Notes

Book: Organizational Behavior 17th edition

CHAPTER 5
Topic 5: PERSONALITY AND VALUES
Topic: personality
Section 1 Conceptual understanding
Personality : refers to the sum of the ways in which individuals react to and interact with others. It
encompasses the consistent traits, behaviors, and patterns of thinking that distinguish one person from
another. In organizational behavior, personality is often analyzed through measurable traits that help
predict how a person might behave in different situations.

Measuring personality typically involves two main approaches:

1. Self-report surveys, where individuals assess themselves on various traits, such as emotional
stability or conscientiousness. While useful, self-reports can sometimes be influenced by mood
or the desire to present oneself favorably, especially if the results are used for hiring decisions.

2. Observer-ratings surveys, where others (e.g., coworkers) assess the individual. Research shows
that observer ratings can often predict job success more accurately than self-reports alone. The
most reliable measure combines both self-reports and observer-ratings, offering a more
complete picture of an individual's personality and its impact on their job performance.

HOW DO I ACE THE PERSONALITY TEST?

In this passage, Lauren is preparing for a second-round interview with a company that uses personality
tests, and she's seeking advice on how to excel in the test. Here's a breakdown of the key points:

1. Responding Favorably: It's tempting to answer personality test questions in ways you think will
be viewed positively by employers. For example, if asked if you are "always prepared," you might
feel pressured to answer "strongly agree" to appear responsible.

2. Caution with "Lie Scales": Some companies use "lie scales" to detect overly favorable responses.
These are subtle markers within the test that flag candidates who may be giving answers that
seem too good to be true. If you consistently choose the most favorable options, it could raise
red flags for the employer.

3. Not All Traits Are Always Positive: High scores in certain personality traits aren’t always desired
for every job. For example, in competitive fields like sales or coaching, employers might prefer
candidates who aren't overly agreeable (since competitiveness may be more important than
being nice).
 4. Ethical Considerations: Answering dishonestly might help you get the job, but you should think
about whether you’ll be comfortable in the long run if you misrepresented your true personality.
If you pretend to be someone you’re not during the hiring process, you might end up unhappy or
unsuccessful in the job.

5. Focus on Finding a Match: The goal of the test is to see if you're a good match for the company.
Honesty helps both you and the employer make the right decision

6. Honesty is the Best Policy: Misrepresenting yourself may help you get hired but could lead to
dissatisfaction in the job. Being truthful ensures a better match between you and the role

Personality Determinants
Heredity vs. Environment:
Personality is shaped by both genetics (heredity) and environmental factors, but research leans towards
heredity having a more significant influence.

Heredity:
Heredity refers to traits and characteristics determined at conception, which include biological,
physiological, and psychological elements. These inherited traits, like physical stature, temperament, and
energy levels, come from one's parents through genetic makeup. The heredity approach suggests that
personality is influenced by the molecular structure of genes located in chromosomes.

Personality Change:
While personality can evolve, particularly during adolescence, core personality traits tend to stabilize in
adulthood. Some traits, such as dependability, may change with life experiences, though individuals
usually maintain their relative standing compared to others.

Personality Traits:
Personality traits are enduring characteristics that consistently describe a person's behavior across
different situations. Traits like being shy, aggressive, or ambitious are relatively stable over time and help
define a person's overall personality.

Personality Frameworks
Importance of Personality Frameworks:

• Help in predicting behavior by categorizing personality traits.

• The two dominant frameworks: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and Big Five Personality
Model.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):

• Definition: A personality test that classifies people into one of 16 personality types based on
four pairs of characteristics.

• Widely used: Taken by 2.5 million people annually, used by 89 of the Fortune 100 companies.

MBTI Classifies People into 4 Key Dimensions:

 1. Extraverted (E) vs Introverted (I):

o Extraverted: Outgoing, sociable, assertive.

o Introverted: Quiet, shy.

2. Sensing (S) vs Intuitive (N):

o Sensing: Practical, detail-focused, prefers routine.

o Intuitive: Relies on unconscious processes, focuses on the "big picture."

3. Thinking (T) vs Feeling (F):

o Thinking: Uses logic and reasoning.

o Feeling: Relies on personal values and emotions.

4. Judging (J) vs Perceiving (P):

o Judging: Likes control, structure, and order.

o Perceiving: Flexible, spontaneous.

