CHAPTER 3

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION-

It is difficult to study individually the chemistry of more than hundred elements and their
innumerable compounds. The periodic table provides a systematic framework for organizing the
large available information on the chemical behaviour of the elements into simple logical
patterns.

Genesis of Periodic Classification Dobereiner’s Triads

In 1829, Dobereiner arranged certain elements with similar properties in groups of three in such
a way that the atomic mass of the middle element was nearly the same as the average atomic
masses of the first and the third elements. A few triads proposed by him are listed.

Limitations of Dobereiner’s Trids

The triads given by Dobereiner were helpful in grouping some elements with similar
characteristics together, but he could not arrange all the elements known at that time into triads.
• Newlands’ Law of Octaves
John Newlands proposed the law of octaves by stating that when elements are arranged in order
of increasing atomic masses, every eighth element has properties similar to the first. Newlands
called it law of octaves because similar relationship exists in the musical notes also.
Limitations of Newlands’ Law of Octaves
(i) This classification was successful only up to the element calcium. After that, every eighth
element did not possess the same properties as the element lying above it in the same group.
(ii) When noble gas elements were discovered at a later stage, their inclusion in the table
disturbed the entire arrangement.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: ‘ The physical and chemical properties of the elements are a periodic
function of their atomic masses’.

Mendeleev arranged the elements known at that time in order of increasing atomic masses and
this arrangement was called periodic table.
Elements with similar characteristics were present in vertical rows called groups. The horizontal
rows were known as periods.

Importance of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

(i) This made the study of the elements quite systematic in the sense that if the properties of one
element in a particular group are known, those of others can be predicted.
(ii) This helped to a great extent in the discovery of these elements at a later stage.
(iii) Mendeleev corrected the atomic masses of certain elements with the help of their expected
positions and properties

There are some defects in Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

(i) Hydrogen has been placed in group IA along with alkali metals. But it also resembles
halogens of group VII A in many properties.

ii) Although the elements in the Mendeleev’s periodic table have been arranged in order of their
atomic masses, but in some cases the element with higher atomic mass precedes the element with
lower atomic mass.
iii) The isotopes of an element have different atomic masses but same atomic number. Since,
periodic table has been framed on the basis of increasing atomic masses of the elements,
different positions must have been allotted to all the isotopes of a particular element.

iv) According to Mendeleev, the elements placed in the same group must resemble in their
properties. But there is no similarity among the elements in the two sub-groups of a particular
group.

In some cases, elements with similar properties have been placed in different groups.
v) Lanthanoids and actinoids were placed in two separate rows at the bottom of the periodic table
without assigning a proper reason.
(vi) No proper explanation has been offered for the fact that why the elements placed in group
show resemblance in their properties.

Modern Periodic Law

Physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic
numbers.
• Present Form of the Periodic Table (Long form of Periodic Table)
The long form of periodic table, also called Modem Periodic Table, is based on Modern periodic
law. In this table, the elements have been arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers.
• Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic No. more than 100.
Groups
The long form of periodic table also consists of the vertical rows called groups. There are in all
18 groups in the periodic table. Unlike Mendeleev periodic table, each group is an independent
group.

On the basis of the electronic configuration elements can be recognised as s-block ,p-block, d-
block and f-block elements.

Characteristics of s-block elements:

1) Except H all elements of s-Block elements are active metals.

2) They have +1/ +2 oxidation state.
3) They form basic oxides
4) They impart characteristic colour to the flame
5) Generally they form ionic salts with nonmetals.
6) They have low ionization potentials.
7) They have very small electron gain enthalpies.
8) They are solids at room temperature (Cs is liquid at about at 35 degree C)
9) Their hydroxides are basic in nature.

Characteristics of p-block elements:

(i) The compounds of these elements are mostly covalent in nature.
(ii) They show variable oxidation states.
(iii) In moving from left to right in a period, the non-metallic character of the elements increases.
(iv) The reactivity of elements in a group generally decreases downwards.
(v) At the end of each period is a noble gas element with a closed valence shell
ns2 np6 configuration.
(vi) Metallic character increases as we go down the group.

Characteristics of d -block elements:

General electronic configuration: (n -1) d1-10 ns0-2

The d-block elements are known as transition elements because they have incompletely filled d-
orbitals in their ground state or in any of the oxidation states.

Characteristics of d-block elements:

(i) They are all metals with high melting and boiling points.
(ii) The compounds of the elements are generally paramagnetic in nature.
(iii) They mostly form coloured ions, exhibit variable valence (oxidation states).
(iv) They are of tenly used as catalysts.

