Name: Jessica Bobenhausen

Due Date: 01-30-2025

Dr. Lakeisha Cole
KIN 232

Week Four Homework

Chapter 8- Alcohol
Student Learning objectives:
1. Describe the sources of alcohol (ethanol) and the calories it provides.
Ethanol is the form of alcohol contained in beverages and is manufactured by fermenting
the sugars present in foods such as grains, fruits, and vegetables. It supplies 7 calories per
gram, which is a high amount of energy.

2. Define the terms alcoholic drink equivalent and moderate drinking.

One alcoholic drink equivalent is the standard amount of alcohol that is contained in a
different class of alcoholic beverages. It can be a glass of regular beer-about 12 oz, or 5%
alcohol-5 oz of wine-about 12% alcohol-or 1.5 oz of distilled spirits-about 40% alcohol.
Moderate drinking is defined as up to 1 drink per day for women and up to 2 drinks per
day for men.

3. Outline the process of alcohol absorption, transport, and metabolism.

The digestive system, both the stomach and small intestine, absorbs ethanol into the
blood rapidly. Through blood, it is transported to different organs, especially the liver, for
metabolism. Alcohol is catabolized mainly in the liver by way of enzymes, namely alcohol
dehydrogenase or ADH and the microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system or MEOS. If too much
cannot be metabolized, it gets circulated in the blood.

4. Explain how alcohol consumption affects blood alcohol concentration.

Blood alcohol concentration is the level of alcohol in the blood. It increases when alcohol is
absorbed at a faster rate than it is metabolized. The rate at which alcohol is absorbed
depends on the type of beverage, whether there is food in the stomach, and individual
metabolic factors. BAC depends on the amount of alcohol consumed, and higher BAC
levels indicate greater intoxication.

5. Define binge drinking and describe the problems associated with it.
Binge drinking is defined as consuming an excessive amount of alcohol in a short period,
usually 4 or more drinks for women and 5 or more for men within 2 hours. Problems
associated with binge drinking include alcohol poisoning, impaired judgment, increased
risk of accidents, and long-term health risks such as liver disease and addiction.

6. Discuss potential health risks and benefits of alcohol consumption.

Positive effects of moderate intake of alcohol may include a reduced risk of heart disease
and social interaction. But alcohol also carries some serious health risks, such as liver
 disease, high blood pressure, addiction, and increased risk for many cancers with heavy
drinking.

7. Describe the effects of chronic alcohol use on the body and nutritional status.
Chronic alcohol use can lead to liver damage, including conditions such as fatty liver,
cirrhosis, and liver cancer. It also impairs digestion and the absorption of nutrients, leading
to malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies, and a generally weakened immune system.

8. List the signs of an alcohol use disorder.

Symptoms of AUD include drinking more than intended, an inability to cut down or stop
drinking, spending lots of time drinking or recovering from the effects of alcohol, continued
drinking even when it clearly causes troubles with relationships, health problems,
cravings, withdrawal symptoms, and using alcohol in risky situations.
Knowledge Check 8.1
1. What are the chemical name and formula for the substance we know as alcohol?
The kind of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages is ethanol C2H6O.

2. How does the proof of an alcoholic beverage (e.g., vodka or tequila) relate to its alcohol
content?
The proof of an alcoholic beverage is two times the ABV. Such as, a drink that is 40% ABV
is 80 proof.

3. What is the alcoholic drink equivalent for 8 fl oz of white wine, 12% ABV?
A standard drink of wine is 5 fl oz at 12% ABV, so 8 fl oz equals about 1.6 standard drinks.

4. What 3 ingredients are required for alcoholic fermentation?

Yeast to carry out the fermentation, carbohydrates for the fuel, and an anaerobic
environment to allow fermentation to occur.
Knowledge Check 8.2
1. Which enzyme system is the most important for metabolizing low to moderate
amounts of alcohol?
The most important enzyme system for the metabolism of low to moderate amounts
of alcohol is the alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) pathway.

