FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 7-112

October 2024
Page 1 of 33

LITHIUM-ION BATTERY MANUFACTURING AND STORAGE

Table of Contents
Page

1.0 SCOPE ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Hazards ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.1.1 Thermal Runaway .................................................................................................................. 3
1.1.2 Abuse ..................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.3 Fire ......................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.4 Reignition ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1.5 Explosion ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 Changes ............................................................................................................................................ 4
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................... 4
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Construction and Location ................................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Occupancy ......................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 General .................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.2 Ventilation ................................................................................................................................ 6
2.4 Protection ........................................................................................................................................... 7
2.4.1 General .................................................................................................................................... 7
2.4.2 Formation and Aging Areas ..................................................................................................... 7
2.4.3 Finished Cells/Modules/Batteries - Incidental Storage .......................................................... 11
2.4.4 Cells/Modules/Batteries in Finished Products — Storage .................................................... 13
2.4.5 New or Refurbished Cells/Modules/Batteries – Storage ..................................................... 13
2.4.6 Returned/Defective/Off-Specification/Damaged Cells/Modules/Batteries - Storage ............. 17
2.4.7 Storage in Automatic Storage and Retrieval Systems (ASRS) ........................................... 17
2.5 Equipment and Processes .............................................................................................................. 18
2.6 Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 18
2.7 Training ............................................................................................................................................ 19
2.8 Human Factors ............................................................................................................................... 19
2.9 Ignition Source Control .................................................................................................................... 20
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 20
3.1 Cell Manufacturing Process ............................................................................................................. 20
3.2 Cell Chemistry ................................................................................................................................. 20
3.3 Manufacturing Protection ................................................................................................................. 21
3.4 Lithium-Ion Cell/Module/Battery Storage ......................................................................................... 21
3.4.1 Lithium-Ion Cell Fire Testing and Cell Types ........................................................................ 21
3.4.2 Cartoned Lithium-Ion Cells and Modules .............................................................................. 22
3.4.3 State of Charge ..................................................................................................................... 22
3.5 Loss History ..................................................................................................................................... 23
3.5.1 Illustrative Losses .................................................................................................................. 23
4.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 23
4.1 FM ................................................................................................................................................... 23
4.2 Other ............................................................................................................................................... 24
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................... 24
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ....................................................................................... 26
APPENDIX C LITHIUM-ION BATTERY INFORMATION ............................................................................. 26
C.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 26
C.2 Types of Lithium-Ion Batteries ........................................................................................................ 26
C.2.1 Cells ...................................................................................................................................... 26
C.2.2 Modules ................................................................................................................................ 28

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7-112 Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage
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C.3 Failure Modes ................................................................................................................................. 28

C.3.1 Overvoltage ........................................................................................................................... 29
C.3.2 Undervoltage/Over-discharge ............................................................................................... 29
C.3.3 Low Temperature .................................................................................................................. 29
C.3.4 High Temperature ................................................................................................................. 29
C.3.5 Thermal Runaway ................................................................................................................. 29
C.3.6 Mechanical Fatigue ............................................................................................................... 30
APPENDIX D LITHIUM-ION CELL MANUFACTURING PROCESS .......................................................... 30
D.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 30
D.2 ELECTRODE MANUFACTURING ................................................................................................. 31
D.2.1 Mixing .................................................................................................................................... 31
D.2.2 Coating .................................................................................................................................. 31
D.2.3 Drying .................................................................................................................................... 31
D.2.4 Calendering ........................................................................................................................... 31
D.2.5 Slitting ................................................................................................................................... 31
D.2.6 Notching ................................................................................................................................ 31
D.2.7 Vacuum Drying ...................................................................................................................... 31
D.3 CELL ASSEMBLY ........................................................................................................................... 32
D.3.1 Separation ............................................................................................................................. 32
D.3.2 Stacking or Winding .............................................................................................................. 32
D.3.3 Welding ................................................................................................................................. 32
D.3.4 Electrolyte Filling ................................................................................................................... 32
D.3.5 Enclosing .............................................................................................................................. 32
D.4 CELL FINISHING ............................................................................................................................ 32
D.4.1 Formation .............................................................................................................................. 32
D.4.2 Aging ..................................................................................................................................... 33
D.4.3 Testing ................................................................................................................................... 33
D.4.4 Packaging ............................................................................................................................. 33
D.4.5 Storage ................................................................................................................................. 33

List of Figures
Fig. 2.4.2.2.1-1. Single-row rack in-rack sprinkler layout for li-ion cells/modules/batteries ........................... 8
Fig. 2.4.2.2.1-2. Double-row rack in-rack sprinkler layout for li-ion cells/modules/batteries .......................... 9
Fig. 2.4.5.4. Example of solid-pile and palletized storage arrangement ...................................................... 15
Fig. 2.4.5.6. Multi-row rack in-rack sprinkler layout for li-ion cells/modules/batteries .................................. 16
Fig. 3.1. Cell manufacturing process ............................................................................................................ 20
Fig. 3.4.1.1. Lithium-ion 18650 cylindrical cells ........................................................................................... 21
Fig. 3.4.1.2. Lithium-ion polymer cells ......................................................................................................... 22
Fig. 3.4.1.3. Lithium-ion power tool packs ................................................................................................... 22
Fig. C.2.1.1. Cylindrical cell form ................................................................................................................. 27
Fig. C.2.1.2. Prismatic cell form .................................................................................................................. 27
Fig. C.2.1.3. Pouch cell form ....................................................................................................................... 27
Fig. C.2.2-A. Module configuration .............................................................................................................. 28
Fig. C.2.2-B. Typical modules within a battery pack for an electric vehicle ................................................. 28
Figure D.1. Example Manufacturing Facility layout ...................................................................................... 30

List of Tables
Table 2.1.3. Manufacturing Hazards and Applicable Data Sheets ................................................................ 5
Table 2.4.3.2. Sprinkler Protection for Low-Piled Storage of Lithium-ion Batteries in Plastic Containers ... 12
Table 2.4.5.1-1. Protection Guidelines for Lithium-Ion Cells/Modules/Batteries in Solid-Piled or
Palletized Storage Arrangements ...................................................................................... 13
Table 2.4.5.1-2. Protection Guidelines for Lithium-Ion Cells/Modules/Batteries in Open-Frame Rack
Storage Arrangements ........................................................................................................ 14

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Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage 7-112
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1.0 SCOPE
This property loss prevention data sheet provides loss prevention guidance for liquid electrolyte-based
lithium-ion batteries (cell/module/battery). The guidance covers cell manufacturing, assembly, testing,
finishing, storage, and end use product assembly and storage. This data sheet references other FM Property
Loss Prevention Data Sheets that address various fire and explosion hazards in this occupancy, but which
are not unique to the lithium-ion cell manufacturing process.
This data sheet does not apply to:
• Energy storage systems (see Data Sheet 5-33, Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems)
• Battery backup units (see Data Sheet 5-32, Data Centers and Related Facilities)
• Finished products in use where the lithium-ion cells or modules are actively being charged and/or
discharged, including electric vehicles (see Data Sheet 3-26, Fire Protection for Nonstorage
Occupancies, for level 1 and 2 chargers; see Data Sheet 5-33, Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage
Systems, for level 3 chargers; since they typically have energy storage systems.)
• Lithium-ion cell recycling
• Manufacturing and storage occupancies that repurpose or provide a second use for lithium-ion cells
• Lithium-metal batteries

1.1 Hazards
Hazards present in the manufacturing of lithium-ion cells are driven by the various manufacturing processes.
The primary hazard is fire, involving combustible materials or ignitable liquids. The manufacturing process
may consist of ignitable liquid mixing and filling, the use of heated rolls and the hydraulics involved to press
materials, cutting and the dust it produces, as well as ovens and solvent recovery. Beyond ignitable liquids,
most of the hazards will be tied to concealed areas with combustibles, the need for environmentally
controlled areas for cell assembly, and the potential to create room or equipment explosion hazards with the
use of ovens and solvent recovery operations.
Once a cell is finished, the fire hazard is then driven by the chemical energy stored in the cell. While some
cell chemistries may have a reduced propensity to enter thermal runaway, they all have an ignitable liquid
electrolyte and can still enter thermal runaway. Therefore, this data sheet does not differentiate fire hazard and
protection guidance based on cell chemistry.

1.1.1 Thermal Runaway

Thermal runaway originates in a cell with an internal short due to internal cell defects, mechanical failures
(e.g., vibration or expansion-contraction cycles) that can lead to mechanical damage, impact damage,
external heating, overvoltage charging or failure of the battery management system (or cell controller).
Thermal runaway leads to high temperatures and gas buildup, with the potential for battery cell rupture that
can lead to fire and/or explosion.
During the thermal runaway process, the cell produces flammable gas that accumulates within the cell or
an enclosure containing the cells or modules. Cells typically have some type of pressure relief vent. Hot vented
gases, when directed toward adjacent cells, may propagate thermal runaway to those cells. Without prompt
action, thermal runaway can cascade from cell to cell causing more damage.

1.1.2 Abuse
Three abuse conditions can potentially lead to thermal runaway or fire in lithium-ion cells: 1) electrical, 2)
thermal and 3) mechanical.
1. Electrical abuse: Cell damage sustained when operating outside the electrical specifications of the cell.
This type of abuse is caused by improper charging or discharging.
2. Thermal abuse: Cell damage sustained due to increased cell temperature outside of normal operating
conditions. This type of abuse can be initiated by electrical abuse or by exposure to high temperatures.
3. Mechanical abuse: Cell damage sustained by physical impact.

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Additionally, an internal short circuit (ISC) can occur due to any of these three abuse conditions or from a
manufacturing defect. An ISC can initiate thermal runaway or a fire. It occurs when the separator fails, allowing
contact between the cathode and anode. An external short circuit can occur if the cell/module/battery is
exposed to wet conditions, when it is not designed for that exposure.

