Climate Cluster

TOPIC 1 What is the difference between

weather & climate?

Weather Climate
State of atmosphere State of atmospheric
at a particular place conditions at a
and time, described particular place over a
State of long period of time,
using variables:
atmospheric typically 25 years or
air temperature
conditions more. Three types of
cloud cover climate:
precipitation Tropical equatorial
wind speed Tropical monsoon
wind direction Cool temperate
 CLIMATIC TYPES
TROPICAL EQUATORIAL TROPICAL MONSOON COOL TEMPERATE

Generally high temperatures with Similar to tropical equatorial Four distinct seasons of
annual average temperature of about climates in annual average spring, summer, autumn and
27°C all year round. temperatures: winter.
Generally high temperatures of Large annual temperature
Small annual temperature range of
about 25°C all year round. range of about 21°C.
about 2-3°C. Small annual temperature range of Moderate annual
High annual precipitation of more than about 3-4°C. precipitation between 300-
2000mm. High annual precipitation averaging 900mm.
about 1500mm.
Precipitation falls evenly throughout Precipitation falls evenly
Distinct wet and dry seasons
the year.
(unlike tropical equatorial climates) throughout the year.
E.g Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia E.g India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka E.g UK, Canada, Spain
 HOW & WHY DOES AIR TEMPERATURE VARY-
ACROSS TIME?
At noon, sun is directly
Over time in a day
overhead, hence the sun's
rays are concentrated over a
small area, resulting in highest
Earth rotates on its own axis, making one completion
temperatures experienced.
rotation in 24 hrs
During mornings & evenings,
When it rotates, the part of the Earth which faces
temperatures are cooler as
the sun experiences day (higher temperatures), while
sun's rays are spread over a
the part which faces away from the sun experiences
larger area & is less
night (lower temperatures)
concentrated.

Over time in year

Earth revolves around the sun, making one complete

revolution in a year.
Earth's axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5 Deg., as it
revolves around the sun, different hemispheres will
receive different amount of solar radiation across a
year. This explains changes in seasons.
[Please refer to diagram for more information]
However, places near to the equator receive direct or
near-direct solar radiation throughout the year. This
explains why these places do not experience changes in
season as temperatures are high throughout the year.
Hence, temperature variations are more significant in
places outside the tropics.
 HOW & WHY DOES AIR TEMPERATURE VARY
ACROSS PLACES?
Latitude Altitude

Due to the Earth's spherical shape, the angle which the At higher altitudes, air is less dense and
sun strikes the Earth's surface varies at different parts
with fewer air molecules, air has a lower
of the Earth.
ability to absorb and radiate heat, hence
At lower latitudes (near to equator), the sun shines
perpendicularly (90°), resulting in a larger solar angle & leading to lower temperatures.
more direct solar radiation as the rays are At lower altitudes, air is more dense and
concentrated over a smaller area. Hence, these places with more air molecules, air has a higher
experience higher temperatures. ability to absorb and radiate more heat,
At higher latitudes, the sun shines at acute angles, hence leading to higher temperatures.
resulting in a smaller solar angle & less direct solar
radiation as the rays are spread over a larger area.
Hence, these places experience lower temperatures.
 WHAT OTHER FACTORS AFFECT AIR TEMPERATURE
AT SPECIFIC SITES?
Types of surface Distance from the sea

Dark surfaces (e.g roads) absorb more

solar radiation & hence radiate more
heat, leading to higher temperatures, as
compared to light surfaces (e.g snow,
clouds) which reflect more solar
radiation, and radiate less heat, leading
to lower temperatures.
Urban areas generally have a higher
temperature as there are more dark
surfaces (roads) and buildings. During summer, as the sea gains heat slower than the land, the sea
Skyscrapers are also glass-covered, remains cooler than land. Hence, the cooler air above the sea cools the
which reflects more sun's rays onto coastal areas (e.g Anchorage) during summers, resulting in cooler
ground surface, hence increasing the summers.
amount of heat absorption by the During winter, as the sea loses heat slowly, it remains warmer than the
ground surface and heat radiation from land. Hence, the warmer air above the sea warms the coastal areas
the ground surface, leading to higher during winters, resulting in warmer winters.
temperatures. This is known as the Coastal areas experience the maritime climate as their temperatures are
'Urban Island Heat Effect'! influenced by the moderating effects of the sea. As seen in the
climograph above, martime climate has a smaller annual temperature
range, lower temperatures during summer & higher temperatures during
winter, as compared to continental climate (which is experienced in inland
areas).
Inland areas (e.g Fairbanks), being away from the sea, do not
experience this moderating influence of the sea. Hence, they experience
colder winters and hotter summers. This is the continental effect.
 RELATIVE HUMIDITY & PRECIPITATION
How are clouds & precipitation formed?