2. Name 3 factors that can affect alcohol metabolism.

- Gender
- Age
- Liver function

3. How quickly can most people metabolize 1 alcoholic beverage?

Most people can metabolize about 1 alcoholic beverage per hour.

4. Why does binge drinking increase the risk of alcohol poisoning?

Binge drinking increases the onset of alcohol poisoning since metabolism priority
goes to alcohol, therefore, any excess intake may overpower the liver's metabolic
capacity. Most people can metabolize about 1 alcoholic beverage per hour.

Knowledge Check 8.3

 There is no Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check 8.4

1. What are the guidelines for using alcohol safely?
- Never drink and drive.
- If pregnant or contemplating pregnancy, refrain from drinking.
- Pay attention to how alcohol consumption may be affecting your health and
relationships.

2. What are possible benefits of moderate alcohol intake by middle-aged and older
adults?
Moderate alcohol intake, such as the consumption of red wine containing
resveratrol, may be beneficial for heart health and longevity in middle-aged and
older adults.

3. Ingestion of alcohol is related to developing at least 7 different kinds of cancer.

Name 5 of them.
- Liver cancer
- Esophageal cancer
- Breast cancer
- Oral cancer
- Throat cancer

4. Why does persistent alcohol abuse cause liver damage? What are the signs and
symptoms of liver damage?
Chronic alcohol consumption displaces the liver's normal detoxification processes
and is responsible for disorders such as fatty liver, alcoholic hepatitis, and cirrhosis.
These diseases can be accompanied by symptoms such as jaundice (yellowing of
the skin), abdominal pain, and swelling.

5. How does alcohol abuse impair nutritional status?

Alcoholism interfere with nutrient absorption, creates vitamin deficiencies, and
causes extra calories without nutritional value, which can all lead to malnutrition.
Problems with Work and Social.

6. What are the dangers of consuming alcohol during pregnancy?

The fact that alcohol is consumed during pregnancy may lead to fetal alcohol
spectrum disorders, causing birth defects, developmental delays, and intellectual
disabilities.

Knowledge Check 8.5

1. What factors predispose a person to alcohol dependence?
- Drinking more than intended or for longer periods.
- Wanting to cut down or stop drinking but being unsuccessful.
- Spending a lot of time drinking or recovering from its aftereffects.
- Having a strong desire to drink and thinking about it constantly.
- Drinking despite interference with home or family responsibilities or causing
school or work problems.
 - Drinking even though it causes relationship troubles.
- Giving up or reducing participation in important activities to drink.
- Engaging in risky behaviors while drinking.
- Drinking despite it making emotional or physical health problems worse.
- Needing more alcohol to achieve the same effect (tolerance).
- Experiencing withdrawal symptoms when the effects of alcohol wear off.
The severity of AUD is categorized as mild (2-3 symptoms), moderate (4-5 symptoms), or
severe (6 or more symptoms).

2. Why is the age at which a person started drinking alcohol of concern?

It is a concern in terms of the age at which one starts drinking, as early exposure to
alcohol increases risks of alcohol dependence and other long-term health problems.

3. Why might women suffer more ill effects from alcohol consumption than men?
Alcohol might be more damaging to women simply because of the generally higher
percent of body fat and the lower amount of alcohol dehydrogenase. The metabolic
rate is considerably slower, leading to a peak blood alcohol concentration that
occurs later.

4. Which ethnic groups are at increased risk of alcohol-related problems?

Native American Indians – They have the highest level of AUD.
Black individuals - Disproportionately experience alcohol-related health problems as
alcohol-related motor vehicle crashes, liver disease among others.