1.1.3 Fire
When a cell in thermal runaway begins to vent, the vented flammable gas can ignite due to sparking from
the cell, open flames or exposure to nearby electrical equipment. Collections of cells are frequently
encountered in manufacturing and storage. The cells can be enclosed in a module or pack (e.g., collection
of modules) or can be found individually stored in trays. Where the cells are enclosed in a module or pack,
combustion in one cell will likely spread fire until all charged cells are consumed. To date, no testing shows
that active fire protection can stop this process when the cells are enclosed. Automatic sprinklers can provide
cooling to structures, combustibles and even adjacent modules/packs to help limit the fire spread. A limited
amount of large-scale testing has been conducted; and where adequate cooling can be provided in a timely
manner, spread to adjacent cells/modules/batteries can be prevented.

1.1.4 Reignition
Fires involving lithium-ion batteries are known to reignite. However, a lithium-ion cell cannot reignite. Once
the thermal runaway process has started, a cell will continue to burn until it has been consumed. A fire event
can thermally abuse adjacent cells to the point at which they enter thermal runaway, or to a lesser extent—in
which case they may end up in thermal runaway later. When viewed as an entire system, lithium-ion battery
modules and packs can reignite due to the delayed ignition of some of the cells within. Lithium-ion batteries
involved in or exposed to fires need to be adequately cooled to prevent additional thermal abuse and moved
to a safe location to limit overall exposure.

1.1.5 Explosion
If cells/modules are in thermal runaway, but the vented, hot, flammable gases do not ignite; the gases can
accumulate in a closed module, piece of equipment, cabinet or room. Depending on the amount of time before
ignition occurs, the accumulated gas can deflagrate—resulting in a very fast pressure rise within the
enclosure —and ultimately explode.

1.2 Changes
October 2024. This is the first publication of this document.

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 Introduction
Use FM Approved equipment, materials, and services whenever they are applicable. For a list of products
and services that are FM Approved, see the Approval Guide, an online resource of FM Approvals.
2.1.1 Apply principles of inherent safety wherever possible when designing or improving processes. Inherent
safety includes the following general principles:
A. Using smaller amounts of hazardous substances
B. Replacing a hazardous chemical with a non-hazardous or less hazardous one
C. Using less-hazardous process conditions or a less-hazardous form of material
D. Designing a facility to minimize the impact of a release of hazardous material or energy (e.g. by sufficient
spacing or more-resistant construction)
E. Designing a facility so operating errors are less likely, or the process is more forgiving if errors are
made
2.1.2 Implement programs to manage process safety per Data Sheet 7-43, Process Safety. Pay particular
attention to the process hazard analysis/review (PHA) of routine and non-routine operations.
2.1.3 Use Table 2.1.3 to determine the appropriate FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets to address
hazards in the manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries, many of which are not unique to this occupancy.

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The lithium-ion battery manufacturing process is similar to other manufacturing processes in terms of hazard
evaluation. Each cell type and manufacturer have unique aspects to their manufacturing process. This data
sheet intentionally does not attempt to cover each manufacturing process step in detail from a hazard
evaluation standpoint but provides data sheets to consider for each process step. Section 3.1 and Appendix
D provide more details on each process step.

Table 2.1.3. Manufacturing Hazards and Applicable Data Sheets

Process Step Hazards Other Key Applicable Data Sheets
Raw Material/Electrode Coating Manufacturing
Production of Chemical reactions Data Sheet 7-14, Fire Protection for Chemical Plants
Cathode Active Data Sheet 7-43, Process Safety
Material Data Sheet 7-45, Safety Controls, Alarms, and Interlocks
Data Sheet 7-46, Chemical Reactors and Reactions
Electrode Manufacturing
Mixing Ignitable liquids use, Data Sheet 1-56, Cleanrooms
Coating mixing Data Sheet 3-26, Fire Protection for Nonstorage
Drying Heat transfer system Occupancies
Solvent Recovert Ovens Data Sheet 6-9, Industrial Ovens and Dryers
Concealed combustibles Data Sheet 7-2, Waste Solvent Recovery
Calendering
Thermal rolls Data Sheet 7-9, Dip Tanks, Flow Coaters and Roll Coaters
Slitting Solvent recovery/ Data Sheet 7-29, Ignitable Liquid Storage in Portable
Notching destruction Containers
Vacuum Drying Clean rooms Data Sheet 7-32, Ignitable Liquid Operations
Incidental storage Data Sheet 7-76, Combustible Dusts
Data Sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust Systems
Data Sheet 7-88, Outdoor Ignitable Liquid Storage Tanks
Data Sheet 7-98, Hydraulic Fluids
Data Sheet 7-99, Heat Transfer Fluid Systems
Cell Assembly
Separation Ignitable liquid use and Data Sheet 3-26, Fire Protection for Nonstorage
Stacking or Winding dispensing Occupancies
Welding or Sealing Welding Data Sheet 7-14, Fire Protection for Chemical Plants
Electrolyte Filling Dust collectors Data Sheet 7-29, Ignitable Liquid Storage in Portable
Incidental storage Containers
Enclosing
Data Sheet 7-32, Ignitable Liquid Operations
Data Sheet 7-76, Combustible Dusts
Data Sheet 7-88, Outdoor Ignitable Liquid Storage Tanks
Cell Finishing
Formation Pre-charging Data Sheet 8-1, Commodity Classification
Degassing Thermal runaway
Aging Quantity of cells
Testing Non-thermal damage
Packaging

2.1.4 Treat storage and use of N-Methyl-2 Pyrrolidone (NMP/CAS 872-50-4 /C5H9NO) as a Group 3 water
miscible liquid for concentrations greater than 85% by volume. Treat mixtures less than or equal to 85%
by volume in water as Group 5 water miscible liquids.

2.2 Construction and Location

2.2.1 Use noncombustible or FM Approved Class 1 building materials for exterior/interior construction and
equipment enclosures. Limit the use of plastic materials in equipment enclosures as far as practical and
protect accordingly (see Section 2.4).
2.2.2 Provide one-hour rated, noncombustible fire walls between the following areas:
• Manufacturing
• Formation/aging
• Warehouse storage

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2.2.2.1 Where a high potential exists for nonthermal damage (i.e. areas having a large number of finished
cells or clean rooms), subdivide areas with noncombustible walls to limit the exposure.
2.2.3 Install normally closed or automatic-closing, FM Approved fire doors in fire-rated walls.
2.2.4 Seal any penetrations caused by piping, electrical cables, etc. in fire-rated floors and walls with FM
Approved penetration seals.
2.2.5 Design and construct environmentally controlled areas/cleanroom areas in accordance with Data Sheet
1-56, Cleanrooms.
2.2.6 Locate any quality control testing of cells/modules/batteries that involve charging and discharging
operations inside ventilated hoods or enclosures.

2.3 Occupancy

2.3.1 General
2.3.1.1 Establish and implement a housekeeping program to minimize accumulations of dust and other
combustible materials.
The fire protection recommended in this data sheet assumes no major housekeeping deficiencies.
Combustible materials such as dust may increase the fire hazard to the extent that the recommended
protection is ineffective.
2.3.1.2 Provide an appropriate gas detection system inside any ventilated hoods or enclosures to provide
remote notification if cell testing or charging is performed during non-occupied hours. Arrange the system to
send an alarm upon gas detection.
2.3.1.3 Develop a documented procedure for handling damaged or off-specification cells/modules/batteries.
See Section 2.4.6 for protection of damaged or off-specification units.
2.3.1.4 Develop a documented procedure for responding to a thermal runaway event in the formation, aging
or finished cell storage areas.

2.3.2 Ventilation
The goal of this section is to provide guidance to limit the amount of nonthermal damage in the event of a
thermal runaway or fire. Therefore, keep the ventilation system on for testing enclosures or hoods that do not
have their own fire protection and where charging operations occur, and shut it down in manufacturing areas.

2.3.2.1 Testing Enclosures and Hoods

2.3.2.1.1 Provide a dedicated mechanical exhaust ventilation system for enclosures or hoods where
cell/module/battery charging operations are performed. Arrange the ventilation as follows:
A. Arrange the system to be nonrecirculating.
B. Take make-up air from areas with fresh air only.
2.3.2.1.2 Locate exhaust outlets at the top or bottom of the enclosure to capture lighter-than-air and/or
heavier-than-air gases, based on the gases potentially liberated.
2.3.2.1.3 Design the ventilation rate to prevent the development of a flammable gas-air mixture during normal
operating conditions. Provide a minimum of 1 cfm/ft2 (0.3 m3/min/m2).
2.3.2.1.4 Arrange the ventilation system to provide an emergency ventilation rate of 150% of the standard
ventilation rate in ventilated hoods or enclosures. Activate the emergency ventilation rate upon gas detection,
installed per Section 2.3.1.2, or 25% of the lower explosive limit (LEL) for hydrocarbon gases.

2.3.2.2 Manufacturing Areas

2.3.2.2.1 Arrange the supply and return fans of the air conditioning system to shut down upon activation of
the fire protection system.
2.3.2.2.2 For clean rooms, design the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems in accordance
with Data Sheet 1-56, Cleanrooms.

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2.4 Protection

2.4.1 General
To date, limited publicly-available fire test data exists that confirms the effectiveness of any active fire
protection for lithium-ion batteries. Automatic sprinkler protection is recommended to limit fire spread to the
surrounding structure, equipment and building contents.
2.4.1.1 Protect manufacturing areas in accordance with the appropriate FM Property Loss Prevention Data
Sheet based on the hazards present.
2.4.1.1.1 Protect cell electrode and assembly manufacturing areas with an automatic sprinkler system using
a minimum HC-3 design in accordance with Data Sheet 3-26.
2.4.1.1.2 Protect Formation and Aging areas per Section 2.4.2.
2.4.1.1.3 FM Approved HC-3 water mist systems can be used to protect the occupancy, subject to the
recommendations for their use in Data Sheet 3-26, if all concealed spaces are adequately protected.
2.4.1.2 Install sprinklers throughout the facility in accordance with FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheet
2-0, Installation Guidelines for Automatic Sprinklers.
2.4.1.2.1 In addition to automatic sprinklers or FM Approved water-mist at the ceiling, provide automatic
sprinklers or FM Approved water-mist in the following areas:
A. Under any obstructions or mezzanines that exceed 3 ft (0.9 m) in width or diameter or 10 ft2
(0.9 m2) in area
B. Within enclosed equipment (e.g., ovens, hoods or test enclosures) when constructed of combustible
materials or within obstructed areas containing combustibles
C. Within enclosures around production equipment if the ceiling protection is not designed for HC-3
occupancies or if higher-hazard processes take place inside such as electrolyte filling, cell charging/
discharging etc.