Elements are classified as

Metals
(i) Metals comprise more than 78% of all known elements and appear on the left side of the
Periodic Table.
(ii) Metals are solids at room temperature.
(iii) Metal usually have high melting and boiling points.
(iv) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
(u) They are malleable and ductile.
• Non-metals
(i) Non-metals are located at the top right hand side of the Periodic Table.
(ii) Non-metals are usually solids or gases at low temperature with low melting and boiling
points.
(iii) They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
(iv) The non-metallic character increases as one goes from left to right across the Periodic
Table.
(v) Most non-metallic solids are brittle and are neither malleable nor ductile.
• Metalloids
The elements (e.g., silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium) show the characteristic,
of both

Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements-

a) Atomic sizes- atomic radii decreases while going from left to right in a period and
increases with atomic number in a group.
b) Ionisation enthalpies – increases across the periods and decreases down the group.
c) Electronegativity- increases across the periods and decreases down the group.
d) Electron gain enthalpy – becomes more negative across a period and less negative down a
group.
e) Valency- the valence is either equal to the number of electron in the outermost orbit or
eight minus this number.
f) Chemical reactivity – is highest at two extremes of a period and is lowest in the centre.
Reactivity on the left extreme of a period is because of the ease of electron loss or low
ionisation enthalpy.
g) Highly reactive elements do not exist in free state in nature, they usually exist in
combined form.
h) Oxides – oxides form of the element on the left are basic and of the element on the right
are acidic in nature. Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric or neutral.
SOME MORE POINTS TO REMEMBER-

• Groups. There are 18 groups. These are vertical rows.

• Periods. There are 7 periods. These are horizontal rows.
• Representative Elements. The S and P block of elements are known as representative
elements.
• Transition Elements. They are also called d-block elements. They have general
electronic configuration (n – 1) d1-10 ns0-2.
• Inner Transition Elements. Lanthanoids (the fourteen elements after Lanthanum) and
actinides (the fourteen elements after actinium) are called inner transition elements.
General electronic configuration is (n – 2) f1-14(n – 1) d0-1 ns2.
They are also called f-block elements.
 Periodic Classification of Elements

Multiple Choice Questions (1 Marks each)

1 The Vander Waal’s radii of O, N, Cl, F and Ne increase in the order 1

(a) F, O, N, Ne, Cl (b) N, O, F, Ne, Cl (c) Ne, F, O, N, Cl (d) F, Cl, O, N, Ne

2 Which of the following correctly represents the increasing order of effective nuclear charge in Na, Al, 1
Mg and Si atoms?

(a) Na < Mg < Si <Al (b) Na < Mg <Al < Si (c)Mg < Na <Al< Si (d)Na = Mg =Al = Si
3 The correct order of increasing values of second ionisation potential of C6, N7, O8 and F9 is: 1

(a) C > N > F > O (b) C < F < N < O (c) C < F < N < O (d) C < N < F< O
4 Which oxide of N is isoelectronic with CO2? 1

(a) NO2 (b) NO (c) N2O (d) N2O3

– –2
5 For reaction, O(g) + 2e → O (g) –E = + 744.7 value of E is positive because 1

(a) It is an endothermic reaction (b) It is an exothermic reaction

(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of the above is correct

6 Which of the following has lowest electron affinity? 1

(a) Kr (b) O (c) N (d) S

7 The increasing order of electron affinity values of O, S and Se is 1

(a) O < S < Se (b) S < O < Se (c) O < Se < S (d) Se < O > S
8 Which electronic configuration among the following will have the highest electron affinity? 1

(a) 1s2 2s2 2p3 (b) 1s2 2s2 2p5 (c) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 (d) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
9 The screening effect of d-electrons is - 1