Both social factors/alcohol availability within the communities, as well as biological

factors/diminished discomfort after drinking with particular discomfort felt by
Asians, seem to explain this disparity.
Study Questions:
1. An 80-proof alcohol is approximately 80% alcohol.
a. true
b. false
Answer B: False

2. A standard drink is defined as the amount that provides approximately 14 g of alcohol.

Which of the following is considered a standard-size drink?
a. 16-ounce beer (5% ABV)
b. 20-ounce wine cooler (7% ABV)
c. 5-ounce glass of wine (12% ABV)
d. 4-ounce pour of hard liquor (80 proof)
Answer C: 5 Ounce Glass of Wine (12% ABV)

3. Alcohol requires no digestion and can enter cells without specific transport
mechanisms.
a. true
b. false
Answer A: True

4. Which of the following is the primary pathway used in the metabolism of alcohol?
a. alcohol dehydrogenase pathway
b. microsomal ethanol oxidizing system
c. catalase pathway
 d. none of the above
Answer A: Alcohol Dehydrogenase Pathway

5. Which of the following affects the metabolism of alcohol?

a. biological sex
b. diet composition
c. ethnicity
d. all of the above
Answer D: All of the above
6. What blood alcohol concentration denotes legal intoxication in the U.S. and Canada?
a. 1.0%
b. 0.08%
c. 0.05%
d. 0.10%
Answer B: 0.08%
7. Compared with individuals who begin drinking alcohol at a legal age, those who begin
drinking as teenagers have higher rates of alcohol use disorders in adulthood.
a. true
b. false
Answer A: True
8. Which of the following would be considered moderate drinking?

a. 1 drink per day for women and 2 drinks per day for men
b. 2 drinks per day for both men and women
c. 2 drinks per day for women and 3 drinks per day for men
d. 4 drinks on any single occasion for men and women
Answer A: 1 Drink per day for woman and 2 Drinks per day for men
9. In moderation, alcohol may help raise HDL-cholesterol.
a. true
b. false
Answer A: True
10.Risk of cancer of the _____________ increases greatly with high alcohol consumption.
a. esophagus
b. lung
c. bone
d. all of the above
Answer A: Esophagus
11.The first stage of alcoholic liver disease is _____________.
a. cirrhosis
b. alcoholic hepatitis
c. steatosis
d. inflammation of the liver
Answer C: Steatosis
12.The symptoms of cirrhosis include _____________.
a. abnormal fluid retention
b. jaundice
c. poor nutritional status
d. all of the above
Answer D: All of the above
13.Alcohol intake should be avoided during pregnancy.
a. true
b. false
Answer A: True
14.Which of the following is not a common nutritional concern in alcoholics?
a. vitamin B-12 deficiency
b. protein-energy malnutrition
c. vitamin A toxicity
d. iron deficiency
Answer C: Vitamin A Toxicity

15.Medications used to treat alcohol dependence act on _____________.

a. the brain to reduce alcohol cravings
b. the liver to block complete metabolism of alcohol
c. the stomach to prevent alcohol absorption
d. both a and b
Answer D: Both A and B
16.What is a standard-size serving of alcohol? How many servings are considered
moderate for men and women?
Answer:
- 12 fl oz of beer (about 5% alcohol)
- 5 fl oz of wine (about 12% alcohol)
- 1.5 fl oz of distilled spirits (about 40% alcohol, such as whiskey, gin, rum, vodka, tequila)
Moderate alcohol consumption
For men: Up to 2 servings per day.
For women: Up to 1 serving per day.
17.Describe how alcohol is metabolized. What is a toxic by-product of alcohol metabolism?
Answer:
The alcohol is metabolized in the liver mainly by two important enzyme systems. Firstly, ethanol
is transformed into a very toxic by-product called acetaldehyde by a chemical reaction mediated
by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH); then, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) further breaks
down acetaldehyde into acetate, which is less harmful and can be used for energy. Acetaldehyde,
the toxic product, causes tissue damage and many of the adverse effects associated with alcohol
consumption.
 18.Define binge drinking, and list 4 problems associated with this practice.
Answer:
Binge drinking is the consumption of a large amount of alcohol in a short period. It is considered
5 or more drinks, usually within about 2 hours, for men, and 4 or more drinks for women. Four
problems associated with binge drinking include an increased risk of alcohol poisoning, injuries
from accidents, such as car crashes or falls; poor decision-making leading to risky behaviors,
including unsafe sex; and long-term health problems, such as liver disease.
19.Describe the health benefits and risks of alcohol use.
Answer:
Moderate alcohol use by middle-aged and older adults may have some health benefits, such as
reducing the risk for heart disease. However, there are numerous risks to alcohol use, including
excessive drinking, liver damage, alcohol poisoning, and increased cancer risk. Other problems
associated with excessive alcohol use include mental health problems, malnutrition, poor
personal relationships, economic problems, violence, injury, legal problems, and impaired work
or school performance. The benefits of health derived from moderate drinking must be weighed
against the large number of health risks associated with excessive use.
20.What criteria may indicate that someone is dependent on alcohol?
Answer:
A person is considered dependent on alcohol if he/she meets at least two of the AUD diagnosis
criteria as stated in the DSM-5. These criteria include alcohol consumption in greater amounts or
over a longer period than intended; wanting to cut down or control drinking but not being able
to; spending a lot of time obtaining alcohol or recovering from its effects; continuing drinking
despite problems with relationships and/or knowing one should cut down or stop; experiencing
shakiness or racing heart if alcohol use is reduced. The severity of AUD is classified based on the
number of symptoms: mild includes 2-3 symptoms, moderate 4-5 symptoms, and severe 6 or
more symptoms.

