total energy exchange. The second approach is the "control-volume" method and is the
subject of this section. The first approach is the "differential" approach and will be covered in a
higher level fluid mechanics course.

We shall derive the three basic control-volume relations in fluid mechanics:

 the principle of conservation of mass, from which the continuity equation is developed;
 the principle of conservation of energy, from which the energy equation is derived;
 the principle of conservation of linear momentum, from which equations evaluating dynamic
forces exerted by flowing fluids may be established.

1) Control volume

 A control volume is a finite region, chosen carefully by

the analyst for a particular problem, with open boundaries
through which mass, momentum, and energy are allowed
to cross. The analyst makes a budget, or balance, between
the incoming and outgoing fluid and the resultant changes
within the control volume. Therefore one can calculate
the gross properties (net force, total power output, total
heat transfer, etc.) with this method.
 With this method, however, we do not care about the details inside the control volume (In
other words we can treat the control volume as a "black box.")
 For the sake of the present analysis, let us consider a control volume that can be a tank,
reservoir or a compartment inside a system, and consists of some definite one-dimensional
inlets and outlets, like the one shown below:

Let us denote for each of the inlets and outlets:-

V = velocity of fluid in a stream

A = sectional area of a stream
p = pressure of the fluid in a stream
 = density of the fluid

Then, the volume flow rate, or discharge (volume

of flow crossing a section per unit time) is given by

Q  VA

Similarly, the mass flow rate (mass of flow crossing a section per unit time) is given by

m  VA  Q

Then, the momentum flux, defined as the momentum of flow crossing a section per unit time,
is given by mV .

 For simplicity, we shall from here on consider steady and incompressible flows only.

8
2) Continuity equation

By steadiness, the total mass of fluid contained in the control volume must be invariant with time.
Therefore there must be an exact balance between the total rate of flow into the control volume and
that out of the control volume:
Total Mass Outflow = Total Mass Inflow
which translates into the following mathematical relation
M N

  iVi Ai in    iVi Ai out

i 1 i 1

where M is the number of inlets, and N is the number of outlets. If the density of fluid is constant,
conservation of mass also implies conservation of volume. Hence for a control volume with only
one-dimensional inlets and outlets,

M N M N

 V A 
i 1
i i in   Vi Ai out
i 1
or  Q 
i 1
i in    Qi out
i 1

(2)

(1)

For example, in a pipe of varying cross sectional area, the continuity equation requires that, if the
density is constant, between any two sections 1 and 2 along the pipe

Q  V1 A1  V2 A2  constant

Another example involving two inlets and one outlet is shown below.

9
3) Bernoulli and energy equations

Let us first derive the Bernoulli equation, which is one of the most well-known equations of motion
in fluid mechanics, and yet is often misused. It is thus important to understand its limitations, and
the assumptions made in the derivation.

The assumptions can be summarized as follows:

 Inviscid flow (ideal fluid, frictionless)
 Steady flow (unsteady Bernoulli equation will not be discussed in this course)
 Along a streamline
 Constant density (incompressible flow)
 No shaft work or heat transfer

The Bernoulli equation is based on the application of Newton's law of motion to a fluid element on a
streamline.

Let us consider the motion of a fluid element of length ds and cross-sectional area dA moving at a
local speed V, and x is a horizontal axis and z is pointing vertically upward. The forces acting on the
element are the pressure forces pdA and  p  dp  dA , and the weight w as shown. Summing forces
in the direction of motion, the s-direction, there results

pdA   p  dp  dA   g ds dA cos    ds dA as

where as is the acceleration of the element in the s-direction. Since the flow is steady, only
convective acceleration exists
dV
as  V
ds
Also, it is easy to see that cos  dz / ds . On substituting and dividing the equation by gdA, we can
obtain Euler's equation:
dp V
 dz  dV  0
g g

Note that Euler's equation is valid also for compressible flow.

10
Now if we further assume that the flow is incompressible so that the density is constant, we may
integrate Euler's equation to get

p V2
z  constant
g 2g

This is the Bernoulli equation, consisting of three energy heads

p
Pressure head, which is the work done to move fluid against pressure
g

Elevation head, representing the potential energy; z can be measured above any
z
reference datum

V2
Velocity head, representing the kinetic energy
2g

 A head corresponds to energy per unit weight of flow and has dimensions of length.
 Piezometric head = pressure head + elevation head, which is the level registered by a
piezometer connected to that point in a pipeline.
 Total head = piezometric head + velocity head.