The Big Five Personality Traits:

1. Conscientiousness:

o Describes reliability and responsibility.

o High scorers: Organized, dependable, persistent.

o Low scorers: Easily distracted, disorganized, unreliable.

2. Emotional Stability (vs. Neuroticism):

o Measures one's ability to handle stress.

o High emotional stability: Calm, self-confident, optimistic, secure.

o Low emotional stability (neuroticism): Nervous, anxious, insecure, vulnerable to stress.

3. Extraversion:

o Describes one's comfort level in social interactions.

o High scorers (Extraverts): Sociable, assertive, energetic, experience positive emotions.

o Low scorers (Introverts): Reserved, thoughtful, quiet, prefer solitude.

4. Openness to Experience:

o Relates to creativity and curiosity.

o High scorers: Imaginative, curious, open to new ideas, artistically sensitive.

o Low scorers: Conventional, prefer familiar routines and comfort.

 5. Agreeableness:

o Refers to the tendency to be cooperative and trusting.

o High scorers: Warm, friendly, cooperative, well-liked in teams.

o Low scorers: Cold, antagonistic, uncooperative.

How Do the Big five traits predict Behavior at Work?

Conscientiousness at Work

Conscientiousness is the strongest predictor of job performance. Employees who score high in this trait
tend to gain more job knowledge and perform better. However, they may prioritize work over personal
life and struggle with adaptability and creativity.

Emotional Stability at Work

Emotional stability is linked to job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and low stress levels. Those with high
emotional stability adapt better to workplace demands, while those with low emotional stability
(neuroticism) may experience burnout and work-family conflict.

Extraversion at Work

Extraverts excel in jobs that involve interpersonal interactions, showing assertiveness and social
dominance. However, they may also exhibit impulsivity, which can lead to higher absenteeism and
dishonest behavior in job interviews.

Openness at Work

Open individuals are more effective leaders and handle ambiguity and change better. They may not
initially perform better, but over time, they are less likely to experience performance declines and have
fewer work-family conflicts.

Agreeableness at Work

Agreeable people tend to be well-liked and excel in jobs involving interpersonal skills, such as customer
service. They contribute positively to organizational performance but may experience lower career
success compared to less agreeable individuals.

We can accurately judge individuals’ Personalities a Few seconds after

Meeting them. (science or myth)
According to the text, it is science that people can accurately appraise others' personalities within just a
few seconds of meeting them, or even from a photograph. This approach is referred to as "zero
acquaintance," and research supports the validity of these quick judgments. Studies have shown that
traits like extraversion can be accurately assessed even after a very short interaction, and even more
subtle traits like self-esteem can be judged with reasonable accuracy.

The text cites specific research that indicates these quick personality judgments are not just intuitive
guesses but have a scientific basis, showing a measurable correlation between observers' judgments and
individuals' self-reported traits. This makes it a scientific observation, though the accuracy can vary
depending on the trait and situation.

However, the text also reminds us that while initial judgments are often valid, it's important to remain
open-minded since there's always more to someone than first impressions reveal.

Proactive Personality
A proactive personality describes individuals who take initiative, act on opportunities, and persist in
creating change. They perform well, adapt easily, and contribute to team innovation, but their success
depends on context. Proactivity can also lead to setbacks, like giving up early when facing failure.

Personality and Situations

1. Personality Basics:

o Nature vs. Nurture: Our personalities are mainly shaped by our genes (nature), but our
environment (nurture) also matters.

2. Big Five Traits:

o Some personality traits (like being organized or outgoing) work well in many situations.
But how much they show up can depend on the situation.

3. Situation Strength:

o What is it?: This idea says that how we act depends on how strong or weak the situation
is.

4. Strong vs. Weak Situations:

o Strong Situations: These have clear rules about how to behave. For example, in a formal
meeting, people usually act seriously and follow the rules.

o Weak Situations: These are more relaxed and have fewer rules. For example, at home,
you can act however you want, like wearing pajamas or listening to music.

Four Key Factors of Situation Strength

1. Clarity:

o How clear are the tasks? A janitor knows exactly what to do (strong), while a nanny
might have unclear tasks (weak).

2. Consistency:

o How well do the rules match up? A nurse has consistent duties, while a manager may
have many different tasks.