Chapter 9- Energy Metabolism

Student Learning Objective:
1. Identify the properties of metabolism, catabolism, and anabolism.
Metabolism refers to all chemical changes in the body, particularly those by which
energy is liberated. Catabolism is where complex biomolecules break down into
simpler ones, such that energy is freed. Conversely, anabolism involves
construction from simple biomolecules by inputting energy to form complex
biomolecules.

2. Explain oxidation and reduction reactions.

Oxidation is described as the loss of electrons from a molecule, where reduction
represents a gain of electrons. Sometimes these reactions occur concurrently, with
one molecule being oxidized (losing electrons) and another being reduced (gaining
electrons). This is very significant in terms of energy transfer in cells, with particular
reference to metabolic pathways.
3. Describe how macronutrients and alcohol are transformed into energy via the
metabolic pathways.
Carbohydrates are degraded into glucose, which enters glycolysis, resulting in
pyruvate and finally acetyl-CoA, entering the citric acid cycle to produce ATP. Fats
are degraded into fatty acids, which undergo beta-oxidation to form acetyl-CoA.
Amino acids from proteins are transformed into intermediates that enter either
glycolysis or the citric acid cycle. Alcohol is oxidized through the alcohol
dehydrogenase system, whereby ethanol is converted into acetaldehyde and then
to acetate; the latter is also converted into acetyl-CoA for energy production.

4. Illustrate the metabolic pathways involved in ATP production from carbohydrates

and fats.
For carbohydrates, glucose is converted to pyruvate via glycolysis, which then
undergoes the transition reaction to form acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA enters into the
citric acid cycle in which energy is produced, via the transport electron chain, in the
form of ATP. Fats: The fatty acids undergo a beta-oxidation breakdown to form
acetyl-CoA, after which it enters the citric acid cycle and contributes to the
production of ATP.

5. Discuss how ATP production from protein differs from catabolism of carbohydrate
and fat.
The use of protein primarily goes to build body tissues, but in instances where the
body is undergoing protein catabolism, amino acids undergo deamination-majorly
the removal of nitrogen-and their carbon skeletons enter either glycolysis or the
citric acid cycle. Unlike carbohydrates and fats, protein is not a prime energy source
and does not directly enter pathways that produce ATP unless its use is required for
energy.

6. Describe the process of gluconeogenesis.

Gluconeogenesis is generally defined as the production of glucose by non-
carbohydrate precursors, mainly amino acids, and glycerol. It primarily takes place
in the liver and supplies blood glucose during fasting or starvation.

