ZOO 101

MAMMALIAN BODY

TOPICS:
INTRODUCTION TO MAMMALS
MAMMALIAN INTEGUMENTS
URINARY SYSTEM

by

AHMED, H.O.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY LAFIA.

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WHAT ARE MAMMALS?

(a) An Opossum (Didelphis marsupialis) with young (b) Opossum young nursing in a marsupial pouch.

(c) The Kangaroo Rat (Dipodomys ordii) (d) California Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus) on a
beach during the breeding season.

(e) A Duck-billed Platypus (Ornithorhychus anatinus). (f) An Echidna or Spiny Anteater

(Tachyglossus aculeatus). (g) The Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)

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INTRODUCTION TO MAMMALS

Mammals are a group of animals that possess unique features not found in other animals. Such
features include possessing skin which bear hair over most parts of the body; the ability to
nourish their young offspring with milk that females produce in specially modified sweat
glands called Mammary glands; have an external (or outer ear) in addition to the middle ear
and inner ear; possess a well-developed and large brain including a skull protecting the brain
and well developed central nervous system; possess a diaphragm for efficient ventilation of
lungs; and adaptations for a highly developed sense of smell. Most mammals have an intra-
uterine, vascular placenta for feeding the embryo; specialized teeth and jaw musculature for
processing food depending on the diet type; and an some with an upright manner of
walking/moving for rapid and efficient locomotion.

By way of taxonomic classification, they belong to the Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata,
Subphylum Vertebrata and Class Mammalia. Similar to all Chordates, they possess
characteristics which include possessing a notochord which however is replaced with a
vertebral column (also known as the backbone) and this comprises a series of different
vertebrae made either of bone or cartilage; Internal skeleton, pharyngeal clefts (gill slits),
possess two pair of limbs usually attached to the rest of the skeleton by girdles (either pectoral
or pelvic girdles). Other characteristics that mammals possess like others chordates include that
they are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic (3 body layers) and coelomate in nature.

General Characteristics of Mammals

1. Body is mostly covered with hair, but reduced in some mammalian species.
2. Integuments present with sweat, scent, sebaceous and mammary glands and are usually
underlain by a thick layer of fat.
3. Skull with two occipital condyles and secondary palate; turbinate bones in nasal cavity;
jaw joint between squamosal and dentary bones, middle ear comprises of three ossicles
(namely malleus, incus, stapes); seven cervical vertebrae occurs in most; pelvic bones
fused together.
4. Mouth with diphyodont teeth (also known as milk or deciduous teeth and are replaced
by a permanent set later during growth); teeth are heterodont in nature in most mammals
though varying in structure and function; lower jaw a single enlarged bone called
dentary.
5. Movable eyelids present and fleshy outer or external ears called Pinnae occur.
6. Circulatory system comprises of a four-chambered heart (two atria and two ventricles),
left aortic arch and nonnucleated biconcave red blood corpuscles.
7. Respiratory system is made up of 2 lungs with alveoli and larynx; a secondary palate
which separates the air and food passages; a muscular diaphragm for air exchange
separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities; convoluted turbinate bones in the nasal
cavity for warming and moistening inspired air.
8. Excretory system of metanephric kidneys with ureters that usually open into a bladder.
9. A highly developed brain with cerebral cortex; 12 pairs of cranial nerves; olfactory
sense highly developed.

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 10. Mammals are Endothermic and Homeothermic in nature with temperature regulation
efficient.
11. Sexes are usually separate; reproductive organs include a penis, testes (in males),
ovaries, oviducts and uterus (in females); sex determination by chromosomes as the
males are heterogametic in nature.
12. Cloaca occurs in monotremes but is shallow in marsupials.
13. Internal fertilization; embryos develop in a uterus with placental attachment (except in
monotremes); fetal membranes include amnion, chorion, allantois.
14. Young offspring are nourished by milk produced from the mammary glands in females.
15. Exhibit complex behaviour to enhance survival. Visual cues, pheromones, and auditory
and tactile cues are important in mammalian communication.

Classification of Mammals

Class Mammalia are reported to have about 5,000 species of living mammals and are divided
into three subclasses (Prototheria, Metatheria and Eutheria) made up of 26 orders. One order
contains the monotremes, seven orders of marsupials, and eighteen orders of placental
mammals.