2.4.2 Formation and Aging Areas

Formation and aging areas are expected to experience a higher-than-normal number of thermal runaway
events; since this is where the cells first undergo charging and discharging, and stabilization of the cell
properties and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) film occurs. The higher the level of protection, the lower the
number of cells that will be involved, the less flammable/corrosive gas that will be generated and the less
water that needs to be discharged into the area. This approach should limit the extent of nonthermal damage
to the other cells in the area.

2.4.2.1 Open-Frame Rack Arrangements

2.4.2.1.1 Protect formation and aging areas with open-frame racks or shelves that resemble an open-frame
rack arrangement, including automated storage systems, using in-rack sprinklers and barriers per Section
2.4.2.2.
2.4.2.1.2 Do not store li-ion cells above the top in-rack sprinkler and horizontal barrier level.
2.4.2.1.2.1 If storage is located above the in-rack automatic sprinklers and horizontal barrier, treat the barrier
like a virtual floor and provide protection in accordance with Data Sheet 8-9 for the stored commodity above
the horizontal barrier.
2.4.2.1.3 Provide vertical barriers at rack uprights:
A. No more than 6 ft (1.8 m) apart to limit horizontal fire spread
B. Constructed of plywood (minimum 3/8 in. [10 mm]) or sheet metal (minimum 22 ga [0.7 mm]).
2.4.2.1.4 Design ceiling sprinklers to protect the surrounding occupancy.
2.4.2.1.5 The ceiling sprinkler system design does not need to be hydraulically balanced with the in-rack
system.
2.4.2.1.6 Provide a hose stream allowance of 500 gpm (1,900 L/min).

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2.4.2.1.7 Provide a water supply capable of meeting the sprinkler design flow and hose stream demand for
a minimum of two hours.

2.4.2.2 In-rack Sprinklers

2.4.2.2.1 Install in-rack sprinklers in accordance with this section and Figures 2.4.2.2.1-1 and 2.4.2.2.1-2.

2-5 ft.
(0.6-1.5m)

6 ft. (1.8 m)
Maximum
6 ft. (1.8 m)
Maximum
6 ft. (1.8 m)
Maximum
6 ft. (1.8 m)
Maximum

Fig. 2.4.2.2.1-1. Single-row rack in-rack sprinkler layout for li-ion cells/modules/batteries

2.4.2.2.1.1 Locate longitudinal flue in-rack sprinklers as follows:

A. Within the rack storage structure
B. Within 6 in. (152 mm) of the transverse flue space, measured from the flue centerline.

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Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage 7-112
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4 - 10 ft.
(1.2 - 3 m)

2 - 5 ft.
(0.6 - 1.5 m)

6
18
6
18
6
18
6
18

Fig. 2.4.2.2.1-2. Double-row rack in-rack sprinkler layout for li-ion cells/modules/batteries

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C. At every transverse flue on a maximum horizontal spacing of 5 ft (1.5 m) and a minimum horizontal
spacing of 2 ft (0.6 m).
2.4.2.2.1.2 Locate face sprinklers as follows:
A. Within the rack storage structure
B. No more than 18 in. (450 mm) horizontally from the face of the storage rack
C. At every other transverse flue on a maximum horizontal spacing of 10 ft (3.0 m) and a minimum
horizontal spacing of 4 ft (1.2 m)
2.4.2.2.2 Locate in-rack sprinkler piping behind horizontal rack members to minimize the potential for damage.
2.4.2.2.3 Install in-rack sprinklers at a maximum vertical distance of 6 ft (1.8 m) between each level.
2.4.2.2.4 Install a horizontal barrier above each level of in-rack sprinklers as follows:
A. Construct horizontal barriers of plywood (minimum 3/8 in. [10 mm]) or sheet metal (minimum 22 ga.
[0.7 mm]).
B. Design barriers without gaps in longitudinal flue spaces. A maximum gap of 3 in. (75 mm) between
each barrier is permitted at the rack uprights (transverse flue) for single and double row racks.
2.4.2.2.5 Design the in-rack sprinkler to provide a minimum flow of 60 gpm (227 L/min) out of the hydraulically
most remote six (6) sprinklers (e.g., three face sprinklers and three flue sprinklers in a double-row rack) if
one barrier is provided, or the most remote eight (8) sprinklers (e.g., two face sprinklers and two flue sprinklers
on two levels in a double-row rack) if two or more barrier levels are provided.
2.4.2.2.5.1 Provide a minimum discharge pressure of 10 psi (0.7 bar) for in-rack sprinkler designs where
the in-rack sprinkler has a K-factor greater than or equal to 11.2 (K160).
2.4.2.2.5.2 Provide a minimum discharge pressure of 7 psi (0.5 bar) for in-rack sprinkler designs where the
in-rack sprinkler has a K-factor less than 11.2 (K160).
2.4.2.2.6 Do not include ceiling sprinkler demand in the hydraulic calculations for in-rack sprinklers.

2.4.2.3 Bin-box or Enclosed Chamber Arrangements

2.4.2.3.1 Protect formation and aging areas that have shelving arrangements or charging chambers with 4-
or 5-sided holding areas (i.e., bin-box storage array or fully enclosed chamber), using an approach that
ensures fire protection water delivery to each bin-box holding area within the array. The protection can consist
of automatic sprinklers or automatic water mist nozzles provided in each bin-box holding area.
2.4.2.3.2 Design the bin or chamber sprinkler system to supply at least 60 gpm (230 L/min) for the six (6)
most remote sprinklers.
2.4.2.3.2.1 Ensure each bin or chamber houses only one tray of lithium-ion cells. If two trays of cells are
present, ensure that water can flow through the top tray and reach the bottom tray.
2.4.2.3.2.2 Use quick response, ordinary temperature, K8.0 (K115) or larger in-rack sprinklers.
2.4.2.3.2.3 For high temperature aging rooms, use an appropriate sprinkler temperature rating based on
the temperature to be maintained in the room.
2.4.2.3.3 Use only water mist systems that have been FM Approved for aging and formation applications.
2.4.2.3.4 Design ceiling sprinklers to protect the surrounding occupancy.
2.4.2.3.5 The ceiling sprinkler system design does not need to be hydraulically balanced with the in-rack or
bin-box protection system.
2.4.2.3.6 Provide a hose stream allowance of 500 gpm (1,900 L/min).
2.4.2.3.7 Provide a water supply capable of meeting the sprinkler design flow and hose stream demand for
a minimum of two hours.

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Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage 7-112
FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 11

2.4.3 Finished Cells/Modules/Batteries - Incidental Storage

This storage consists of finished batteries with various states of charge. The batteries may be stored in
corrugated boxes (small batteries), wooden crates, metal boxes or plastic boxes. While a fire involving the
packaging can, in general, be easily controlled, batteries involved in the fire will extend the duration of the
event and likely involve adjacent batteries. The best protection option is to use racks with in-rack automatic
sprinkler protection in accordance with Section 2.4.2.2. For palletized storage, limit storage footprints to
minimize the number of batteries that can become involved.
2.4.3.1 Treat work in process storage of lithium-ion batteries as incidental if all of the following are met:
A. Cells/modules/batteries are stored in metal or cardboard boxes.
B. Storage area is limited to no more than 200 ft2 (20 m2).
C. Storage height is limited to 6 ft (1.8 m).
D. Multiple storage areas are separated by aisles not less than 10 ft (3.0 m) wide.
E. Battery state of charge is less than or equal to 60%.
2.4.3.2 Protect storage of lithium-ion batteries as low-piled storage of Uncartoned Unexpanded Plastic (UUP)
per Table 2.4.3.2 if all of the following criteria are met:
A. Cells/modules/batteries are stored in unexpanded plastic containers.
B. Storage area is limited to no more than 200 ft2 (20 m2).
C. Storage height is limited to 6 ft (1.8 m).
D. Multiple storage piles are separated by aisles not less than 10 ft (3.0 m) wide.
E. Battery state of charge is less than or equal to 60%.

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 Table 2.4.3.2. Sprinkler Protection for Low-Piled Storage of Lithium-ion Batteries in Plastic Containers

Page 12
7-112
Max Ceiling Quick-Response Standard-Response
Height, K11.2 K14.0 K16.8 K22.4 K25.2 K25.2EC K11.2 K14.0 K19.6 K25.2 K25.2EC
Commodity ft (m) (K160) (K200) (K240) (K320) (K360) (K360EC) (K160) (K200) (K280) (K360) (K360EC)
Wet System, Pendent Sprinklers, 160ºF (70ºC), Number of AS @ psi (bar)
UUP 30 (9) 25 @ 10 @ 10 @ 43(3) 14 @ 14 @ 12 @ 25 @ 25 @ 25 @ 25 @ 25 @
50(3.4) 62(4.3) 24(1.7) 19(1.3) 38(2.6) 50(3.4) 32(2.2) 16(1.1) 10(0.7) 50(3.4)
45 (14) 10 @ 10 @ 43(3) 14 @ 14 @
62(4.3)11 24(1.7) 19(1.3)
60 (18) 10 @ 10 @
50(3.4) 40(2.8)

Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage

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Wet System, Upright Sprinklers, 160ºF (70ºC), Number of AS @ psi (bar)

UUP 30 (9) 25 @ 10 @ 10 @ 43(3) 12 @ 25 @ 25 @ 25 @
50(3.4) 62(4.3) 38(2.6) 50(3.4) 22(1.5) 10(0.7)
45 (14) 10 @ 10 @ 43(3)
62(4.3)

FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage 7-112
FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 13

2.4.3.3 When battery storage exceeds the criteria in Section 2.4.3.1 and 2.4.3.2 or the packaging classifies
the storage as an expanded plastic commodity per Data Sheet 8-1, design the fire protection in accordance
with Section 2.4.5 of this data sheet.
2.4.3.4 Provide a hose stream allowance of 500 gpm (1,900 L/min).
2.4.3.5 Provide a water supply capable of meeting the sprinkler design flow and hose stream demand for a
minimum of one hour.