7. Describe how the body metabolizes alcohol.

Alcohol is primarily metabolized in the liver through the action of the alcohol
dehydrogenase system. Ethanol is oxidized to acetaldehyde, then to acetate, and
finally into acetyl-CoA, which can enter the citric acid cycle for ATP production.
MEOS also contributes to the metabolism of alcohol in chronic consumption.
8. Summarize how fed and fasted states affect energy metabolism.
Anabolism, during the fed state, deposits energy in the form of glycogen and fat.
Energy from digested carbohydrates, fats, and proteins supplies the immediate
needs of the body. During the fasting state, the body begins to catabolize; that is,
break down, stored glycogen and fat for energy. Gluconeogenesis kicks in to
maintain blood glucose levels.

9. Recognize the common inborn errors of metabolism.

Inborn errors of metabolism are usually genetic disorders wherein abnormal
metabolic reactions occur. Classic examples include PKU (phenylketonuria), a
condition wherein individuals cannot metabolize phenylalanine, and galactosemia,
 wherein galactose cannot be properly metabolized because of toxic buildup within
the body. These conditions require special dietary management to avoid severe
health issues.

Knowledge Check 9.1

1. What is the main form of energy used by the body?
Carbohydrates, fatty acids, amino acids, and glucose are utilized by the body
as main sources of energy. The type of energy changed based on the status
of the body, either at rest or in action.

2. Describe a time when the body may be more catabolic than anabolic.
The body is more catabolic than anabolic during fasting, physical stress, or
intensive exercise where the energy demand surpasses the supply, which
leads to the destruction of stored compounds like glycogen and fat.

3. What is the difference between oxidation and reduction reactions?

Oxidation no doubt means losing electrons whereas reduction involves
gaining electrons. In most of the metabolic reactions, when there is oxidation,
it usually involves the loss of hydrogen atoms. On the other hand, it can be
said that reduction adds hydrogen atoms to a molecule.

4. What is the function of a coenzyme?

A coenzyme assists enzymes in catalyzing chemical reactions, often by
carrying electrons or atoms between reactions. The most critical coenzymes
involved in cellular respiration processes are niacin (NAD) and riboflavin
(FAD).
Knowledge Check 9.2 Pt 1
1. What is the goal of glycolysis?
The purpose of glycolysis is to break down glucose, a 6-carbon sugar, into
smaller molecules, producing ATP and NADH, which are energy-rich
molecules. It is the first step in energy production during the degradation of
nutrients from food before it continues with subsequent metabolic pathways.

2. How many 3-carbon compounds are made from a 6-carbon glucose molecule?
Glycolysis converts one 6-carbon molecule of glucose into two 3-carbon
molecules, named pyruvate.

3. What is the end product of glycolysis?

The end product of glycolysis is a 3-carbon molecule known as pyruvate.

4. Which vitamins are involved in the transition reaction?

In transition, the associated vitamins are nicotinic acid in the form of NAD and
riboflavin as FAD acting as coenzymes in pyruvate to acetyl-CoA inter-
conversion.
Knowledge Check 9.2 Pt 2
1. What B-vitamins are needed to convert pyruvate to acetyl-CoA?
The transition reaction needs B-vitamins niacin (NAD) and riboflavin (FAD) to make
the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA.

2. How many NADH + H+ are formed in 1 turn of the citric acid cycle?
In 1 turn of the citric acid cycle, 3 NADH + H+ are generated.

3. What are the end products of the electron transport chain?

The electron transport chain final products include ATP-through the process of
oxidative phosphorylation-water when oxygen accepts electrons, NAD+, FAD are
recycled back to participate in other cellular respiration stages.

4. When is lactate produced?

Lactate is formed when oxygen is absent or in short supply, as during high-intensity
exercise. This is because, under low oxygen conditions, pyruvate is converted to
lactate because there is not enough oxygen to carry out aerobic respiration.