It follows that for ideal steady flow the total energy head is constant along a streamline, but the
constant may differ in different streamlines. (For the particular case of irrotational flow, the
Bernoulli constant is universal throughout the entire flow field.)

Applying the Bernoulli equation to any two points on the same streamline, we have

p1 V2 p V2
 z1  1  2  z2  2
g 2g  g 2g

There is similarity in form between the Bernoulli equation and the energy equation that can be
derived directly from the first law of thermodynamics. Without getting into the derivation, the
energy equation for a control volume with only one inlet (section 1) and one outlet (section 2) can be
written as
p1 V2 p V2
 z1  1  2  z2  2  Ws  hL
g 2g  g 2g

where Ws is the shaft work, or the rate of work transmitted by rotation shafts (such as that of a pump
or turbine; positive if output to a turbine, negative if input by a pump) that are cut by the control
surface, and hL , called the head loss, is the sum of energy losses required to overcome viscous
forces in the fluid (dissipated in the form of thermal energy) and the heat transfer rate. In the
absence of these two terms, the energy equation is identical to the Bernoulli equation. We must
remember however that the Bernoulli equation is a momentum equation applicable to a streamline
and the energy equation above is applied between two sections of a flow. The energy equation is
more general than the Bernoulli equation, because it allows for (1) friction, (2) heat transfer, (3) shaft
work, and (4) viscous work (another frictional effect).

11
4) Momentum equation

On applying Newton's second law of motion to the control volume shown on page 8, we get

   
M N

 F   iVi AVi i
i 1
out
  iVi AV
i 1
i i
in

   
M N
  mV
i i   mV
i i
out in
i 1 i 1

Note that this equation

 follows from the principle of conservation of linear momentum: resultant force on the control
volume is balanced by the net change of momentum flux (i.e., mV ) on getting out through
the control surface.
 is a vector equation. Components of the forces and the velocities need to be considered.
 can be used to calculate the magnitude and direction of the impact force exerted on the
control volume by its solid boundary.

Further consider a steady-flow situation in which there is only one entrance (section 1) and one exit
(section 2) across which uniform profiles can be assumed (see the figure on page 9). By continuity

m1  m2  Q  mass flow rate

The momentum equation now reduces to  F  Q V 2  V1 

or in terms of their components in  x, y, z  coordinates

F x   Q Vx 2  Vx 1 

F   Q Vy   Vy  
y  2 1

F z   Q Vz 2  Vz 1 

where Vx 1 is the x-component of the velocity at section 1, and so on.

On applying the momentum equation, one needs to pay attention to the following two aspects.

Forces
 F represents all forces acting on the control volume, including
 Surface forces resulting from the surrounding acting on the control volume:
o Impact force, which is usually the unknown to be found, on the control surface in
contact with a solid boundary
o Pressure force on the control surface which cuts a flow inlet or exit. Remember that
the pressure force is always a compressive force.
 Body force that results from gravity.

Sign of the vector variables

When plugging into the equations, one should be careful about the sign of the force and velocity
components. These quantities should carry a positive (negative) sign when they are in the same
(opposite) sense as that of the corresponding coordinate.

12
D. Applications of the Bernoulli and Momentum Equations

1) Pitot tube

If a stream of uniform velocity flows into a blunt body, the streamlines take a pattern similar to this:

Streamlines around blunt bodies

Note how some move to the left and some to the right. But one, in the centre, goes to the tip of the
blunt body and stops. It stops because at this point the velocity is zero - the fluid does not move at
this one point. This point is known as the stagnation point.

From the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the pressure at this point. Apply Bernoulli equation
along the central streamline from a point upstream where the velocity is V1 and the pressure p1 to
the stagnation point of the blunt body where the velocity is zero, V2  0 . Also z1  z2 .

p1 V12 p2 V2 2 1
 z1    z2   p2  p1  V12
g 2g  g 2g 2

This increase in pressure, which brings the fluid to rest, is called the dynamic pressure.