2.4.4 Cells/Modules/Batteries in Finished Products — Storage

Examples of finished products include, but are not limited to personal electronic devices (laptop computers,
tablets, cell phones, etc.), lawn equipment (lawn mowers, leaf blowers, etc.), power tools and household
items (vacuums, toys, etc.).Finished electric vehicle modules or packs are not considered finished products;
see Section 2.4.5 for protection guidance.
2.4.4.1 Protect finished products per Data Sheet 8-9, Storage of Class 1, 2, 3, 4 and Plastic Commodities,
using the product’s commodity classification, excluding the battery hazard, provided the lithium-ion battery
state of charge (SOC) is less than or equal to 60%.
2.4.4.2 When SOC is greater than 60%, protect finished products per Data Sheet 8-9 using the product’s
commodity classification, excluding the battery hazard, and a protection design that includes both ceiling and
in-rack sprinklers.
In-rack protection schemes that do not require balancing the ceiling and in-rack sprinkler demand are
acceptable.
2.4.4.3 Provide a hose stream demand and water supply duration in accordance with Data Sheet 8-9.

2.4.5 New or Refurbished Cells/Modules/Batteries – Storage

2.4.5.1 Protect new or refurbished lithium-ion cells/modules/batteries stored in solid-pile or palletized storage
arrangements per the guidance in Table 2.4.5.1-1. For open-frame rack storage arrangements, follow the
guidance in Table 2.4.5.1-2. Protection guidance is not differentiated based on battery chemistry.

Table 2.4.5.1-1. Protection Guidelines for Lithium-Ion Cells/Modules/Batteries in Solid-Piled or Palletized Storage
Arrangements
Maximum
Lithium-ion
Cell/Module Maximum
State of Ceiling Storage Protection
Charge Height Height Packaging (QR Sprinklers only)
Wood crate, metal encased or corrugated CUP per Data Sheet 8-9
carton with cellulosic and/or unexpanded (Note 1)
plastic internal packaging only
Corrugated carton with expanded plastic CEP per Data Sheet 8-9
40 ft 15 ft
60% internal packaging (Note 1)
(12 m) (4.5 m)
UUP per Data Sheet 8-9
Unexpanded Plastic external packaging
(Note 1)
Unexpanded Plastic external packaging with > UEP per Data Sheet 8-9
40% expanded plastic (by volume) inside (Note 1)
Note 1. Use the Data Sheet 8-9 protection table based upon the storage configuration (solid-pile or palletized) and the protection option
based on the ceiling height.

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7-112 Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage
Page 14 FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Table 2.4.5.1-2. Protection Guidelines for Lithium-Ion Cells/Modules/Batteries in Open-Frame Rack Storage Arrangements
Lithium-ion
Cell/Module Maximum Maximum
State of Ceiling Storage Ceiling Protection (QR In-Rack
Charge Height Height Packaging sprinklers only) Protection
≤ 60% 40 ft 15 ft Wood crate, metal CUP per Data Sheet NA
(12 m) (4.5 m) encased or corrugated 8-9 (Note 1)
(Maximum of carton with cellulosic
3 tiers) and/or unexpanded plastic
internal packaging only
Corrugated carton with
CEP per Data Sheet
expanded plastic internal NA
8-9 (Note 1)
packaging
Unexpanded plastic
external packaging with ≤ UUP per Data Sheet
NA
40% expanded plastic (by 8-9 (Note 1)
volume) inside
Unexpanded plastic
external packaging with >
40% expanded plastic (by UEP per Data Sheet
NA
volume) inside; or 8-9 (Note 1)
expanded plastic external
packaging
See Section
Per surrounding 2.4.2.2,
Uncartoned
occupancy 2.4.5.5, and
2.4.5.6.
See Section
Per surrounding 2.4.2.2,
> 40 ft Cartoned or uncartoned
occupancy 2.4.5.5, and
(12 m) 2.4.5.6
NA
See Section
Per surrounding 2.4.2.2,
Cartoned or uncartoned
occupancy 2.4.5.5, and
> 60% NA
2.4.5.6
Note 1. Use the Data Sheet 8-9 protection table based upon the storage configuration (open-frame rack, solid-pile or palletized) and the
protection option based on the ceiling height.

2.4.5.1.1 Use the Data Sheet 8-9 protection table based upon the storage configuration (solid-pile, palletized
or rack) and the protection option based on the ceiling height. Ceiling only as well as combination in-rack
and ceiling designs can be used.
2.4.5.2 Do not allow storage above the batteries for ceiling-only protection options.
2.4.5.3 Provide a minimum of 10 ft (3.0 m) space separation between storage of lithium-ion cells/modules/
batteries and other combustibles.
2.4.5.4 Provide minimum 10 ft (3.0 m) wide aisle spaces within solid-pile and palletized storage such that
the maximum contiguous width of abutted storage does not exceed 15 ft (4.6 m).

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Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage 7-112
FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 15

15 ft. (4.6 m)
maximum

10 ft. (3.0 m)
minimum
15 ft. (4.6 m)
maximum

10 ft. (3.0 m)
minimum
15 ft. (4.6 m)
maximum

Fig. 2.4.5.4. Example of solid-pile and palletized storage arrangement

2.4.5.5 Protect open-frame single and double-row rack storage of cells/modules/batteries that require in-rack
sprinkler protection per Table 2.4.5.1-2 using Section 2.4.2.2 with the following changes:
A. Install in-rack sprinklers at a maximum vertical distance of 12 ft (3.7 m) between each level.
2.4.5.6 Protect multi-row rack storage of cells/modules/batteries that require in-rack sprinkler protection per
Table 2.4.5.1-2 using Section 2.4.2.2 with the following changes and Figure 2.4.5.6.
A. Install in-rack sprinklers at a maximum vertical distance of 12 ft (3.7 m) between each level.
B. Provide vertical barriers constructed of plywood (minimum 3/8 in. [10 mm]) or sheet metal (minimum
22 ga. [0.7 mm]) at vertical uprights, approximately 20 ft (6.1 m) apart, to limit horizontal fire spread.

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7-112 Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage
Page 16 FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

2 - 5 ft.
(0.6 - 1.5 m)

LQ PP

Fig. 2.4.5.6. Multi-row rack in-rack sprinkler layout for li-ion cells/modules/batteries

2.4.5.7 Provide a hose stream demand and water supply duration in accordance with Data Sheet 8-9 for
all ceiling only designs not using in-rack sprinkler protection per Section 2.4.2.2.
2.4.5.8 Provide a hose stream demand and water supply duration in accordance with Section 2.4.2.2.6 and
2.4.2.2.7 for all designs using in-rack sprinkler protection per Section 2.4.2.2.

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Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage 7-112
FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 17

2.4.6 Returned/Defective/Off-Specification/Damaged Cells/Modules/Batteries - Storage

2.4.6.1 Isolate the cells/modules/batteries from storage areas or other important areas by locating them
outside of the building or in a cut-off room.
2.4.6.2 Store defective or damaged cells/modules/batteries outside as follows:
A. Limit outdoor storage to two pallets high and storage footprints no larger than 900 ft2 (83.6 m2).
B. Separate individual storage piles by 10 ft (3.0 m).
C. Provide at least 10 ft (3.0 m) of space between outdoor storage areas and noncombustible building
walls and 20 ft (6.1 m) of space to combustible walls or walls with windows.
D. Locate outdoor storage in areas easily accessible by the fire service and with direct access to fire
hydrants.
2.4.6.3 Store defective or damaged cells/modules/batteries in a cut-off room as follows:
A. Limit the indoor storage height to one pallet high. If greater heights are needed, put the storage in
open-frame racks.
B. If storage is in open-frame racks, protect the racks with in-rack sprinklers in accordance with Section
2.4.2.2.
C. For on-floor or palletized storage, provide a 0.3 gpm/ft2 (12 mm/min) over-the-room footprint.
D. Provide direct outside access to cut-off rooms.
2.4.6.4 Provide a hose stream allowance of 500 gpm (1,900 L/min).
2.4.6.5 Provide a water supply capable of meeting the sprinkler design flow and hose stream demand for a
minimum of two hours.

2.4.7 Storage in Automatic Storage and Retrieval Systems (ASRS)

Note that this section applies only to ASRS storage arrangements addressed by FM Property Loss Prevention
Data Sheet 8-34, Automatic Storage and Retrieval Systems. If storage will be in an ASRS not addressed
by Data Sheet 8-34, it is outside the scope of this section.
2.4.7.1 For a finished product containing a lithium-ion battery where the battery’s state of charge (SOC) is
less than or equal to 30%:
A. Determine the commodity classification of the finished product, excluding the battery hazard, per FM
Property Loss Prevention Data Sheet 8-1, Commodity Classification, and
B. Protect the finished product in accordance with Data Sheet 8-34 using a wet sprinkler system only.
2.4.7.2 For a finished product containing a lithium-ion battery where the battery’s state of charge (SOC) is
greater than 30%, but less than or equal to 60%:
A. Determine the commodity classification of the finished product, excluding the battery hazard, per Data
Sheet 8-1, and
B. Place the finished product in FM Approved, non-flame propagating containers, solid-walled metal
containers or solid-walled metal-lined containers (minimum 18 gauge [0.04 in. (1.0 mm)] steel), and
C. Store the finished product in a horizontal-loading ASRS only, and
D. Protect the finished product in accordance with Data Sheet 8-34, using a wet sprinkler system only
where both ceiling and in-rack sprinklers are installed.
2.4.7.3 Do not store any finished product with lithium-ion batteries that exceed a 60% SOC in ASRS.
2.4.7.4 Do not store cells/modules/batteries that are not a finished product in ASRS. See formation and aging
protection guidance in Section 2.4.2.2.