5. How does the Cori cycle help muscles continue to work during high intensity
exercise?
In that respect, high-intensity workouts are supported to keep the working muscles
going because of the role of the Cori cycle-changing lactate developed in muscles to
glucose in the liver. Following that, it is released to the bloodstream, where muscles
break it down further for energy during times when very little oxygen exists.
Knowledge Check 8.3
1. How are fatty acids shuttled into the mitochondria for energy production?
Energy production involves the shuttling of fatty acids into mitochondria through
what is called a carnitine shuttle. Here, FAs are first attached to Coenzyme A to
produce fatty acyl-CoA that enters the mitochondrial matrix with the assistance of
carnitine.

2. What is the end product of beta-oxidation?

The final result of beta-oxidation will be the formation of Acetyl-CoA from the beta-
carbon atom which then joins in the citric acid cycle in the subsequent manufacture
of energy.

3. How do fatty acids enter the citric acid cycle?

Fatty acids reach the citric acid cycle in the form of Acetyl-CoA-molecules produced
during beta-oxidation, a process that degrades the fatty acids into two-carbon
fragments.
 4. What conditions must exist in the body to promote the formation of ketones?
Ketones are synthesized when the carbohydrate availability is low, for example,
during fasting or after long exercise. This forces the use of fat metabolism more
than usual, leading to the production of ketones as alternative energy sources.

Knowledge Check 9.4

1. In order to use amino acids as a fuel, what must happen to the nitrogen attached to
the amino acid?
The nitrogen on the amino acid must be removed in a process called deamination.
This produces ammonia that is then converted into urea and excreted through the
urine.

2. Explain the difference between glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids.

Amino acids that can be converted to glucose by the process of gluconeogenesis
are known as glucogenic amino acids, while those that are reduced to form ketone
bodies are known as ketogenic amino acids and may provide an alternative source
of fuel when carbohydrate intake is low.

3. What part of the amino acid is used in the metabolic pathways?

In these metabolic pathways, the amino acid carbon skeleton is used to generate
energy. After deamination, the carbon skeleton can enter glycolysis, the citric acid
cycle, or be used for gluconeogenesis.

4. What is the name of the pathway that converts amino acids to glucose?
Gluconeogenesis is the pathway through which amino acids are converted to
glucose.

5. Can fat be used to synthesize glucose? Why or why not?

No, glucose synthesis cannot utilize fat due to the breakdown product of fatty acids
into Acetyl-CoA, which is not convertible to glucose. However, the backbone of
triglycerides, glycerol, can be converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis.

Knowledge Check 8.5

1. Where does alcohol dehydrogenase catabolize alcohol?
Most ethanol is catabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) in the liver to form
acetaldehyde, although some catabolism occurs minorly in the stomach and in
other tissues.

2. When is the ADH system used to metabolize alcohol versus the MEOS system?
It mainly utilizes the ADH system for the metabolism of low to moderate amounts of
alcohol. By contrast, larger quantities of alcohol consumption are metabolized
through the MEOS system when the consumption surpasses the capacity of the liver
to metabolize alcohol via the ADH pathway, which, in general, is especially
consumed chronically.
 3. In addition to the ADH and MEOS pathways, what other pathway allows the
metabolism of alcohol?
Another pathway that alcohol can take in metabolism is the catalase pathway. It is
mediated through the enzyme catalase, located in the liver and other tissues, in
breaking down alcohol. However, compared to ADH and MEOS, it contributes a
minor proportion.

Knowledge Check 9.6

1. Where does glycolysis take place in a cell?
Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cell.

2. What factors determine the regulation of glycolysis and citric acid cycle pathways?
Regulation of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle depends on factors like enzyme
activity, substrate availability, and allosteric regulators such as ATP, ADP, NADH,
and NAD+. Beyond that, insulin and glucagon are two of the major hormones that
can change the direction of these pathways, depending on what the energy needs
of the cell are.