1. Subclass Prototheria
Order Monotremata: Mammals that lay eggs with leathery shells and nourish the young with
milk from belly pore. They include Family Ornithorhynchidae (duck-billed platypus) and
Family Tachyglossidae (spiny anteaters).

2. Subclass Metatheria
This group comprises of the marsupials with about 270 species of mammals whose young are
birthed live in an immature state due to the relatively short gestation period (when compared
to other mammals) and most females have pouches which house the essentially helpless
embryo for weeks or months depending on the species.

Order Didelphimorphia – Opossums.

Order Paucituberculata - Shrew-like insectivores.

Order Microbiotheria – one living species called "Monito del monte" (Dromiciops gliroides)

Order Dasyuromorphia - Numbat, extinct Tasmanian wolf

Order Peramelemorphia - Bandicoots and Bilbies

Order Notoryctemorphia - Marsupial moles

Order Diprotodontia - (10 families and 117 species) Kangaroos, Wallaby, Wombats, Koalas

3. Subclass Eutheria
These are the Placental mammals and include the following orders:
Order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates: Antelope, Deer, Camels, Pigs, Cow, Sheep,
Hippopotamus etc.)

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Order Carnivora (carnivores: cats, bears (e.g like the panda, polar bear, grizzly, etc), weasels,
pinnipeds, etc.)

Order Cetacea (Whales, Dolphins)

Order Chiroptera (Bats)

Order Insectivora (insect-eaters: Hedgehogs, Moles, Shrews)

Order Lagomorpha (Rabbits, Hares, Pikas)

Order Macroscelidea (Elephant shrews)

Order Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates: Horses, Rhinoceros, Tapirs)

Order Pholidota (Pangolin)

Order Primates (Apes, Monkeys, Lemurs, Man)

Order Proboscidea (Elephants, Mammoths, Mastodonts, etc.)

Order Rodentia (Rodents: Rats, Mice, Squirrels, Gerbils, Hamsters, etc.)

Order Sirenia (Sea cows, Manatees)

Order Tubulidentata (Aardvarks)

Order Edentata or Xenarthra (Sloths, Armadillos)

Order Hyracoidea (Hyraxes)

Order Condylarthra (extinct)

Order Creodonta (extinct group of carnivores)

Order Desmostylia (an extinct group of marine mammals)

Order Embrithopoda (extinct rhino-like animals)

Adaptation of Mammals

In addition, mammals are also physiologically among the most active animals, exhibiting speed
and endurance in various habitat types such as in aquatic, aerial and terrestrial habitats
respectively from their origin to date. They maintain this activity in nearly all environmental
conditions as they are able to adapt to their environment due to specialized anatomical
structures, physiological mechanisms, behaviour and a combination of previously mentioned
factors. For example, the integuments of mammals for various activities such as claws for
burrowing, catching prey etc., the dentition that supports the feeding habits and digestive
system for obtaining nutrients from the diet, and the ability to regulate body temperature
because they are homeothermic (warm-blooded) despite the environmental conditions.
Mammalian radiation was almost certainly promoted by the fact that mammals were agile,

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endothermic, intelligent, adaptable and gave birth to living young, which they protect and
nourish from their own milk supply, exhibiting parental care in the process to ensure the
survival of the offspring.

Mammals have to eat a lot to maintain their high body temperature and these diets vary from
species to species. As with most animal groups, there are more herbivores (plant-eaters) than
there are carnivores (meat-eaters). Types of Mammalian Diets include:

Herbivores (plant eaters) - including Beavers, Cows, Horses, Pandas, Sloths etc.

Carnivores (meat eaters) - including Whales and Dolphins, Dogs, Tigers, Lions etc.

Omnivores (both plant and meat eaters) - man, bears, foxes, badgers etc.

Insectivores (insects eaters) - Aardvarks, Anteaters, Pangolins etc.

Only a few mammals are venomous in nature and this includes the male duckbilled platypus,
several species of Shrews, and the Solenodon (a small insectivore).

Mammal Extremes

Fastest mammal (also the fastest land animal): the Cheetah (runs 60-70 mph = 97-110 kph).

Slowest mammal - the Sloth (less than 1 mph or 2 kph).

Biggest mammal and biggest animal that ever lived on Earth - the Blue Whale.

Biggest land mammal- the African Elephant.

Tallest mammal - the Giraffe.