3. Constraints:

o How much freedom do you have? A bank examiner has strict rules (strong), while a
forest ranger can make more choices (weak).
 4. Consequences:

o How important are your actions? A surgeon’s work is very important (strong), but a
teacher might have less serious consequences for their choices (weak).

Trait Activation Theory (TAT)

1. What is TAT?: Trait Activation Theory predicts that some situations can "activate" or bring out
certain personality traits more than others.

2. Example in the Workplace:

o Commission-Based Jobs: These jobs may activate traits like extraversion since outgoing
people are often more motivated by rewards.

o Creative Jobs: In creative roles, traits like openness to new experiences are more
relevant than extraversion.

3. Impact of Environment:

o Monitoring: In a study, people who feared failure performed worse when being
monitored online because their fear was activated by the situation.

o Supportive vs. Harsh Environments: A supportive environment encourages everyone to

act positively, while only those naturally inclined to be helpful do so in a harsh
environment.

4. Nature and Nurture Interaction:

o TAT suggests that both personality (nature) and environment (nurture) influence
behavior, and they interact. The right situation can enhance the effect of personality on
behavior.

5. Moving to Values: After discussing traits, the focus shifts to values, which describe beliefs rather
than actions. Values may relate to personality, but people don't always act according to their
values.

Topic 2 Values
1. Definition of Values:

o Values are basic beliefs about what is preferable in terms of behavior or life outcomes.
They include judgments about what is right or wrong and help shape decisions.

2. Value System:

o A value system is the ranking of an individual’s values based on their importance. Each
person has a hierarchy of values, which can include aspects like freedom, honesty, and
equality.

3. Stability and Formation:

 o Values tend to be stable and enduring over time. They are often formed early in life
through influences from parents, teachers, and peers. While values can change if
questioned, they are typically reinforced through experiences.

4. Connection to Personality:

o There is evidence suggesting that personality traits can influence values. For example,
individuals who are more open may hold liberal values, while conscientious individuals
may prioritize safety and ethical behavior.

Terminal vs. Instrumental Values

• Terminal Values: These are the end goals or ultimate objectives in life, such as happiness, self-
fulfillment, or a world of peace. They represent the desired end states of existence.

• Instrumental Values: These are the means or methods to achieve terminal values, such as being
honest, responsible, or ambitious. They are more about the actions and behaviors that help
individuals reach their terminal values.

Importance and Organization of Values

Values play a crucial role in shaping our attitudes and motivations, influencing how we perceive
situations and guiding our preferences for certain behaviors and outcomes in the workplace. When we
enter an organization, we bring our own preconceived notions of what is right and wrong, which can
either clarify our judgments or create biases. For example, if you value performance-based pay but
discover that your organization rewards seniority instead, you may feel disappointed, leading to job
dissatisfaction and decreased effort. Conversely, when personal values align with organizational policies,
it fosters a sense of satisfaction and motivation. Therefore, the alignment of values is essential for
enhancing job satisfaction and overall performance in the workplace.

An Ethical Choice: Understanding Cheating Personalities

Recent incidents, such as a major cheating scandal at Harvard involving over 125 students, highlight a
growing concern about cheating in educational and professional settings. Cheating behavior stems from
both personal traits and situational factors.

Personal Traits Associated with Cheating:

• Narcissism: Individuals with high narcissistic tendencies may feel entitled to cheat.

• Low Conscientiousness: Those who lack diligence and responsibility are more prone to
dishonest behavior.

• Low Agreeableness: A lack of empathy and consideration for others can lead to cheating.

• High Competitiveness: An intense desire to win or succeed may drive individuals to cheat.

Situational Factors That Encourage Cheating:

• Ease of Cheating: Situations where cheating is simpler (like take-home exams) increase the
likelihood of dishonest behavior.
 • Pressure to Cheat: Greater expectations to succeed can lead to unethical choices.

• Lack of Clear Standards: When policies (e.g., on sexual harassment) are unclear or poorly
enforced, the risk of cheating increases.

Practical Takeaways

1. Recognize Pressure Situations: Be aware of circumstances that may tempt you to cheat. Self-
reflection can help you avoid a moral blind spot, ensuring you consider the ethical implications
of your actions. Remember, advancements in cheating detection increase the chances of being
caught.

2. Be Aware of Your Traits: If you exhibit traits associated with a tendency to cheat, understand
that you're not doomed to cheat. Instead, be mindful of your environment, especially avoiding
unethical settings that may heighten your susceptibility to cheating.