3. How do ATP concentrations regulate metabolism?

Cellular metabolism is directly influenced by the concentration of ATP through
feedback inhibition. High cellular levels of ATP indirectly mean that the cell energy is
sufficient, signaling a decrease in the activities of the key enzymes in the glycolysis
and citric acid cycle pathways. When ATP levels decrease, these enzymes are
activated to up energy production.
Knowledge Check 9.7
1. What are the characteristics of inborn errors of metabolism?
Inborn errors of metabolism are genetic disorders that arise due to changes in either
enzymes or transport proteins involved in metabolic pathways. The defects result in
an accumulation or deficiency of certain metabolites, and when untreated they
usually cause typical physical or mental health problems. Symptoms begin usually
early in life and are lifelong; management involves dietary changes and/or enzyme
replacement therapies.

2. What is the cause of PKU?

PKU is caused by a defect in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, usually
responsible for the conversion of the amino acid phenylalanine to tyrosine. Without
the enzyme, toxic levels of phenylalanine can accumulate in the blood and cause
severe neurological damage unless treated by dietary restriction. Some genetic
disorders are multifactorial.

3. What dietary restrictions must those with galactosemia observe?

The individuals with galactosemia should avoid intake of any food which contains
galactose, being a sugar carried in milk, mainly prepared from dairy products. It not
 only includes milk and cheese but those foods that are made up of milk constituents
comprising lactose. Dietary management is highly essential to prevent liver
damage, cataracts, and intellectual disability.

Study Questions
1. The energy currency for the body is ______________.
a. NAD
b. FAD
c. TCA
d. ATP
Answer D: ATP

2. Glycolysis is a biochemical pathway that ______________.

a. breaks down glucose
b. produces energy
c. takes place in the cytosol
d. all of the above
Answer D: All of the above

3. Glycolysis begins with ______________ and ends with ______________.

a. pyruvate; water
b. pyruvate; glucose
c. glucose; pyruvate
d. pyruvate; acetyl-CoA
Answer C: Glucose; Pyruvate

4. When muscle tissue is exercising under anaerobic conditions, the production of

______________ is important because it assures a continuous supply of NAD.
a. glucose 6-phosphate
b. pyruvate
c. lactate
d. glycogen
Answer C: Lactate

5. The net ATP production in glycolysis is ______________.

a. 1 ADP
b. 2 ATP
c. 4 FADH
d. 2 GTP
e. none of the above
Answer B: 2 ATP

6. The common pathway for the oxidation of glucose and fatty acid is ______________.
a. glycolysis
b. the urea cycle
c. the citric acid cycle
 d. ketosis
Answer C: The citric acid cycle

7. The oxidation of fatty acids occurs in the ______________.

a. cell membrane
b. mitochondria
c. nucleus
d. cytosol
Answer B: Mitochondria

Match the definitions on the right with the terms on the left.

8. beta-oxidation
Answer B: Breakdown of fat to 2-carbon units called acetyl-CoA

9. ketosis
Answer D: Formation of excess ketone bodies

10.electron transport chain

Answer E: Electrons transferred back and forth to make ATP

11. gluconeogenesis
Answer C: Synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources

12. glycolysis
Answer A: Breakdown of glucose to pyruvate

13.Metabolism is regulated by ______________.

a. hormones
b. enzymes
c. the energy status of the body
d. all of the above
Answer D: All of the above

14.During periods of starvation, the body uses protein as a fuel source for the brain and
central nervous system in a pathway called gluconeogenesis.
a. true
b. false
Answer A: True

15.Insulin is ______________.
a. a coenzyme in the glycolytic pathway
b. a cofactor needed for gluconeogenesis
c. an anabolic hormone
d. a catabolic hormone
Answer C: An anabolic Hormone
16.The electron transport chain is a series of biochemical reactions that transfers the
energy in NADH + H+ and FADH2 to ______________.
a. iron and copper
b. oxygen
c. ATP
d. ketones
Answer C: ATP

17.Which of the following is an end product of the electron transport chain?

a. glucose
b. ketones
c. water
d. amino acids
Answer C: Water

18.Before protein becomes an energy source, what must be removed from the molecule?
a. acid
b. nitrogen
c. R group
d. carbons
Answer B: Nitrogen

19.When a chemical compound becomes oxidized, it ______________ electrons.