Smallest mammals - the Pygmy shrew (weighing 1.2-2.7g) and the Bumblebee bat (weighing
about 2g)

Loudest mammal - the Blue Whale. The second loudest is the Howler Monkey.

Smallest newborns - Marsupials (pouched mammals, like the kangaroo)

Smelliest mammal - the Striped Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

The only venomous mammals - Duckbilled Platypus (males only), several species of Shrews,
and the Solenodon

Fat - The Blue Whale has the thickest layer of blubber but Ringed Seal Pups have the greatest
percentage of fat (about 50 %).

Similarities and Differences between Mammals and other groups of animals

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Animal Class Pisces Class Class Reptilia Class Aves Class
Class Amphibia Mammalia

Features Present with Soft moist skin Dry scaly skin Skin bears Skin bears hair
either placoid for gaseous present with feathers, legs with sebaceous
1. Skin (tooth-like) or exchange. No horny scales or have scales. and sweat glands.
cycloid (round) scales. scutes.
scales or no
scales.
2. Skeleton Some Bony Bony Bony Bony
cartilaginous
while others are
bony.
3. Limbs Paired pectoral Two pairs of Two pairs of Two pairs of Two pairs of
and pelvic fins pentadactyl limbs pentadactyl limbs pentadactyl limbs pentadactyl limbs
present. present. usually present present. Front present.
but maybe absent pair modifies to
in some. form wings used
for flight.
Asymmetric or
symmetric tail
present

4. Visceral Present either as Only present in Visceral clefts Visceral clefts Visceral clefts
clefts separate gill aquatic larva never develop to never develop to never develop to
opening with or (tadpole). Lungs gills. gills. gills.
without an in adult.
covering.

5. Outer ear No outer ear No outer ear No outer ear No outer ear Outer ear present
in addition to
middle and inner
ear.
6. Egg Unfertilized eggs Unfertilized eggs Fertilized yolky Fertilized yolky Only spiny
production, produced, external produced, eggs laid on land eggs laid on land anteater and
mode of fertilization. external or eggs retained or. Eggs have duck-billed
fertilization. fertilization. until hatching. calcareous shells. platypus lay
Eggs have fertilized yolky
Adults must leathery Internal eggs. In all
return to an skin/shells. fertilization. others, the
aquatic habitat. embryo develops
Internal in the mother.
fertilization.
Mother possess
mammary glands
to feed newborns
milk.

Internal
fertilization.
7. Temperature Poikilothermic Poikilothermic Poikilothermic Homeothermic Homeothermic
regulation (cold-blooded) (cold-blooded) (cold-blooded) (warm-blooded) (warm-blooded)

8. Examples Sharks, Tilapia, Frogs, Toads, Lizards, Snakes, Chickens, Dogs, rabbits,
Catfish etc. Newts etc. crocodiles etc. Pigeons, Eagles Humans etc.
etc.
MAMMALIAN INTEGUMENTS

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The term integument is applied to the outermost protective covering of the animal body which
comprises mainly of the skin and its various derivatives. The skin also includes the
conjunctiva of eyeballs as well as the external surface of the eardrums in mammals.
Furthermore, it is also directly continuous with the mucous epithelial lining of mouth, rectum,
nostrils, eyelids and urinogenital ducts. Mammalian skin and especially its modifications
distinguish mammals as a group. As the interface between an animal and its environment, the
skin is strongly molded by an animal’s way of life. In general, the skin is thicker in mammals
than in other classes of vertebrates, although as in all vertebrates it is composed of epidermis
and dermis. The epidermis is thinner where it is well protected by hair, but in places that are
subject to much contact and use, such as palms or soles, its outer layers become thick and
cornified with keratin.

Structure of Generalized Mammalian Integument (Skin)

The skin of all mammals like all vertebrates is built according with the same basic plan: It is
multicellular and has two main layers— an outer Epidermis developed from ectoderm; an
inner Dermis derived from the mesoderm. The relative abundance of the two layers differs
according to the environment that a mammal occupies as its natural habitat.

1. Epidermis: It is made up of stratified epithelium and normally quite thin in comparison to

the dermis. It is further distinguished into two regions:

i. The outermost region of many layers of dead usually flattened (squamous) cells which
form a horny resistant covering or Stratum Corneum on the skin surface. Its cells
accumulate a horny protein called Keratin. Since keratin is tough and insoluble in
water, the keratinized stratum corneum provides protection against mechanical injuries,
fungal and bacterial attacks and loss of body moisture,
ii. The innermost or basal region of epidermis includes a single row of living columnar
cells called the Malpighian layer or Stratum Germinativum, which is separated from
the underlying dermis by a basement membrane. Its cells actively divide and
continually replace the worn out cells of the cornified layer. Structures such as hairs,
nails, claws, horns and enamel of teeth are derived from the Malpighian layer.