Heat from the sun causes water from water bodies to evaporate, forming
water vapour. Plants release water vapour through transpiration =>
evapotransipration.
As water vapour rises, it cools, reducing the amount of water vapour it can
hold.
When the amount of water vapour in the air exceeds the maximum amount
of water vapour it can hold, air is saturated (relative humidity is 100%).
At this temperature, known as dew point temperature, air cools & condenses
into tiny water droplets on condensation nuclei (e.g dust & ash particles),
forming clouds.
These tiny water droplets in the clouds coalesce & become bigger & heavier.
They fall onto Earth as precipitation once they are large & heavy enough.

What happens when water falls onto Earth?

Water can either infiltrate or flow off the surface as runoff. Surface runoff will flow eventually into rivers/sea/oceans
again.
Water which infiltrates, moves on below the Earth's surface above impermeable rock as groundwater flows.
There will be more infiltration in areas where there is more vegetation or areas with rocks which are more porous
(permeable). This is because presence of vegetation slows down speed of surface runoff as roots of vegetation act as
barriers & increase surface roughness. Roots of vegetation also loosen the soil, creating more open spaces in the soil for
water to pass through. Roots also absorb the rain, hence encouraging more infiltration.
Generally, there is lesser infiltration in build-up areas as concrete surfaces which are impermeable discourages infiltration.
There is lesser friction when rain flows over smoother concrete surfaces, hence speed of surface runoff will be faster.
 RELATIVE HUMIDITY & PRECIPITATION
Relationship between Relative
Formula: Humidity & Temperature
What is the relationship between
Relative humidity = temperature & relative humidity?
amount of water vapour in the air Warm air expands and hence it has a greater capacity to
___________________________________ hold more water vapour than cold air. Conversely, cold air
the maximum amount of water vapour the air can contracts, hence it has a smaller capacity to hold water
hold at a given temperature. vapour

Using the formula to calculate relative humidity, assuming that the amount of water
vapour remains the same but air temperature changes, the capacity to hold water
vapour is higher when air temperature is higher (because warm air expands)

Hence, when temperature increases, relative humidity decreases and vice versa.

Other factors which may also influence relative humidity:

presence of vegetation (because vegetation release water vapour when they
transpire)
proximity to water bodies such as sea, oceans (because of the presence of water
bodies!)
 TWO TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Convectional Rain Relief Rain

Heat from the sun is absorbed by the land, and

Prevailing winds pick up moisture over the sea and
the air above it gains heat.
push the moist air up the windward side of the
Warm air rises and cools, and condenses on
mountains.
condensation nuclei at dew point temperature.
The rising moist air cools and condenses on
Clouds are formed. (cumulonimbus clouds)
condensation nuclei at dew point temperature,
Water droplets in the clouds collide and coalesce,
forming clouds.
and when they become large & heavy enough, they
Water droplets in the clouds collide and coalesce,
fall onto the ground as rain.
and when they become large and heavy enough,
Convectional rain is typically heavy but short-lived.
they fall to the ground as relief rain on the
It also usually occurs in the late afternoons and
windward side.
early evenings and it is accompanied by lightning &
As most of the moisture has fallen on the
thunder.
windward side, the leeward side experiences dry
E.g Singapore frequently receives convectional rain.
descending air and is thus dry.
In temperate areas, convectional rain may occur
E.g. South Island, New Zealand
during summer, when temperatures are higher.
 AIR PRESSURE & WIND
What is air pressure? How are winds formed?