a. gains
b. loses
c. converts
d. inverts
Answer B: Loses

20.What is the “common denominator” compound of many pathways of energy

metabolism (citric acid cycle, glycolysis, beta-oxidation)? Why is it considered
important in the body’s metabolism?
Answer:
Acetyl-CoA is the "common denominator" compound. It is the major connecting
substance between the different metabolic pathways and therefore assumes a key
position in metabolism, including the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), glycolysis, and
beta-oxidation. Acetyl-CoA has an important function in the generation of ATP and in
maintaining metabolic homeostasis by interlinking carbohydrate, fat, and protein
metabolisms.

21.Describe the process of glycolysis.

Answer:
Glycolysis is the process by which one molecule of glucose, a 6-carbon molecule, is
converted into two molecules of pyruvate, a 3-carbon molecule, in the cytoplasm. This
pathway involves 10 steps. It results in the net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules. It
does not require oxygen and is the first step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

22.Explain why most fatty acids cannot become glucose.

 Answer:
Most of the fatty acids are not converted into glucose because beta-oxidation of most
of them results in acetyl-CoA, and acetyl-CoA cannot be regenerated into glucose. The
carbons present in the fatty acids are too big to enter the pathway of gluconeogenesis,
which requires only three-carbon compounds that can be transformed into glucose
precursors, such as pyruvate or glucogenic amino acids.

23.Trace the steps of gluconeogenesis from body protein to the formation of glucose.
Answer:
In the process of gluconeogenesis, amino acids-mostly derived from body protein-are
converted into either pyruvate or intermediates of the citric acid cycle. These are then
used to synthesize phosphoenolpyruvate and finally glucose. This process principally
occurs in the liver and is essential for the maintenance of blood-glucose levels during
fasting and starvation, and following a period of strenuous exercise.

24.Describe the metabolism of alcohol.

Answer:
Alcohol is primarily metabolized in the liver through the alcohol dehydrogenase system.
Alcohol is reduced by ethanol to acetaldehyde. This is further oxidized into acetate
through acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and later into acetyl-CoA that enters the
tricarboxylic acid cycle for the production of energy. The oxidation of alcohol in the liver
involves, besides, the microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system, especially when chronic
drinking comes into play.

25.Identify the vitamins and minerals used in ATP synthesis.

Answer:
Most importantly, however, B-vitamins, especially niacin (NAD) and riboflavin (FAD),
play critical roles in carrying electrons in the oxidation-reduction reactions of ATP
synthesis. Magnesium is also an important participant in ATP activity due to its
involvement in stabilizing the molecule. These nutrients support processes in the
electron transport chain and other parts of cellular respiration.

26.Describe how ketones are produced in the body and how fasting can increase ketone
production.
Answer:
Ketones are synthesized in the liver under conditions of fasting, low-carbohydrate diets,
or long, extensive exercise when carbohydrate availability is low. Fatty acids result in
the production of acetyl-CoA, which then condenses to form the ketone bodies
acetoacetate, acetone, and beta-hydroxybutyrate. During fasting, there is an increased
formation of ketones because the body now has to utilize fat as the major source of
energy.

27.Explain how metabolism is altered in cancer cells.

Answer:
Most of the cancerous cells exhibit a changed metabolism, preferring anaerobic
glycolysis-the Warburg effect-even in environments with available oxygen. This shift
enables the cancerous cells to produce ATP and building blocks rapidly, promoting their
 growth and survival, although at the cost of reduced energy efficiency. It further leads
to an increased production of lactate, adding to the acidic microenvironment around
the tumor.

28.Describe dietary restrictions for those with PKU.

Answer:
Individuals with phenylketonuria have to limit the consumption of an amino acid called
phenylalanine, which is abundant in certain foods rich in proteins like meat, dairy, and
eggs. They should also avoid food with artificial sweeteners such as aspartame since
these contain phenylalanine. Diet management will help to prevent the build-up of
phenylalanine in the body, thereby causing neurological damage.