2. Dermis: This is the inner layer of skin, is comparatively thicker than the epidermis. It is
composed of fibrous connective tissue and contains many blood capillaries, lymph vessels,
muscle fibres, nerve fibres, sense organs and elastic fibres which bring the skin back to its
normal shape. Pigment cells or Melanocytes are mostly located in dermis, although sometimes
pigment granules are also found in the epidermis. Fat may accumulate as reserved food in
special cells called Adipocytes, which are usually located in deeper parts of the dermis and in
the subcutaneous tissue (deepest layer of the skin made up of fat cells and connective tissue).

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 A Generalized Section of the Mammalian Skin

A Generalized Section of the Human (Mammalian) Skin

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Though humans have less hair over the entire body, other mammals characteristically have two
kinds of hair forming their Pelage (Fur Coat): A dense and soft under-hair for insulation and
a coarse and longer guard hair for protection against wear and to provide coloration. Under-
hair traps a layer of insulating air. In aquatic mammals such as fur seals, otters and beavers, it
is so dense that it is almost impossible to get it wet. In water, guard hairs become wet and
adhere to each other, forming a protective blanket over the under-hair.

Integument Derivatives in Mammals

The skin derivatives are numerous and complex within the class mammalia. Depending on the
layer from which they are derived, these derivative structures fall under two broad categories:
Epidermal or Dermal Derivatives.

The Epidermal derivatives are formed by the epidermis and comprise of Epidermal glands
and Hard Horny structures including epidermal horns, claws, nails and hoofs and hairs etc.
All the hard horny structures together form the Exoskeleton of an animal. The Dermal
derivatives arise from the dermis and comprise Bony Antlers and Horns etc.

Epidermal glands

Integumental or epidermal glands are formed by the Malpighian layer of epidermis. They arise
in epidermis but often invade the dermis. They may be unicellular or multicellular, tubular or
alveolar in shape, and simple, compound or branched. They are lined by cuboidal cells or
columnar epithelium. They are usually named after their nature or function. The types
described below are : sweat, sebaceous, scent and mammary.

Sweat glands: Sweat or Sudoriferous glands (Sudor meaning sweat) are abundant in the skin
of most mammals. They are slender coiled tubes embedded deep in the dermis, with their long
ducts opening on skin surface. A little urea and some salts are eliminated dissolved in water
in the sweat produced by these glands. Evaporation of watery perspiration also helps to cool
and regulate body temperature in hot environments. Sweat glands are absent in spiny scaly
anteaters and marine forms such as Sirenia and Cetacea. In many mammals their distribution
is restricted. They may occur only on the soles of feet (cats and mice), lips (rabbits), muzzle
and skin between toes (ruminants), sides of head (bats), ears (hippopotamus), etc. Male giant
Kangaroo (Macropus rufus) and hippopotamus secrete red-coloured sweat. Ciliary glands in
eyelashes and along margins of eyelids are modified sweat glands.

Sebaceous glands: These are branched alveolar glands opening into hair follicles of
mammals. They may open directly onto skin surface such as around the genital organs, tip of
nose or edges of lips. Their oily secretion called Sebum (meaning grease) keeps the skin and
hairs soft, greasy, water-proof and glistening. Sebaceous glands absent in pangolins and marine
mammals (Sirenia, Cetacea) which are practically devoid of hairs. Ceruminous glands of the
external ear canals are modified sebaceous glands which helps trap insects or dust particles.
Similarly, Meibomian Glands of eyelids, which spread their oily secretion over the exposed
surface of eyeball are modified sebaceous glands.

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Scent glands: These are modifications either of Sebaceous or Sudoriferous glands of
mammals. Their odorous secretions serve to repel foes or attract members of opposite sex.
Scent glands may occur between toes on feet (goat, rhino, horse), near eyes on head (deer
family), navel on abdomen (musk deer), mid-dorsally on back (Kangaroo rats Dipodomys),
around anus (skunks, many carnivores and rodents), etc. In a zoo, many foul odours may not
be due to unhygienic conditions but caused by the scent glands of mammals in the pens and
cages.