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7-112 Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage
Page 18 FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

2.5 Equipment and Processes

2.5.1 Arrange all operations to initiate a controlled automatic shutdown, including the stopping of ignitable
liquid pumping, in the event of a fire or explosion.
2.5.2 If chemical reactions are used to create electrode raw materials, evaluate that operation in accordance
with at least FM Data Sheets 7-46, Chemical Reactors and Reactions; 7-45, Safety Controls, Alarms, and
Interlocks; and 7-43, Process Safety.
2.5.3 Use FM Data Sheet 7-32, Ignitable Liquid Operations, for all ignitable liquid processes including
unloading, transfer, and indoor tank storage and 7-88, Outdoor Ignitable Liquid Storage Tanks, for tanker
truck unloading stations.
2.5.4 Use FM Data Sheet 7-29, Ignitable Liquid Storage in Portable Containers, for all storage of portable
containers with ignitable liquids such as NMP and electrolyte.
2.5.5 Use FM Data Sheet 7-88, Outdoor Ignitable Liquid Storage Tanks, to arrange and protect outdoor tank
farms having ignitable liquid storage.
2.5.6 Use FM Data Sheet 6-9, Industrial Ovens and Dryers, to protect drying operations from concealed
fire hazards or equipment explosion hazards. All direct-fired gas ovens and any oven drying ignitable liquids
have an equipment explosion hazard that requires the provision of damage limiting construction.
2.5.7 Use FM Data Sheet 7-9, Dip Tanks, Flow Coaters and Roll Coaters, to protect calendering operations.
2.5.8 Use FM Data Sheet 7-99, Heat Transfer Fluid Systems, to protect equipment heated by heat transfer
systems.
2.5.9 Use FM Data Sheet 7-2, Waste Solvent Recovery, and 6-11, Thermal and Regenerative Catalytic
Oxidizers, to protect solvent recovery/destruction operations.
2.5.10 Use FM Data Sheet 7-76, Prevention and Mitigation of Combustible Dust Explosions and Fires, to
protect any operations that produce or collect dust.
2.5.11 Use FM Data Sheet 7-98, Hydraulic Fluids, to protect any hydraulic systems using ignitable liquids.
2.5.12 Use FM Data Sheet 7-11, Conveyors, to protect any conveyor belts.
2.5.13 Identify any areas that contain combustibles that are concealed/obstructed from ceiling sprinkler
discharge, and protect in accordance with Section 2.4.1.2.
2.5.14 Arrange all electrical systems with the proper electrical protection.
2.5.15 Provide regular testing of electrical equipment and safeguards in accordance with FM Data Sheet
5-20, Electrical Testing.
2.5.16 Protect all industrial control and emergency control systems against a possible cyber-attack in
accordance with FM Data Sheet 7-110, Industrial Control Systems.

2.6 Operation and Maintenance

2.6.1 Implement a management of change program in accordance with FM Data Sheet 7-43, Process Safety.
2.6.1.1 Conduct a full review of all planned changes by qualified loss prevention consultants as well as other
authorities having jurisdiction before a project begins.
2.6.2 Establish a comprehensive preventive maintenance program designed to ensure that electrical and
mechanical equipment is operating as intended. Refer to Data Sheet 9-0/17-0, Asset Integrity, for the
development and implementation of loss prevention asset integrity programs for systems and equipment.
2.6.3 Maintain and test all emergency system interlocks at least annually or in accordance with manufacturer’s
recommendations if more frequent. Maintain records of these tests.
2.6.4 Provide sufficient reliability and redundancy of process utilities to prevent interruption to critical
processes or product spoilage. This strategy may include N+1 reliability and/or emergency (backup) power.
Critical utilities include process heating and cooling; room/building air-handling systems; humidity control;
power, instrument, and process air; fuels and solvent recovery.

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Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage 7-112
FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 19

2.7 Training
2.7.1 Create a training program for all employees (including operators, emergency response team members
and security personnel) who work in or have access to production, testing or storage areas.
2.7.1.1 Design and supervise the training program to address the complexity of process operations and the
hazard level present at a facility.
2.7.1.2 Provide training for all new employees, as well as refresher programs, as needed, for current
employees.
2.7.1.3 At a minimum, include the following topics in the program:
A. The fire hazards created by the materials in use i.e. ignitable liquids (NMP), plastics etc.
B. The increased fire hazards of finished cells/modules/batteries with stored electrical energy
C. The proper operation and shutdown of the equipment under normal and emergency conditions. Print
and post critical procedures for convenient reference.
D. Proper material handling procedures
E. Ignitable liquid piping system operation and shutdown, including the location of all local and remote
shutoff valves
F. Proper ignitable liquid transfer procedures
G. The operation and function of fixed extinguishing systems
2.7.2 Implement operator training programs per Data Sheet 10-8, Operators.

2.8 Human Factors

2.8.1 Develop a pre-incident plan and emergency response plan in accordance with Data Sheet 10-1,
Pre-incident and Emergency Response Planning. Include the following in the pre-incident and emergency
response plans:
• Access routes
• Manual fire protection methods
• Water supply for long duration fires
• Smoke ventilation
• Safety Data Sheet (SDS) for lithium-ion cells
• Location of any fire walls
• Designated location outside the facility to which damaged or impacted cells can be moved
• Final extinguishment plan where prolonged and persistent burning could occur
2.8.1.1 Include the local fire department in the development of both plans.
2.8.1.2 Provide documented procedures to expedite safe entry and emergency response to fires in battery
storage and testing areas.
2.8.2 Develop a post-incident recovery plan that addresses the potential for reignition of lithium-ion batteries,
as well as removal and disposal of any damaged or impacted cells/modules/batteries or products.
2.8.3 Provide a fire watch until all potentially damaged lithium-ion cells/modules/batteries or products have
been removed from the area following a fire event.
2.8.4 Develop and maintain a comprehensive documented equipment contingency plan per Data Sheet
9-0/17-0, Asset Integrity, including up-to-date details of replacement parts, who to contact for repairs, and
manufacturer support.

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7-112 Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage
Page 20 FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

2.9 Ignition Source Control

2.9.1 Identify all areas that can have flammable vapors/gases present during normal or emergency conditions,
and provide electrical equipment that is rated for hazardous locations in accordance with FM Property Loss
Prevention Data Sheets 5-1, Electrical Equipment in Hazardous (Classified) Locations and 7-32, Ignitable
Liquid Operations.
2.9.2 Provide static control equipment (i.e., grounding and bonding) in any areas where flammable vapors
or gases are present in accordance with FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 5-8, Static Electricity and
7-32, Ignitable Liquid Operations.
2.9.3 Strictly control all hot work operations in accordance with FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheet
10-3, Hot Work Management.

3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Cell Manufacturing Process

Lithium-ion cell manufacturing can be broken down into three high-level processes, 1) electrode
manufacturing, 2) cell assembly and 3) cell finishing. Each high-level process step can be further broken
down into discrete activities as shown in Figure 3.1. See Appendix D for more details regarding each process
step.

ELECTRODE MANUFACTURING

Solvent Slitting and Vacuum

Mixing Coating Drying Recovery Calendering Notching Drying

CELL ASSEMBLY

Electrolyte Stacking
Enclosing Filling Welding or Winding Separation

CELL FINISHING

++ -- ++ --

Formation
Formation Aging
Aging Testing
Packaging Packaging
Storage Storage
Testing

Fig. 3.1. Cell manufacturing process

During the manufacturing process, the introduction of raw materials and the manufacturing processes
themselves create the actual hazards, which include ignitable liquid hazards (due to the electrolyte, typically
a low-flashpoint ignitable liquid) as well as process and ignition source hazards. Heaters are present during
the drying stages and potentially during calendering, which could also provide an ignition source for the
ignitable components. An overview of the manufacturing process hazards and applicable FM Property Loss
Prevention Data Sheets is provided in Table 2.1.3.

3.2 Cell Chemistry

The chemistry of the lithium-ion cell cathode has the greatest impact on the battery’s specifications; therefore,
lithium-ion cells are typically named after their cathode chemical composition. Many different lithium-ion cell
chemistries are available, including lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), lithium iron phosphate (LFP), lithium
manganese oxide (LMO), lithium titanate (LTO), lithium nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) and lithium nickel

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Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage 7-112
FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 21

cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) with more being introduced through innovation and new technologies. While
some chemistries may have a reduced propensity to enter thermal runaway, they all have an ignitable liquid
electrolyte and possess the ability to trigger thermal runaway. Therefore, regardless of the chemistry,
lithium-ion cells are a fire hazard; and the protection guidance provided in this data sheet does not differentiate
based on cell chemistry.

3.3 Manufacturing Protection

Lithium-ion battery protection in nonstorage occupancies is based upon maintaining a hazard less than or
equal to that of incidental storage. It is accomplished by limiting the footprint and height of the allowable
storage area and providing separation from surrounding combustibles. The limited available test data
indicates that lithium-ion battery fires can exceed the common water durations for nonstorage occupancies.
Thus, longer water supply durations have been recommended where cells and/or modules are expected
to contribute significantly to the fire. The batteries also vent a flammable gas during failure (thermal runaway)
that can accumulate to form an explosive mixture in confined spaces or containers, and further the spread
of fire. Little to no flammable gas should be released when lithium-ion cells/modules/batteries are operating
normally. Based on this knowledge, the limitations for incidental storage of lithium-ion batteries help limit
the fire to a known area, promote cooling of the batteries and packaging from the sprinkler protection and
limit the overall hazard.

3.4 Lithium-Ion Cell/Module/Battery Storage

3.4.1 Lithium-Ion Cell Fire Testing and Cell Types

Lithium-ion batteries are rechargeable and use lithium salt, while lithium batteries are not rechargeable and
contain lithium metal. Since lithium-ion batteries use lithium salt and not lithium metal, they are not water
reactive. Lithium-ion batteries are used in everything from cell phones, power tools, level 3 electric vehicle
chargers and industrial heavy machinery.
Lithium-ion batteries present several unique fire protection challenges. The primary concern is the presence
of an ignitable electrolyte within the batteries. If a battery is overheated, either by an external heat source
(e.g., fire) or due to an internal fault of a single cell, the battery may experience a thermal runaway reaction.
During this reaction, the electrolyte is vented from the cells as a flammable gas, which can ignite and promote
the involvement of adjacent cells. Some smaller cells, such as 18650 format cylindrical cells, may also
rupture and possibly rocket (or roll) away from the fire origin if unconfined. To limit battery involvement and
thermal runaway, early extinguishment of the carton fire and cooling of the batteries is imperative.
Free-burn testing (i.e., with no sprinkler protection) of cartoned lithium-ion batteries was conducted at the
FM Research Campus. Specific protection was not tested on the batteries during this project, so controlling
the fire before the batteries became involved was imperative.
Testing has been conducted with three types of lithium-ion batteries, including 18650 cylindrical cells, polymer
cells, and power tool packs.