Linking Personality and Values to the Workplace

Differences Between Person–Job Fit and Person–Organization Fit:

Organizations have shifted their focus from merely matching individuals to specific jobs (person–job fit)
to considering how well an individual’s personality and values align with the organization (person–
organization fit).

• Person–Job Fit: This concept is rooted in John Holland's personality–job fit theory, which
identifies six personality types and suggests that satisfaction and turnover depend on how well
individuals match their personality traits to specific job requirements. In individualistic cultures,
tailoring jobs to fit workers enhances job satisfaction, while in collectivistic cultures, this fit is less
crucial as employees do not expect personalized jobs.

• Person–Organization Fit: This concept emphasizes that individuals are drawn to organizations
whose values align with their own and tend to leave when there is incompatibility. For instance,
extraverts thrive in team-oriented cultures, while agreeable individuals prefer supportive
environments. A strong person–organization fit correlates with higher job satisfaction,
commitment, and lower turnover.

Cultural Values

This section talks about two ways to understand cultural values: Hofstede’s five dimensions and the
GLOBE framework.

Hofstede’s Five Dimensions:

1. Power Distance: How much people accept unequal power in society (like having a boss who has
more power).

2. Individualism vs. Collectivism: Individualism means valuing personal freedom and rights, while
collectivism means valuing teamwork and support within a group.

3. Masculinity vs. Femininity: Masculinity focuses on traditional male roles (like being competitive
and strong), whereas femininity values equality between men and women.
 4. Uncertainty Avoidance: How comfortable people are with uncertainty. High uncertainty
avoidance means people prefer clear rules and dislike change, while low means they are okay
with ambiguity and risk.

5. Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation: Long-term orientation values future goals and
persistence, while short-term orientation focuses on immediate results and adaptability.

However, the GLOBE framework introduces additional dimensions, such as:

• Humane Orientation: How much a society rewards altruism and kindness.

• Performance Orientation: The encouragement of achievement and excellence.

Section 2 Case Studies & Theoretical framework from the chapter

BOOK EXERCISES AND CASES STUDIES

5-1: What is personality? How do we typically measure it? What factors determine personality?

Personality is the unique way someone thinks, feels, and behaves. We often measure it using
questionnaires or surveys that ask about thoughts and actions. Factors that determine personality
include genetics (what you inherit from your parents), environment (how you are raised), and life
experiences.

5-2: What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Big
Five personality model?

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):

• Strengths: Easy to understand; helps people know their preferences and improve teamwork.

• Weaknesses: Lacks scientific support; people might not fit neatly into one category.

Big Five Personality Model:

• Strengths: Strong scientific backing; covers a wide range of traits.

• Weaknesses: May not capture the full complexity of a person; can be too general.

5-3: How do the concepts of core self-evaluation (CSE), self-monitoring, and proactive personality help
us to understand personality?

• Core Self-Evaluation (CSE): Reflects how we feel about ourselves and our abilities, which can
affect our motivation and success.

• Self-Monitoring: The ability to adjust behavior based on the situation. High self-monitors adapt
easily, while low ones are more consistent.

• Proactive Personality: Describes people who take initiative and create change. This can lead to
better job performance and satisfaction.

5-4: How does the situation or environment affect the degree to which personality predicts behavior?
The situation or environment can change how personality shows up in behavior. For example, a normally
shy person might be outgoing in a friendly setting but reserved in a formal one. This means personality
traits may not always predict behavior if the environment is strong enough.

5-5: What is the difference between terminal and instrumental values?

• Terminal Values: These are the ultimate goals we want to achieve in life, like happiness or
success.

• Instrumental Values: These are the means we use to reach those goals, such as being honest or
responsible.

5-6: What are the differences between person–job fit and person–organization fit?

• Person–Job Fit: This is about how well a person's skills and personality match a specific job.

• Person–Organization Fit: This focuses on how well a person’s values and personality match the
culture and values of the whole organization.

5-7: How do Hofstede’s five value dimensions and the GLOBE framework differ?

Hofstede’s Dimensions: Focus on five main cultural values (like power distance and individualism) based
on IBM employees.
GLOBE Framework: Builds on Hofstede's work and adds more dimensions (like humane orientation)
while looking at how these values affect leadership and organizational behavior in a broader context.