Mammary glands: Characteristic of mammals, these are compound tubular glands that
produce milk during lactation period for feeding the young ones. Usually they occur only on
females, but are also present on males in monotremes, primates and some others. In
monotremes, the mammary glands lack nipples or teats and resemble modified sweat glands.
In other mammals, they possess nipples and are modified sebaceous glands.

Mammary Glands.
Mammary glands are
specialized to secrete
milk following the birth
of young. (a) Many ducts
lead from the glands to a
nipple. Parts of the duct
system are enlarged to
store milk. Suckling by
an infant initiates a
hormonal response that
causes the mammary
glands to release milk. (b)
Some mammals (e.g.,
cattle) have teats that
form by the extension of
a collar of skin around the
opening of mammary
ducts. Milk collects in a
large cistern prior to its
release. The number of
nipples or teats varies
with the number of young
produced.

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 Structure of Claws,
Nails, and Hooves.

(a) Claws. (b) Nails are

flat, broad claws found
on the hands and feet of
primates and are an
adaptation for arboreal
habits, where grasping is
essential. (c) Hooves are
characteristic of ungulate
mammals. The number
of toes is reduced, and
the animals walk or run
on the tips of the
remaining digits. The
unguis is a hard,
keratinized dorsal plate,
and the subunguis is a
softer ventral plate.

Functions of Integuments and their Derivatives

Generally, the integument of mammals (and those found in other groups of animals) perform
several important functions which include the following:
1. Protection: The integument (or skin) separates the animal from its external environment and
helps to maintain a constant internal environment. It has several protective devices—
i. It protects the body against a variety of mechanical and chemical injuries which may
result from pressure, friction, blows, harmful gases and fluids.
ii. Protective derivatives such as bony horns, fat, hairs, etc. reduce the force of injury,
prevent excessive loss of body moisture and do not allow entry of harmful bacteria and
fungi, and other foreign bodies.
iii. Pelage (fur), bristles or spines, claws, nails, hoofs, antlers, horns, etc. serve for offence
and defense.
iv. Protective colouration or camouflage serves to escape detection by enemies.
v. Skin pigments also protect against solar radiation.

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2. Locomotion: Pectoral. caudal and dorsal fins of whales help in swimming in water. wings of
bats and flying squirrels help in flying.
3. Secretion: Skin glands secrete substances having several uses which include:
i. Oil from sebaceous glands of mammals lubricates the skin and hairs. Moreover, sebum
contains fatty acids and lactic acids in it which bring down the pH of skin and creates a
hostile environment for growth, multiplication and survival of microbes.
ii. Mammary glands manufacture milk for nourishment of the young.
iii. Odours of scent glands attract the opposite sex.
iv. Tears from lacrymal glands wash the conjunctiva of mammalian eye ball.
v. Glands of auditory meatus secrete Earwax (called Cerumen) to grease eardrums and to
entrap insects and debris that enter the canal.
4. Food storage: Thick fatty layer of blubber under skin of seals and whales serves as insulation
as well as reserve food. Animals also accumulate subcutaneous fat prior to hibernation and
migration.
5. Temperature control: In warm-blooded animals, the skin, hair and fur insulate and conserve
body heat in cold climate. Sweat glands of mammals provide cooling by evaporation in
summer. For elimination of heat, integumentary blood vessels dilate so that skin becomes a
radiator. For conservation of heat, the vessels constrict. These devices help in Homoiothermy
(or in the maintenance of constant body temperature).
6. Excretion: Excess of water, salts and urea are also eliminated in sweat through the skin.
7. Sensation: Cutaneous nerve endings and other sense organs are stimulated by touch, pain,
changes in pressure and moisture, extremes of heat and cold and chemicals, etc. In their
absence, these animals may not be able to adapt to their environment efficiently.
8. Sexual selection: Brilliantly coloured skins, antlers of male deer, manes of lions, etc. lead to
sexual dimorphism and also serve to attract the females for mating.
9. Miscellaneous: Skin has many other functions not cited above which include:
i. Vitamin D is synthesized in mammalian skin from sebum of sebaceous glands in ultra-
violet light.
ii. Brood pouches in marsupials for development and protection of young offspring.
iii. Nasal glands of mammals (as found in all tetrapods) keep nostrils free of dirt.
iv. Skin shows selective absorption of oils, ointments, iodine, beneficial sun-rays, etc.