Dynamic pressure = V12 / 2

or converting this to head (using h  p /  g )
Dynamic head = V12 / 2 g

The total pressure is known as the stagnation pressure (or total pressure)

Stagnation pressure = p1  V12 / 2

or in terms of head,
Stagnation head = p1 /  g  V12 / 2 g

The blunt body stopping the fluid does not have to be a solid. It could be a static column of fluid.
Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube within the pipe can be used in an
arrangement shown below to measure velocity of flow.

13
 A Piezometer and a Pitot tube.

Using the above theory, we have the equation for p2 ,

1 1
p2  p1  V12   gH   gh  V 2  V  2 g  H  h 
2 2

which is an expression for velocity obtained from two pressure measurements and the application of
the Bernoulli equation. This equation is for ideal flow only. To account for real fluid effects, the
equation can be modified into V  Cv 2 g  H  h  , where Cv is the coefficient of velocity to be
determined empirically.

A Pitot tube used to measure velocity of flow in a channel.

A Pitot tube underneath the wing of an aircraft.

14
2) Pitot static tube

The necessity of one piezometer and one Pitot tube and

thus two readings make this arrangement a little
awkward. Connecting the two tubes to a manometer
would simplify things but there are still two tubes. The
Pitot static tube combines the tubes, and they can then
be easily connected to a differential manometer. A
Pitot static tube is shown here. The holes on the side of 1
the tube connect to one side of a manometer and 2
register the static head, (h1), while the central hole is
1
connected to the other side of the manometer to X
register, as before, the stagnation head (h2). The h
difference of the two heads, being the dynamic head, is A B

now measured directly by the differential manometer.

Close-up of a Pitot static tube.

Consider the pressures on the level of the centre line of the Pitot static tube and using the theory of
the manometer,
p A  p2   gX
pB  p1   g  X  h    man gh
But p A  pB
or p2  p1    man    gh

We also know that p2  p1  V 2 / 2 . Hence

2 gh  man   
Videal  and Vactual  CvVideal


The Pitot/Pitot-static tubes give velocities at points in the flow. It does not give the overall discharge
of the stream, which is often what is wanted. It also has the drawback that it is liable to block easily,
particularly if there is significant debris in the flow.
15
3) Orifice and vena contracta

We are to consider the flow from a tank through a hole on a side wall. The general arrangement and
a close-up of the hole and streamlines are shown in the figure below.

(1)

(3)
h
(2) (3)

vena contracta

Tank and streamlines of flow out of a sharp-edged orifice

The hole is sharp-edged so as to minimize frictional losses by minimizing the contact between the
hole and the liquid issuing from the hole.

Looking at the streamlines you can see how they contract after the orifice to a minimum cross
section where they all become parallel, at this point, the velocity and pressure are uniform across the
jet. This convergence is called the vena contracta (from the Latin 'contracted vein'). It is necessary
to know the amount of contraction to allow us to calculate the flow.

We can predict the velocity at the orifice using the Bernoulli equation. Apply it along the streamline
joining point 1 on the surface to point 3 at the centre of the vena contracta.

At the surface velocity is negligible (V1 = 0) and the pressure atmospheric (p1 = 0). Outside the
orifice the jet is open to the air so again the pressure is atmospheric (p3 = 0). If we take the datum
line through the orifice then z1 = h and z3 =0, leaving

V32
h  V3  Videal  2 gh
2g

16
This is the theoretical value of velocity. Unfortunately it will be an over-estimate of the real velocity
because friction losses have not been taken into account. To incorporate friction we use the
coefficient of velocity to correct the theoretical velocity,

Vactual  CvVideal

Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity Cv, which usually lies in the range (0.97 - 0.99).

To calculate the discharge through the orifice we multiply the area of the jet by the velocity. The
actual area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not the area of the orifice. We obtain this area
by using a coefficient of contraction Cc for the orifice:

Aactual  Cc Aorifice

So the discharge through the orifice is given by

Q  AV
 Qactual  AactualVactual  CcCv AorificeVideal  Cd Aorifice 2 gh

where Cd is the coefficient of discharge, and Cd = Cc Cv.

Typical flow patterns and contraction coefficients for various round exit configurations

4) Venturi, nozzle and orifice meters

The Venturi-, nozzle- and orifice-meters are three similar types of devices for measuring discharge in
a pipe. The Venturi meter consists of a rapidly converging section, which increases the velocity of
flow and hence reduces the pressure. It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a gently
diverging 'diffuser' section. By measuring the pressure differences the discharge can be calculated.
This is a particularly accurate method of flow measurement as energy losses are very small.