Ethical Dillema Personal Values and Ethics in the Workplace

Sipho Dlamini, raised in a poor community in Swaziland, moved to South Africa for a job at a gold mine.
He worked hard and sent money home to his family. However, when he was offered a promotion, he was
asked to pay R500 (about $60) as a bribe, which went against his values of honesty and hard work.
Feeling pressured to support his family, Sipho paid the bribe and was promoted. Later, the personnel
assistant who demanded the bribe was caught for fraud, and Sipho was also implicated, resulting in his
dismissal.

Questions and Answers

5-11. What should Sipho have done differently?

Sipho should have reported the bribery request to a higher authority or the management instead of
paying the bribe. He could have sought advice from other employees or looked for a way to document
the incident to protect himself.

5-12. In what way could the mine management have provided support to him prior to his wrongful
act?

The mine management could have established a clear and anonymous reporting system for unethical
practices, provided training on ethical behavior, and promoted a culture of transparency and integrity,
ensuring employees felt safe to report misconduct.

5-13. How would you have acted had you been in a similar situation?
If I were in Sipho's situation, I would have resisted the bribery and sought guidance from a trusted
colleague or supervisor. I would document the request and report it to the relevant authorities to ensure
that I was not complicit in unethical behavior. Supporting my family is important, but I would try to find a
legitimate way to do so.

Case incident 1 On the Costs of Being Nice

The case discusses how being agreeable, while leading to better social relationships and happiness, can
have financial downsides. Agreeable individuals tend to earn less because they are less assertive in
salary negotiations (distributive bargaining), often choose lower-paying industries (like education and
healthcare), and show less drive to take on leadership roles or improve organizational efficiency. Despite
this, agreeable individuals tend to be more liked at work and are generally happier in life.

Questions and Answers

5-14. Do you think employers must choose between agreeable employees and top performers? Why
or why not?

No, employers do not necessarily have to choose between agreeable employees and top performers.
Agreeableness can coexist with high performance, especially in team-oriented roles where collaboration
is crucial. However, for roles requiring assertive negotiation or tough decision-making, employers might
need to balance an employee's agreeableness with the ability to be firm when necessary.

5-15. Why might agreeable individuals make poor managers and decision-makers? What are the
implications for organizations? How does this affect their earning potential?

Agreeable individuals might struggle as managers because they may avoid conflict, find it hard to make
tough decisions, and prioritize harmony over productivity. This could lead to less effective leadership and
slower decision-making, which can affect an organization's performance. As a result, agreeable managers
may not be promoted to higher-paying leadership positions, limiting their earning potential.

5-16. What has research indicated about agreeable individuals’ career paths? What are the
implications and where are you more likely to find agreeable employees?

Research suggests that agreeable individuals are often drawn to occupations in caring industries like
education, healthcare, or non-profits, which tend to offer lower salaries. The implication is that
agreeable employees are likely to prioritize job satisfaction and interpersonal relationships over financial
rewards. As such, you'll find more agreeable employees in roles where empathy and collaboration are
highly valued, rather than in high-pressure, profit-driven environments.

Case Incident 2: The Power of Quiet

This case discusses the idea that society often favors extraverts over introverts, making introversion
seem undesirable. Susan Cain, in her book Quiet, argues that the world is designed for extraverts, and
introverts are often pressured to behave like extraverts. Cain highlights the strengths of introverts, such
as their ability to focus and think deeply, and suggests that society should value both extraversion and
introversion. She believes that by embracing who they truly are, people can contribute more effectively,
whether they're introverted or extraverted.
Questions and Answers

5-17. Would you classify yourself as introverted or extraverted? How would people who know you
describe you?

This depends on your personality. If you enjoy social gatherings, you're likely more extraverted. If you
prefer quiet, reflective time alone, you're probably more introverted. People who know you would
describe you based on how you interact with others.

5-18. Would you prefer to be more introverted, or more extraverted, than you are? Why?

This is subjective. Some might want to be more extraverted for socializing and career benefits, while
others might want to be more introverted for focus and creative thinking. It depends on your goals and
preferences.

5-19. Do you agree with Cain’s arguments? Why or why not?

Cain’s arguments seem valid because society often encourages extroverted behavior, like group work and
leadership roles. However, introverts offer valuable skills like deep thinking and creativity. Embracing
both types allows for a more balanced, productive environment.