3.4.1.1 Lithium-Ion 18650 Cylindrical Cells

These are historically the most widely used. Tested cells had a nominal voltage of 3.7 V and a nominal capacity
of 2.6 Ah with a state of charge up to 60%. The cell chemistry was lithium cobalt oxide (LCO). Cells have
hard-metal cases and are sealed with gaskets. The packaging consisted of corrugated board boxes with
cellulosic dividers between each cell. During the tests, burning, hard-cased, cylindrical cells had the potential
to rocket far away from the fire area; and therefore, require greater separation distances.

Fig. 3.4.1.1. Lithium-ion 18650 cylindrical cells

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7-112 Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage
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3.4.1.2 Lithium-Ion Polymer Cells

These batteries are commonly found in mobile phones and tablet computers. Tested cells had a nominal
voltage of 3.7 V and a nominal capacity of 2.7 Ah. The cell chemistry was lithium cobalt oxide (LCO). Cells
had soft polymer-coated aluminum cases. The packaging consisted of corrugated board boxes that contained
densely packed lithium-ion batteries within thin plastic dividers. During fire tests, the contribution from the
lithium-ion batteries was considerable, with evidence of thermal runaway reactions. Soft-cased polymer cells
do not have the same rocketing potential as cylindrical cells.

Fig. 3.4.1.2. Lithium-ion polymer cells

3.4.1.3 Lithium-Ion Power Tool Packs

Each battery pack consists of 10 cylindrical cells in a plastic case. Tested battery packs had a nominal voltage
of 18.5 V (each cell was 3.7 V) and a nominal capacity of 2.6 Ah. The cell chemistry was lithium nickel
manganese cobalt oxide (NMC). The battery packs were encased in plastic blister packs for display and stored
in corrugated board boxes. During fire tests, the packs exhibited similar fire growth rate and energy release
as that of an unexpanded plastic commodity. Any energy contribution from the lithium-ion battery tool packs
could not be identified during the fire test.

Fig. 3.4.1.3. Lithium-ion power tool packs

3.4.2 Cartoned Lithium-Ion Cells and Modules

Packaging of lithium-ion cells and modules is a key consideration in terms of protection. With cartoned
batteries, the aim of fire protection is for the sprinklers to be activated by the cardboard packaging fire and
limit the lithium-ion cell involvement. For protection to be successful, the packaging must strictly conform
to a cartoned classification. Typical packaging of lithium-ion cells and modules is comprised of fibrous inserts,
unexpanded plastic dividers and insulation in cardboard cartons. However, packaging larger batteries in rigid
or expanded foam packaging is common.

3.4.3 State of Charge

Different transport authorities legislate on the state of charge (SOC) for shipping and storage, which is typically
a charge between 30% and 60%. Fire tests have been conducted at these levels of charge. It has been
shown that cells with a SOC below 30% are very difficult to get into thermal runaway. States of charge above

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Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing and Storage 7-112
FM Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 23

60% are generally intended for immediate use rather than indefinite storage. The higher the state of charge,
the more reactive a battery is in a fire scenario. At a minimum, the fire severity and duration could be
increased. The impact of SOC also varies for different cell chemistries and can even vary for different cells
of the same chemistry.

3.5 Loss History

It is common for lithium-ion battery manufacturing facilities to experience smaller fires on a regular basis
due to the inherent hazards of lithium-ion cells and the thermal runaway process. Any defects introduced in
a cell during the manufacturing process can lead to thermal runaway and potentially a fire. These events
are expected to some degree and are part of doing business so procedures on how to handle a cell that could
enter or has already entered the thermal runaway process should be in place to prevent the incident from
turning into a large fire.
To date FM has no loss history tied to a large developing battery fire during the manufacturing of lithium-ion
cells. The loss history contained in the various applicable FM Data Sheets is expected to apply due to the
raw materials and processes driving the hazard for the majority of the manufacturing process. Frequent fires
involving the use and storage of lithium-ion batteries (see Data Sheet 5-33, Lithium-Ion Battery Energy
Storage Systems) clearly demonstrate the potential fire and explosion hazard for finished cells/modules/
batteries.

3.5.1 Illustrative Losses

3.5.1.1 Li-ion Vehicle Battery Fire in Sprinklered Warehouse

A fire broke out in a sprinkler protected warehouse storing more than 12,000 used, large format lithium-ion
batteries. The batteries were stored in racks to a storage height above 25 ft (7.5 m). The sprinkler protection
was inadequate for lithium-ion battery rack storage and was not able to control the fire. The fire spread through
fire walls to additional storage areas, ultimately resulting in the total loss of the warehouse.

3.5.1.2 Li-ion Battery Fire in a Test Lab

Two lithium-ion battery packs were being charged over the weekend on a test cart when one went into thermal
runaway. Nearly 3 hours after the thermal runaway process started, a smoke detector activated alerting
personnel of the fire. The fire service responded and was able to quickly control the fire and remove the
impacted battery packs from the building. The battery packs were placed in water filled barrels. The ceiling-
only sprinklers did not operate due to the size of the fire. The smoke and corrosive soot filled the
manufacturing area and resulted in extensive clean up measures before operations could resume.

4.0 REFERENCES

4.1 FM
Data Sheet 1-56, Cleanrooms
Data Sheet 2-0, Installation Guidelines for Automatic Sprinklers
Data Sheet 3-26, Fire Protection for Nonstorage Occupancies
Data Sheet 5-1, Electrical Equipment in Hazardous (Classified) Locations
Data Sheet 5-8, Static Electricity
Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing
Data Sheet 5-32, Data Centers and Related Facilities
Data Sheet 5-33, Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems
Data Sheet 6-9, Industrial Ovens and Dryers
Data Sheet 7-2, Waste Solvent Recovery
Data Sheet 7-9, Dip Tanks, Flow Coaters and Roll Coaters
Data Sheet 7-11, Conveyors
Data Sheet 7-14, Fire Protection for Chemical Plants
Data Sheet 7-29, Ignitable Liquid Storage in Portable Containers
Data Sheet 7-32, Ignitable Liquid Operations
Data Sheet 7-43, Process Safety
Data Sheet 7-45, Safety Controls, Alarms, and Interlocks (SCAI)
Data Sheet 7-46, Chemical Reactors and Reactions

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Data Sheet 7-76, Combustible Dusts

Data Sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust Systems
Data Sheet 7-88, Outdoor Ignitable Liquid Storage Tanks
Data Sheet 7-98, Hydraulic Fluids
Data Sheet 7-99, Heat Transfer Fluid Systems
Data Sheet 7-110, Industrial Control Systems
Data Sheet 8-1, Commodity Classification
Data Sheet 8-9, Storage of Class 1, 2, 3, 4 and Plastic Commodities
Data Sheet 8-34, Protection for Automatic Storage and Retrieval Systems
Data Sheet 9-0/17-0, Asset Integrity
Data Sheet 10-1, Pre-incident and Emergency Response Planning
Data Sheet 10-3, Hot Work Management
Data Sheet 10-8, Operators
FM Research, Ditch, B. and de Vries, J. March 2013. Flammability Characterization of Lithium-ion Batteries
in Bulk Storage.
FM Research, Ditch, B. October 2016. Development of Protection Recommendations for Li-ion Battery Bulk
Storage: Sprinklered Fire Test.

4.2 Other
California Fire Code (CFC). 2022. Section 322
International Fire Code (IFC). 2024. Section 321
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). NFPA 855, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Energy
Storage Systems.
Siemens AG; TUV SUD Industrie Service GmbH. 2021. Principles for Risk-Based Fire Protection Strategies
for Lithium-ion Battery Cell Production.
PEM of RWTH Aachen; VDMA. 2018. Lithium-ion Battery Cell Production Process.
EPRI. The Difference Between Thermal Runaway and Ignition of a Lithium Ion Battery. December 2022.

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Anode: Typically, a positive electrode that releases electrons into the external circuit and oxidizes during
the electrochemical reaction.
Battery (Lithium-Ion): The finished power device that will be used to power equipment/vehicles/electrical
systems. This device may be a single lithium-ion cell, a collection of cells, a module or a collection of modules.
Battery management system (BMS): The supervisory system that ensures basic functionality of the battery
pack while maintaining safe operating conditions and acting appropriately in contingencies. One of the main
functions of the BMS is to keep the cells working within their designed operating parameters to prevent thermal
runaway.
Bin-box storage: A storage arrangement that typically consists of solid shelves in combination with solid
full height wooden or metal vertical barriers. Each bin-box storage unit usually has a solid backing, but not
always. While this type of storage arrangement typically shields the burning commodity maintained in each
bin-box storage unit from direct water application, the relatively low tier height between solid shelves coupled
with the full-height vertical barriers help reduce the heat release rate of the fire as well as severely delay its
potential for horizontal fire growth.
Capacity: Specific energy in ampere-hours (Ah). Ah is the discharge current a battery can deliver over time
and is a measure of the charge stored in the battery. Capacity can also be measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh)
or megawatt-hours (MWh).
Cathode: Usually, the negative electrode that acquires electrons from the external circuit and is reduced
during the electrochemical reaction.
Cell: The smallest electrochemical component that can store energy.