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The nozzle meter or flow nozzle is essentially a Venturi meter with the convergent part replaced by a
nozzle installed inside the pipe and the divergent part omitted. The orifice meter is a still simpler and
cheaper arrangement by which a sharp-edged orifice is fitted concentrically in the pipe.

Schematic arrangements for three types of devices measuring flow-rate in a pipe

A Venturi meter in laboratory.

The working formulae are similar for the three devices. Let us for illustration show the one for the
Venturi meter. Applying the Bernoulli equation along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the
narrow throat of the Venturi meter, we have

p1 V2 p V2
 z1  1  2  z2  2
g 2g  g 2g
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By using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity V2, Q  AV
1 1  A2V2 or V2  AV
1 1 / A2 .

Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get

 p  p2 
2g  1  z1  z2 
V1   g 
 A1 / A2   1
2

To get the theoretical discharge this is multiplied by the area. To get the actual discharge taking in to
account the losses due to friction, we include a coefficient of discharge

 p  p2 
2g  1  z1  z2 
Qideal  AV Qactual  Cd Qideal  Cd AV  g 
1 1; 1 1  Cd A1
 A1 / A2   1
2

Suppose a differential manometer is connected between (1) and (2). Then the terms inside the square
brackets can be related to the manometer reading h as given by

p1  p2  
p1   gz1  p2  man gh   g  z2  h    z1  z2  h  man  1
g   

Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading:

 
2 gh  man  1
Qactual  Cd A1   
 A1 / A2   1
2

Notice how this expression does not include any terms for the elevation or orientation (z1 or z2) of the
Venturi meter. This means that the meter can be at any convenient angle to function.

The purpose of the diffuser in a Venturi meter is to assure gradual and steady deceleration after the
throat. This is designed to ensure that the pressure rises again to something near to the original value
before the Venturi meter. The angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8 degrees. Wider than
this and the flow might separate from the walls resulting in increased friction and energy and
pressure loss. If the angle is less than this the meter becomes very long and pressure losses again
become significant. The efficiency of the diffuser of increasing pressure back to the original is rarely
greater than 80%.

It should be noted that in deriving a formula for a discharge measuring device (Venturi, nozzle,
orifice meters, etc), assumptions are taken to simplify the situations so that the Bernoulli equation
can be applied. For example, there is no energy loss and the flow is steady. In this way, exact
analytical solutions can be obtained, but as the assumptions are not exactly true, these solutions fail
to account for the real situations. Empirical coefficients such as Cv, Cd are therefore introduced to
allow for these errors. The final formula will be an analytical solution modified by an empirical
coefficient. On the other hand, the value of the empirical coefficient can also reflect the justification
of using the ideal approach. Cd for orifice meter is far below unity (0.6-0.65), while Cd for nozzles
and venturi meters are close to one (approximately 0.98). It shows that energy loss is rather
substantial in an orifice meter, as is expected from its abrupt configuration.

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5) Force on a pipe nozzle

Let us from here on consider several applications of the momentum

equations. A simple application is to find the force on the nozzle at
the outlet of a pipe. Because the fluid is contracted at the nozzle
forces are induced in the nozzle. Anything holding the nozzle (e.g.
a fireman) must be strong enough to withstand these forces.

Steps in analysis:
1. Draw a control volume
2. Decide on a coordinate-axis system
3. Calculate the rate of change of momentum across the control volume
4. Calculate the pressure force Fp
5. Calculate the body force FB
6. Calculate the resultant reaction force FR

1 & 2. Control volume and co-ordinate axis are shown in the figure below.

A1
V1
p1 A2, V2
FR
Notice how this is a one-dimensional system which greatly simplifies matters.