Wind is the horizontal movement of air across the

Air has weight and hence it exerts pressure.
Earth's surface.
At higher altitude (height), there are less air It occurs when there is a difference in air
molecules, hence air exerts lower air pressure. pressure between two areas.
At lower altitude, there are more air molecules, Wind is formed when air moves from an area of
hence it exerts higher air pressure. high pressure to an area of low pressure.
The difference between the air pressure at these
Relationship between temperature and air pressure
two areas is known as pressure gradient

When temperature is high, air pressure is low.

What determines the speed of wind?
When temperature is low, air pressure is high

When there is greater pressure gradient (large

difference in air pressure between the two areas),
wind will travel at a faster speed.
As moving air comes in contact with variations in the
Earth's topography, it experiences frictional drag,
which can reduce its speed.
The effect of frictional drag is greatest when
there is uneven relief and rough surfaces on land,
e.g valleys & mountains.
 LOCAL WINDS Sea gains heat slow
and loses heat slow!

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(2) When temperature is low, air pressure is high. When temperature is high, air pressure is low
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(3) Wind is formed when air moves from an area of HIGH pressure to an area of LOW pressure.
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Sea Breeze Land Breeze

(1) During the day, both the land and (1) During the night, both the land and
the sea gain heat. the sea lose heat.

You can experience sea & land breeze at the beach in East Coast Park! That's why they are called localised winds!
 REGIONAL WINDS

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(2) Wind is formed when air moves from an area of HIGH pressure to an area of LOW pressure.
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(3) In the Northern Hemisphere, where the wind blows from, it will deflects to its RIGHT. In the
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Southern Hemisphere, where the wind blows from, it deflects to its LEFT. [Due to Coriolis effect!]
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Northeast Monsoon

From Oct to Feb, the Northern Hemisphere experiences winter -

low temperature - air cools & sinks, forming an area of high air
pressure.
The Southern Hemisphere experiences summer, high temperature
- air warms up & rises, forming an area of low air pressure.
Air moves from an area of high pressure to an area of low air
pressure, hence it moves from Northern Hemisphere (Central
Asia) to Southern Hemisphere (Australia).
In the Northern Hemisphere, it will get deflected to the right,
forming the Northeast monsoon, blowing across Central Asia,
passes by India, Singapore & Malaysia.
However, due to Coriolis effect, when the wind crosses over the
Southern Hemisphere, it deflects to the left, forming the
Northwest monsoon, blowing across Australia.
As the Northeast monsoon blows from landmass in Central Asia,
hence it is dry and brings little rain to countries such as India.
However, for countries such as Singapore, the Northeast monsoon
blows across South China Sea, hence it brings more rain to
Singapore during this period. The Northwest monsoon blows
across Indian Ocean and brings more rain to Australia. During the Northeast monsoon, India will experience the
dry season (tropical monsoon climate)!
 REGIONAL WINDS

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ep (1) When temperature is low, air pressure is high. When temperature is high, air pressure is low
(2) Wind is formed when air moves from an area of HIGH pressure to an area of LOW pressure.
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(3) In the Northern Hemisphere, where the wind blows from, it will deflects to its RIGHT. In the
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Southern Hemisphere, where the wind blows from, it deflects to its LEFT. [Due to Coriolis effect!]
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Southeast Monsoon

From Jun to Sep, the Northern Hemisphere experiences

summer - high temperature - air warms up & rises,
forming an area of low air pressure.
The Southern Hemisphere experiences winter, low
temperature - air cools & sinks, forming an area of high air
pressure.
Air moves from an area of high pressure to an area of low
air pressure, hence it moves from Southern Hemisphere
(Australia) to Northern Hemisphere (Central Asia).
In the Southern Hemisphere, it will get deflected to the
left, forming the Southeast monsoon, blowing across
Australia.
However, due to Coriolis effect, when the Southeast
monsoon crosses over the Northern Hemisphere, it deflects
to the right, forming the Southwest monsoon.
As the winds move over the Indian Ocean, they pick up
moisture from the Indian Ocean and bring heavy rain to
India. During the Southwest monsoon, India will experience the
wet season (tropical monsoon climate)!