URINARY SYSTEM IN MAMMALS

In vertebrates generally, the excretory and reproductive organs are intimately associated and
can be studied together as the Urinogenital System. Urinary (Excretory) systems eliminate
nitrogenous wastes from the body of the animal. This form of wastes are obtained from the
breakdown of proteins to first form ammonia, which is a highly toxic compound that must
quickly be eliminated from the body or changed into a less poisonous form. In mammals,
ammonia is changed into urea, a less-toxic compound before it is excreted while in most reptiles
and birds, ammonia is changed into uric acid. Mammals like in other vertebrates rely on the

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excretory organs called Kidneys composed of many tubules (small filtering tubes) that remove
wastes from the blood. The kidneys are a pair of compact organs and each kidney is composed
of a large number of units called Uriniferous Tubules or Nephrons and are closely associated
with a network of blood capillaries.. Their number, arrangement and complexity is most
developed in mammals compared to other animal groups.

STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

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In humans, each kidney is about 10 cm long and is supplied with blood by a renal artery and
drained by a renal vein. Blood flow through the kidneys is voluminous with the total cardiac
output estimated between 1400 to 1800L of blood each day, and goes through about 300 times
per day). The kidneys account for less than 1% of human body mass but receive roughly 20 -
25% of the blood exiting the heart.

Structurally, the mammalian kidney has an Outer Renal Cortex and an Inner Renal Medulla.
Microscopic excretory tubules and their associated blood vessels pack both regions. Weaving
back and forth across the cortex and medulla is the Nephron, the functional unit of the kidney.
A nephron consists of a single Long Tubule as well as a ball of capillaries called the
Glomerulus. The blind end of the tubule forms a cup-shaped swelling called Bowman's
Capsule, which surrounds the glomerulus. Each human kidney contains about a million
nephrons, with a total tubule length of 80km.

Filtration of the Blood

Filtration occurs as blood pressure forces fluid from the blood in the glomerulus into the lumen
of Bowman's capsule. The porous capillaries and specialized cells of the capsule are permeable
to water and small solutes, but not to blood cells or large molecules such as plasma proteins.
Thus, the filtrate in Bowman's capsule contains salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins,
nitrogenous wastes, and other small molecules. Because filtration of small molecules is
nonselective, the mixture mirrors the concentrations of these substances in blood plasma.

Pathway of the Filtrate

From the Bowman's capsule, the filtrate passes into the Proximal Tubule, the first of three
major regions of the nephron. Next is the Loop of Henle, a hairpin turn with a descending limb
and an ascending limb. The Distal Tubule, the last region of the nephron, empties into a
Collecting Duct, which receives processed filtrate from many nephrons. This filtrate flows
from all of the collecting ducts of the kidney into the Renal Pelvis, which is drained by the
Ureter.

Among the vertebrates, only mammals (and some birds have Loops of Henle). In the human
kidney, 85% of the nephrons are Cortical Nephrons which have short loops of Henle and are
almost entirely confined to the Renal Cortex. The other 15%, the Juxtamedullary Nephrons
have loops that extend deeply into the Renal Medulla. It is the juxtamedullary nephrons that
enable mammals to produce urine that is hyperosmotic to body fluids; an adaptation that is
extremely important for water conservation.

The nephron and the collecting duct are lined by a transport epithelium that processes the
filtrate, forming the urine. One of this epithelium's most important tasks is reabsorption of
solutes and water. Under normal conditions, approximately 1,600L of blood flows through a
pair of human kidneys each day, a volume about 300 times the total volume of blood in the
body. From this enormous traffic of blood, the nephrons and collecting ducts process about
180L of initial filtrate. Of this, about 99% of the water and nearly all of the sugars, amino acids,

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 vitamins, and other organic nutrients are reabsorbed into the blood, leaving only about 1.5Lof
urine to be voided.

Urination
The process of excreting urine is called Urination. Urine exits each kidney through a duct called
the Ureter and both drain into a common Urinary Bladder. During urination, urine is expelled
from the bladder through a tube called the Urethra, which empties to the outside near the
vagina in females and through the penis in males. Urination is regulated by ring-like Sphincter
muscles close to the junction of the urethra and the bladder.