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Cut-off Room: A space within a building, which is intended for a specific storage purpose and has physical
walls separating it from other areas in a building.
Electric vehicle battery: Any size energy storage system mounted or to be mounted onto mobile equipment
or consumer vehicles.
Electrolyte: The medium that provides the ion transportation mechanism between the cathode and anode
of a cell. The electrolyte in lithium-ion cells is an ignitable liquid.
Energy storage system (ESS): Any system through which electrical energy can be stored and reused when
needed. An electrochemical device that collects energy from the grid or from a power plant and then
discharges that energy at a later time to provide electricity or other grid services when needed.
Finished product: A consumer item that has completed the manufacturing process and is ready to be sold
to the end user.
Fire wall: A wall assembly that is designed to contain an uncontrolled fire to the side of fire origin.
Horizontal barriers: A solid barrier installed on a horizontal plane within a rack, beneath which in-rack
sprinklers are installed. Their purpose is to impede vertical fire spread by blocking off normally open flue
spaces, while also helping to achieve prompt in-rack sprinkler operation by banking heat down to the in-rack
sprinklers that must be installed under each barrier.
Incidental storage: Solid-pile, palletized, rack, shelf, or bin-box storage that is normal for an occupancy
(e.g., small amounts of packaging, raw materials, or the products being made). This is likely to be at the start
or end of a production line.
In-rack sprinklers: Sprinklers that are installed within the footprint of a storage rack to provide fire control
(balanced with the ceiling sprinkler system) or fire suppression (not balanced with the ceiling sprinkler system).
LCO: Lithium cobalt oxide battery chemistry.
LFP: Lithium iron phosphate battery chemistry.
LMO: Lithium manganese oxide battery chemistry.
Long duration fire: A fire with manual intervention that may exceed the recommended water supply duration.
LTO: Lithium titanate battery chemistry.
Module: A combination of cells electrically arranged in series, parallel, or a combination of both. Modules
may also be provided with a smaller version of the BMS to control the cells within and communicate with a
system BMS.
NCA: Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide battery chemistry.
NMC: Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide chemistry.
Nonthermal damage: Damage that results from a fire event but is not caused by the heat of the fire.
Examples of nonthermal damage include but are not limited to smoke, corrosive byproducts, water, chemical
release, etc. Nonthermal damage can be reduced by physical features in a building such as drainage and
walls.
Open-frame rack storage: Rack storage that is void of any solid shelves within the storage array and that
has adequate flue spaces in accordance with Data Sheet 8-9 to (1) allow rapid vertical fire growth (minimizing
horizontal fire spread) and (2) allow downward sprinkler water penetration throughout the height of the rack.
Solid electrolyte interphase (SEI): A passive, stabilizing layer formed over the anode surface due to
electrochemical incompatibility between the anode and electrolyte.
Separator: A type of polymeric membrane that separates the anode and cathode to prevent electrical short
circuiting and facilitates ion transport in the cell.
State of charge (SOC): The real-time amount of energy stored in a system, compared to the rated capacity.
A function of voltage. The SOC could be expressed as a percentage value. Thus, a fully charged battery
would have 100% SOC, and a fully discharged battery would have 0% SOC.
State of health (SOH): A quantitative value (expressed in percentage) depicting the current condition of
the battery compared to its condition when new. The SOH is evaluated by the battery management system

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(BMS), which monitors operational variables such as voltage, current, temperature and internal resistance.
Since a battery’s performance degrades with time, the SOH value starts at 100% for a new battery and
reduces with time. This indication is critical to evaluation and monitoring.
Thermal runaway: The irreversible failure mode of a lithium-ion battery where an exothermic reaction occurs
and flammable gas is produced.

APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

The purpose of this appendix is to capture the changes that were made to this document each time it was
published. Please note that section numbers refer specifically to those in the version published on the date
shown (i.e., the section numbers are not always the same from version to version).
October 2024. This is the first publication of this document

APPENDIX C LITHIUM-ION BATTERY INFORMATION

C.1 Introduction

C.2 Types of Lithium-Ion Batteries

C.2.1 Cells
Lithium-ion cells are constructed similar to other battery cells, consisting of an anode, a cathode, electrolyte,
insulators, terminals, pressure vent and a container sometimes called a ′case’ or ′can’.
Each cell consists of a cathode and an anode separated by a thin dielectric layer called the ′separator’. A
lithium-ion cell uses the movement of lithium-ions between positive and negative electrodes for energy
storage. Lithium never exists in metallic form in lithium-ion battery cells, so the inherent instability of metallic
lithium is mitigated. A typical lithium-ion cell operates in the range of 3.6 (fully discharged) to 4.2 (fully
charged) VDC. Outside of this range instabilities can occur that result in failures. See Section C.3 for additional
information. Also, the solid electrolyte interphase layer (SEI), which forms on the anode surfaces is an
ionically conductive and electronically insulating layer. This layer facilitates the working of lithium-ion
technology. Failure of the SEI leads to heat generation and thermal runaway.
Lithium-ion cells include a wide variety of chemistries related to the chemical composition of the anode and
cathode that affect performance and cost. For cathode composition, li-nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NCM)
and li-nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) chemistries are known to be very stable while providing high
energy density. The most popular chemistry for anode composition is partially graphitized carbon. Lithium
titanate (LTO) cells have approximately 30% lower energy density values compared to other compositions.
The term ″cell″ is often interchangeable with ′battery’ when talking about small-format applications. For
example, a cylindrical cell with a top positive terminal and bottom negative terminal is used in many
applications and called a battery. Cells actually come in a variety of forms. The three most common forms
are cylindrical cell, prismatic cell, and pouch cell.

C.2.1.1 Cylindrical Cells

Cylindrical cells, shown in Figure C.2.1.1, are the most widely used packaging style for batteries and provide
good mechanical stability. Most cylindrical cells feature a pressure-relief mechanism, and the simplest design
uses a membrane seal that ruptures under high pressure. Some Lithium-ion cells connect the pressure relief
vent to an electrical fuse that permanently opens the cell under unsafe pressures.

C.2.1.2 Prismatic Cells

Prismatic cells, shown in Figure C.2.1.2, provide a firm enclosure to the electrochemical cell within. These
cells are found in computer tablets and laptops ranging from 800 mAh to 4,000 mAh. No universal format
exists, as each manufacturer uses their own design. Prismatic cells are also available in large formats that
can be found in electric vehicles. Packaged in welded aluminum housings, the cells deliver capacities of 20
to 50 Ah and are primarily used for ESS applications.

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Positive terminal
Cover

Insulating Anode
ring (negative plate)

Positive
tab

Case

Separator
Cathode
Negative tab (positive plate)

Fig. C.2.1.1. Cylindrical cell form

Positive terminal
Anode
Top plate
Anode tab

Pressure vent

Separator
Cathode
Can case

Fig. C.2.1.2. Prismatic cell form

C.2.1.3 Pouch Cells

A pouch cell, shown in Figure C.2.1.3, uses laminated architecture in a bag. The pouch cell makes most
efficient use of space. It is light and cost effective, but exposure to humidity and high temperature can shorten
its life. No standardized pouch cell exists, as each manufacturer uses their own design. The pouch cell is
used for similar applications as the prismatic cell.

Anode tab
Cathode tab

Top insulator

Cathode

Anode
Aluminum
laminate film

Fig. C.2.1.3. Pouch cell form

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C.2.2 Modules
The next order of structure is the lithium-ion module or pack, shown in Figures C.2.2-A and C.2.2-B. It is
an assembly of multiple cells that are electrically arranged in series, parallel, or a combination of both to meet
the output voltage and amperage necessary for the installation.

Control Pressure plate

electronics
Electronics
cover plate

Heatsink plates

Lithium Ion prismatic cell

Fig. C.2.2-A. Module configuration

Fig. C.2.2-B. Typical modules within a battery pack for an electric vehicle

C.3 Failure Modes

The performance of lithium-ion cells is dependent on both temperature and operating voltage. They operate
within a safe range, which is a function of cell voltage and temperature. The cell should generally operate
between 32°F (0°C) and 212°F (100°C) while maintaining a voltage from 2 V to 4 V, although each cell
manufacturer may have their own specifications. Should a failure occur and the cell temperature fall below
32°F (0°C), lithium plating will occur during charging, which will lead to shorting. Operating above 212°F
(100°C) can lead to SEI thermal layer breakdown. When coupled with operating above 6 V, it can lead to
electrolyte leakage and subsequent vapor ignition. When operating at extreme temperatures (over 392°
[200°C]) the cathode active material will breakdown, causing even further damage. When operating below 2
V, the copper will dissolve, leading to shorting. When operating above 4 V, and between 32°F (0°C) and
212°F (100°C), lithium plating will occur during charging, which will lead to overheating.

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This section describes the failure modes for lithium-ion cells. These failure modes can be split into four broad
categories, depending on the critical variable triggering the failure: voltage, temperature, mechanical fatigue
and cycling/aging.

C.3.1 Overvoltage
If the charging voltage is increased beyond the recommended upper cell voltage, excessive current could
flow, giving rise to two problems:
1. Lithium plating (dendrite growth): Lithium-ions accumulate on the surface of the anode where they are
deposited as metallic lithium. This is known as lithium plating. The consequence is an irreversible
capacity loss; and since the plating occurs in dendritic form, it can ultimately result in a short circuit
between the electrodes. The quantity of lithium available is not sufficient to present a water reactivity
hazard; therefore, lithium plating is not typically considered a concern for lithium-ion batteries, while
dendrite growth is considered a short circuit hazard.
2. Overheating: Excessive current also causes increased Joule heating of the cell, accompanied by an
increase in temperature.

C.3.2 Undervoltage/Over-discharge
Allowing the cell voltage to fall below about 2 V by over-discharging or storage for an extended period results
in progressive breakdown of the electrode materials.
• Anodes: At low voltage, the anode copper current collector dissolves into the electrolyte. As the
voltage is increased (by charging), the copper ions which are dispersed throughout the electrolyte are
precipitated as metallic copper wherever they happen to be, not necessarily back on the current
collector foil. This situation is dangerous and can ultimately cause a short circuit between the
electrodes.
• Cathodes: Keeping the cells at voltages below 2 V for prolonged periods results in the gradual
breakdown of the cathode over many cycles through the release of oxygen by the lithium cobalt oxide
and lithium manganese oxide cathodes and a consequent permanent capacity loss. With lithium
iron phosphate cells, this breakdown can happen over a few cycles.

C.3.3 Low Temperature

The outcome of reducing the operating temperature is to reduce the rate at which the active chemicals in
the cell are transformed. The current-carrying (i.e., power-handling) capacity of the cell is reduced, both for
charging and discharging. The reduced reaction rate slows down and restricts the movement of the
lithium-ions. Since the electrodes cannot accommodate the current flow, the result is reduced power and
lithium plating of the anode with irreversible capacity loss.