3. Calculate the change of momentum flux (RHS of the momentum equation)

 F  Q V 2  V1 

By continuity, Q  AV
1 1  A2V2 , so

 1 1
 F  Q 2
  
 A2 A1 

4. Calculate the pressure force (red arrows)

Fp  pressure force at 1  pressure force at 2  p1 A1  p2 A2

We use the Bernoulli equation to calculate the pressure

p1 V2 p V2
 z1  1  2  z2  2
g 2g  g 2g

Since the nozzle is horizontal, z1 = z2, and the pressure outside is atmospheric, p2 = 0, and with
continuity the Bernoulli equation gives
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 Q2  1 1 
p1   2 2
2  A2 A1 
 Q 2 A1  1 1 
 Fp   2 2
2  A2 A1 

5. Calculate the body force

The only body force is the weight due to gravity in the y-direction - but we need not consider this as
the only forces we are considering are in the x-direction.

6. Calculate the reaction force that the nozzle acts on the fluid (green arrow)

Since the indicated direction of the reaction force is opposite to x-axis, a negative sign is included

 1 1
 F  F R  Fp  FB   Q 2   
 A2 A1 
2
 Q 2 A1  1 1  2 1 1   Q 2  A1 
 FR   2  2   Q       1
2  A2 A1   A2 A1  2 A1  A2 

So the fireman must be able to resist the force of FR .

6) Force due to a two-dimensional jet hitting an inclined plane

Consider a two-dimensional (i.e., very wide in the spanwise direction) jet hitting a flat plate at an
angle . For simplicity gravity and friction are neglected from this analysis.

We want to find the reaction force normal to the plate so we choose the axis system such that it is
normal to the plane.

A2, V2

Fn

A1, V1
A3, V3

A two-dimensional jet hitting an inclined plate.

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We do not know the velocities of flow in each direction. To find these we can apply the Bernoulli
equation

p1 V2 p V2 p V2
 z1  1  2  z2  2  3  z3  3
g 2g  g 2g  g 2g

The height differences are negligible i.e., z1  z2  z3 , and the pressures are all atmospheric = 0. So

V1  V2  V3  V
By continuity
Q1  Q2  Q3  V1 A1  V2 A2  V3 A3
 A1  A2  A3

Using this we can calculate the forces in the same way as before.

1. Calculate the total force in the x-direction.

Remember that the co-ordinate system is normal to the plate.

F x    Q2V2 x  Q3V3 x   QV

1 1x 


but V2 x  V3 x  0 as the jets are parallel to the plate with no component in the x-direction, and
V1x  V cos  , so

F x   QV
1 cos 

2. Calculate the pressure force

All zero as the pressure is everywhere atmospheric.

3.Calculate the body force

As the control volume is small, hence the weight of fluid is small, we can ignore the body forces.

4. Calculate the resultant reaction force

F x   Fn  Fp  FB   QV
1 cos   Fn  QV
1 cos 

which is the force exerted on the fluid by the plate.

We can further find out how much discharge goes along in each direction on the plate. Along the
plate, in the y-direction, the total force must be zero,  Fy  0 , since friction is ignored.

Also in the y-direction: V1 y  V sin  , V2 y  V , V3 y  V , so

F y    Q2V2 y  Q3V3 y   QV

1 1 y   V Q2  Q3  Q1 sin    V  A2  A3  A1 sin  
 2

Setting this to zero, we get

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 0  A2  A3  A1 sin 

and as found earlier we have A1 = A2 + A3, so on solving

 1  sin  
A2  A3  
 1  sin  

Q2 1 Q3 1
by which we readily obtain that    1  sin   ,  1    1  sin  
Q1 2 Q1 2

So we know how the discharge is divided between the two jets leaving the plate.

7) Flow past a pipe bend

Consider the pipe bend shown above. We may first draw a free body diagram for the control volume
with the forces:

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Paying due regard to the positive x and y directions, we may write the summation of forces in these
two directions:

F x  p1 A1  p2 A2 cos   Fx
F y  Fy  p2 A2 sin   W

Relating these components to the net change of momentum flux through the inlet and exit surfaces

x-Direction
p1 A1  p2 A2 cos   Fx  Q V2 cos   V1 

y-Direction
Fy  p2 A2 sin   W  Q V2 sin   0 

From these two equations and using the continuity equation and the Bernoulli equation, we may
calculate the two force components. The magnitude and direction of the resultant force from the
bend on the fluid are

F  Fx2  Fy2
  tan 1  Fy / Fx 

As a reaction, the impact force on the pipe bend is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction to
the one on the fluid.

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E. Solution of Problems Selected from the Textbook

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