Emptying the bladder is a reflex reaction, one that takes children several years to learn to
control. A valve-like flap of tissue at the point of entry into the bladder prevents urine from
flowing backward into the ureter. The urinary bladder is able to expand and contract according
to how much urine it contains. As it fills with urine, the walls of the bladder stretch and become
thinner, with the bladder itself lengthening to 12.5 cm (5 in) or more and holding up to about
0.5L (1 pint) of urine.

As the bladder becomes full, stretch-sensitive receptors in its walls are stimulated and the
person becomes aware of the fullness. When the person is ready to urinate, or expel urine, the
sphincter relaxes and urine flows from the bladder to the outside through the urethra. In
females, the urethra is about 3.8 cm (1.5 in) long and is strictly a urinary passage. In males, the
urethra is about 20 cm (8 in) long; it passes through the penis and also serves to convey semen
during sexual intercourse.

Functions of the Kidney

The kidneys are considered to be very powerful chemical factories in the body. The functions
of the kidney are both excretory i.e. to carry urine (comprising urea, excess water, salt, other
waste substances) from the tubules out of the kidney and eventually the body; and
osmoregulatory which includes disposing of excess water and other wastes, filtering wastes,
help maintain homeostasis by regulating the amounts of water, salt and other substances
dissolved in body fluids. We shall however take a critical look at the role of the kidneys in
mammals as follows:
1. Acid – Base Balance: the kidney helps to control acid-base balance by excreting hydrogen ions
and other anions of acids into urine; regenerating and reabsorbing bicarbonate from urine that
helps maintain blood plasma pH within a normally accepted range.
2. Water Removal: kidneys via the filtration process remove excess water back into the blood
during the formation of urine.
3. Erythropoiesis: the process of making erythrocytes (red blood cells) is known as
Erythropoiesis. Healthy and functional kidneys produce a hormone Erythropoietin which
stimulates the bone marrow to make red blood cells required to carry oxygen throughout the
body.
4. Toxin Removal: the kidney help in the excretion of toxins through the filtration process in the
glomeruli; passive diffusion from the distal convoluted tubules; active transport process where
the toxins are transported from blood into the urine.

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5. Blood Pressure Control: the kidneys play an important role in regulating arterial blood pressure
by regulating salt and water excretion; and via several neurohormonal mechanisms e.g. renin
is an enzyme that controls blood pressure and is made by special cells in the kidney and released
into the blood stream when blood pressure drops too low.
6. Electrolyte Balance: the kidneys regulate the fluid (water) and electrolyte composition and
balance of the body by the continuous filtration of the blood to maintain a constant extracellular
fluid volume and composition. Electrolytes are vital for numerous activities including
supporting muscle and nerve functions, move nutrients into cells, keeping bones and teeth
healthy etc. These include bicarbonates, calcium, chloride, phosphate, potassium, sodium etc.
7. Vitamin D activation: the presence of an enzyme 1-α-hydroxylase in the kidney activates
vitamin D and is responsible for the effects of this vitamin on calcium and phosphorus
metabolism, bone health and the regulation of parathyroid function.

The Role of the Kidney in Homeostasis

Homeostasis (Greek words Homeo - same; stasis – standing still) refers to any process that a
living organism uses to actively maintain relatively stable internal conditions necessary for
survival. It is the process that an animal seeks to achieve balance, equilibrium and stability in
the internal environment irrespective of the change of conditions of the external environment.
It can further be described as a self-regulating mechanism/process by which an organism can
maintain internal stability while adjusting to changing external conditions.

Homeostasis is involved in every organ system of the mammalian body with no single organ
system acting alone in many cases. For example, regulation of body temperature cannot occur
without the cooperation of the integumentary system, nervous system, musculoskeletal system
and the cardiovascular system. Other examples of homeostasis include blood pressure
regulation, blood sugar regulation, water and electrolyte regulation (Osmoregulation), oxygen
regulation, calcium and phosphorus regulation.

With the kidney involved in several of the homeostatic processes mentioned earlier, it is
therefore very important that animals maintain homeostasis to prevent an imbalance and
possible failure which leads to disease conditions which could become an imminent threat to
the life of the animal. Examples are found in the failure of insulin to control excess blood sugar,
resulting to diabetes. Failure of controlling increase/decrease in circulatory volume by
controlling an increase/decrease in salt and water balance (i.e. Extra Cellular Fluid Volume)
can lead to increase/decrease in blood volume also leading to an increase/decrease in blood
pressure etc.

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