C.3.4 High Temperature

Operating at high temperatures can result in the destruction of the cell. The Arrhenius effect helps to increase
the power output of the cell by increasing the reaction rate, but higher currents give rise to higher heat
dissipation and even greater temperatures. This positive temperature feedback could result in thermal
runaway unless heat is removed faster than it is generated.

C.3.5 Thermal Runaway

Several stages are involved in the buildup to thermal runaway, with each one capable of causing more damage
than the previous stage.
A. Breakdown of SEI layer. This could be caused by overheating or mechanical impingement or can start
at a relatively low temperature. Once this layer is breached, the electrolyte reacts with the carbon anode
and leads to electrolytic breakdown and cathode breakdown. These reactions are exothermic and further
increase the temperature.
B. Electrolyte breakdown. Heat from the anode reaction causes the breakdown of the organic solvents
used in the electrolyte, releasing flammable hydrocarbon gases (Ethane, Methane, and others) but no
oxygen. The gas generation causes pressure to build up inside the cell. The pressure release vent in the
cells is designed to release the gas and relieve the internal pressure.

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C. Separator melting. At elevated temperature, the polymer separator melts, allowing short circuits between
electrodes.
D. Cathode breakdown. Heat from the electrolyte breakdown causes breakdown of the metal oxide cathode
material, releasing oxygen, which enables burning of both the electrolyte and the gases inside the cell.
Note that several studies have been undertaken to evaluate the prevention of thermal runaway by adequate
thermal management. This research is critical, because it forms the basis of mitigation measures against
thermal runaway propagation.

C.3.6 Mechanical Fatigue

The electrodes of lithium cells expand and contract during charging and discharge. The cyclic stresses on
the electrodes can eventually lead to cracking of the particles that comprise the electrode, resulting in
increased internal impedance as the cell ages. In the worst case, the SEI layer could breakdown, leading
to overheating and immediate cell failure. An internal ground fault due to insulation failure between electrodes
and the enclosure could also cause cell failure.
Similarly, the slow degradation of the electrolyte each time it is heat cycled could lead to the release of small
amounts of gases, resulting in swelling of the cell and ultimately rupture of the cell casing.
Leakage of the enclosure can lead to oxygen/moisture ingress, causing electrolyte decomposition. Typically
seals and weld failure can cause enclosure failure.
Other mechanical failure modes are drop, puncture, nail penetration, impact and unsafe operation.

APPENDIX D LITHIUM-ION CELL MANUFACTURING PROCESS

D.1 INTRODUCTION
Every battery manufacturer will have their own proprietary lithium-ion battery chemistry and manufacturing
process. However, regardless of the chemistry and the exact details of how certain processes are completed,
fundamental process steps can be applied to lithium-ion battery manufacturing in general. This section will
expand on each process step, describing its purpose as well as the inherent hazards present, see Figure 1.1
for the overall manufacturing process. Figure D.1 shows an example manufacturing facility layout.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

17

16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9

ELECTRODE CELL CELL

MANUFACTURING ASSEMBLY FINISHING
Mixing Separation Formation
Coating Stacking or Winding Aging
Drying Welding Testing
Solvent Recovery Electrolyte Filling Packaging
Calendering Enclosing Storage
Slitting and Notching
Vacuum Drying

Figure D.1. Example Manufacturing Facility layout

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D.2 ELECTRODE MANUFACTURING

Electrode manufacturing can consist of seven process steps that result in the final coils of cathode and anode
materials used in cell assembly. The six steps include mixing, coating, drying, calendering, slitting and
notching and vacuum drying. At this point in the lithium-ion cell fabrication process, no electrochemical
hazards exist; as the cell has not been formed and is not chemically active. The hazards throughout these
process steps are due to the process activities and raw materials present. Typically, manufacturing facilities
will run two similar production lines in separate clean rooms, one for the cathode and one for the anode,
to avoid cross contamination.

D.2.1 Mixing
The mixing step produces two slurries, one for the cathode and one for the anode. The slurries are formed
by mixing active materials, carbon black, solvent, binders and additives to meet the chemistry specifications
of the cathode and anode.
The mixing process can take approximately 30 minutes to five hours. Once complete, the slurries are
transported to the coating area via pipelines or sealed tanks. The hazards for this step are tied to the chemicals
being used. The production of the cathode slurry involves ignitable liquids, whereas the production of anode
slurry usually does not.

D.2.2 Coating
During the coating process the slurry is applied to a foil material (aluminum for the cathode and copper for
the anode) and continuously fed to the dryer. Again, the hazards are tied to the chemicals and process
equipment being used.

D.2.3 Drying
The drying process removes the solvent from the slurries by applying heat. The flammable solvent used in
the cathode manufacturing process is typically recovered. Transport of the foils through the dryer is
accomplished by either a roller system or floatation air streams, depending on whether single- or double-sided
application of the slurry is being performed. After passing through the dryer, the coated foil is cooled and
rewound or fed through the system again to coat the second side if needed. Hazards include the heaters and
flammable solvent vapor in the ducts.

D.2.4 Calendering
After the cathode and anode coils are cooled, they are compressed during calendering to obtain the desired
porosity. The rollers used can be heated and present a fire hazard.

D.2.5 Slitting
The wide electrode coil produced thus far, sometimes referred to as the mother coil, is divided into several
smaller electrode coils or daughter coils and rewound into smaller rolls. Flammable dusts and vapors can
be produced during the slitting process.

D.2.6 Notching
After the slitting process, electrode coils undergo notching where a V-shaped notch and tabs are made to
form the positive and negative terminals. The uncoated parts of the coil are cut off leaving the corners in order
to ground the tabs.

D.2.7 Vacuum Drying

The daughter coils are dried in a vacuum oven for 12 to 30 hours to remove residual moisture and solvents.
The hazards during vacuum drying relate to the process equipment rather than the coils themselves.

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D.3 CELL ASSEMBLY

Cell assembly consists of up to five process steps that result in an active cell. The five steps include separation
in the case of pouch cells, stacking or winding, welding, electrolyte filling and enclosing. At this point in the
lithium-ion cell fabrication, electrochemical hazards can come into play as the cell is formed and is potentially
electrochemically active. The hazards throughout these process steps are due to the process activities.

D.3.1 Separation
The separation process is only needed for the assembly of pouch or stacked prismatic cells. During this
assembly stage, the daughter coils are cut into their final format using laser cutting or punching methods.
The hazards associated with this process step are due to the activities being conducted, and the risk of fire
is low.

D.3.2 Stacking or Winding

The stacking process consists of placing alternating cathode and anode sheets in a stack with separator
material between each. The separator may also be a continuous sheet if the z-folding process is used. The
winding process is used for cylindrical cells. It entails stacking the anode foil, separator, cathode foil and
separator on top of each other and rolling to form a jelly roll. Quality control over this process is important,
as any mistakes or defects introduced into the cell at this stage can have a major impact on the risk factors
during the formation process.

D.3.3 Welding
During welding, the contacts are welded to the cell stack or jelly roll and the stack or jelly roll is placed into
the cell housing (pouch, can, or case). The cell housing is then sealed on three sides, leaving one side open
to fill the cell with electrolyte in the next step.

D.3.4 Electrolyte Filling

The electrolyte is now placed inside the cell under a vacuum. A capillary effect created by alternating the
application of a vacuum and pressure with inert gas is used to distribute the electrolyte faster. This process
is referred to as wetting. The use of an ignitable liquid electrolyte is the main hazard concern within this
process step.

D.3.5 Enclosing
Once the cell is filled with electrolyte, the cell housing is fully sealed under vacuum during the enclosing
process. For pouch cells, another step known as roll pressing may then take place. Roll pressing involves
applying a defined pressure to the pouch cells in order to achieve optimum distribution and absorption of the
electrolyte throughout the cell.

D.4 CELL FINISHING

Cell finishing consists of up to five process steps that result in the finished, ready-for-use lithium-ion cell.
The five steps include formation, aging, testing, packaging and storage. Electrochemical hazards are present
throughout the cell finishing steps, and the greatest fire hazard exists within the formation and aging process
steps due to the large quantity of cells staged near each other for long durations.

D.4.1 Formation
Formation is where the manufactured cells first undergo charging and discharging to form the SEI layer.
The exact process parameters and steps will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and are often
proprietary due to the high impact this process step has on the final cell performance. Generally, the cells
undergo an initial pre-charge that is followed by cycles of discharging and charging. During formation, the cells
are placed in specially designed pallets and stored in a high-bay storage system. The entire process can
last up to 15 days.
This process step is one of the most hazardous in terms of fire risk due to the large quantity of cells in close
proximity, as well as from the initial charge taking place. Any production defects introduced during earlier
process steps can increase the hazard here.

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After formation, a process step known as degassing must take place for pouch and prismatic cells prior to
aging. For these cells, the gas produced during the formation process is collected in a disposable bag or dead
space within the cell. Degassing removes the gases under a vacuum, along with the disposable bag if
needed, and applies the final seal to the cell housing.

D.4.2 Aging
Aging is the final cell production step to stabilize the cell properties and SEI film. It involves monitoring each
cell’s parameters for quality assurance. During this process, the cells are typically charged 80-100% and
placed in high-bay, rack storage to rest for an extended period. The exact amount of time is dependent on
the cell chemistry and manufacturer specifications. Some manufacturers will continually monitor each cell
during the aging process, while others may take the needed measurements at the start and end of aging.
Voltage and impedance are the parameters typically monitored. The aging process is completed in multiple
steps with the cells resting at different temperatures, usually at a high temperature followed by ambient
temperature.

D.4.3 Testing
Once the aging process is complete, each finished cell will undergo testing. The exact testing is up to the
manufacturer but could include pulse tests, internal resistance measurements, optical inspections, open circuit
voltage tests and leakage tests. Based on each cell’s performance data, a battery grade is assigned, grade
A, B or C. The cell will be discharged to the shipping state of charge and released for final packaging.

D.4.4 Packaging
Depending on the extent of manufacturing, the cells are either packaged in plastic or cardboard containers
to be shipped or assembled into modules that are then packaged for shipment.

D.4.5 Storage
Packaged cells or modules are generally found in either palletized, solid-pile or rack storage arrangements.
Rack storage used in the highly automated manufacturing process tends to be high-bay ASRS.

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