(a) equal to the p-electrons (b) much more than p-electron

(c) same as f-electrons (d) less than p-electrons

10 Which one of the following is correct order of the size of iodine species? 1

(a) I > I– > I+ (b) I > I+ > I– (c) I+ > I– > I (d) I– > I > I+
11 __________ gave the idea for the first time to classify elements as per their properties. 1
(a) Mendeleev (b) Dobereiner (c) Newland (d) John
12 Eka Aluminium is _________ 1
(a) Germanium (b) Gallium (c) Silicon (d) Copper
Reason-Assertion based Questions
Question 13-16 contain two statements, Assertion and Reason. Each of these questions also has four
alternative choices, only one of which is the correct answer. You have to select one of the codes (a),
 (b), (c) and (d) given below.
(a) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation for assertion.
(b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for assertion
(c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
(d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct.
13 Assertion : Second period consists of 8 elements. 1
Reason : Number of elements in each period is four times the number of atomic orbitals available in
the energy level that is being filled.
14 Assertion : In a triad, the three elements present have same gaps of atomic masses. 1
Reason : Elements in a triad have similar properties.
15 Assertion : Second ionization enthalpy will be higher the first ionization enthalpy. 1
Reason : Ionization enthalpy is a quantitative measure of the tendency of an element to lose electron.
16 Assertion : Atomic size increases along a period. 1
Reason : Effective nuclear charge increases as the atomic number increases resulting in the increased
attraction of electrons to the nucleus.
Short Answer Type Questions ( 2 Marks each)
17 Why the electron gain enthalpy of the elemental fluorine is less negative than the elemental chlorine? 2
18 All the transition elements are d-block elements, but all the d-block elements are not the transition 2
elements. Explain.
19 Among the given elements B, Al, C and Si, 2

(i) which of the following elements has the highest first ionisation enthalpy?

(ii) which element contains the most metallic character? Explain your answer in each case.
20 Identify the group and valency of the following element having atomic number 119. Also, predict the 2
outermost electronic configuration for it and write the general formula of the oxide.
21 Nitrogen possesses the positive electron gain enthalpy, whereas the oxygen possesses the negative. But 2
oxygen has lower ionisation enthalpy than nitrogen. Explain.
Short Answer Type Questions ( 3 Marks each)
22 What is the atomic number of elements keeping in mind both the cases given below; 3

1. Element is in the 3rd period of the periodic table.

2. Element is in the 17th group of the periodic table.
23 Define the ionisation enthalpy. Discuss the factors affecting ionisation enthalpy of elements and their 3
trends in the periodic table.
24 How would you explain the fact that first ionisation enthalpy of sodium is lower than that of 3
magnesium but its second ionisation enthalpy is higher than that of magnesium?

25 Among the second period elements, the actual ionization enthalpies are in the order: Li <B< Be 3
<C<0<KI<F< Ne
Explain why
(i) Be has higher ∆iH1than B ?
(ii) O has lower ∆iH1 than N and F?
26 What do you understand by isoelectronic species? Name a species that tvill be iso electronic with 3
each of the following atoms or ions.
 (i) F–(ii) Ar (iii) Mg2+(iv) Rb+
27 Consider the following species: 3
N3-, O2-, F–, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+
(a) What is common in them?
(b) Arrange them in order of increasing ionic radii?
28 On the basis of quantum numbers, justify that the sixth period of the periodic table should have 3
32 elements.
Case Based Questions
29 Modern periodic table arranges the elements in the increasing order of atomic number. It has 18 groups 4
and 7 periods. Atomic numbers are consecutive in a period and increases in group in a pattern.
Elements are divided into four blocks, s-block,p-block, d-block andf-block based on their electronic
configuration. 78% of elements are metals, about 20 elements are non-metals and few elements like B,
Si, Ge, As are metalloids. Metallic character increases down the group but decreases along the period
from left to right. The physical and chemical properties vary periodically with their atomic numbers.
Periodic trends are observed in atomic size, ionisation enthalpies, electron gain enthalpies,
electronegativity and valence. Oxides of metals are basic, some are amphoteric. Non-metals form
acidic oxides, some form neutral oxides. s-block elements are soft, highly reactive, do not show
variable oxidation states. p-block elements are metals, non-metals as well as metalloids, show variable
oxidation states, exist as solids, liquids and gases. d-block elements are metals, form coloured ions,
show variable oxidation states, have high melting and boiling points. Lanthanoids and actinoids are f-
block elements, form coloured ions. All actinoids are radioactive.
(a) Name the elements which belong to d-block but are not transition metals.
(b) What is difference between oxidation states of p-block and d-block elements?
(c) Which group elements are most electropositive and why?
30 Study the table 1 and 2 related to electronegativity values along the period 2 and 3 Group 1 and 17 and 4
answer the questions that follow based on these.
Electronegativity Values (on Pauling scale) Across the Periods
Atom (Period II) Li Be B C N O F
Electronegativity 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.0
Atom (period III) Na Mg AI Si P S Cl
Electronegativity 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
Electronegativity Values (on Pauling scale) Down a Family
Atom Electronegativity Atom (Group Eledronegativity
(Group I) Value XVII) Value
Li 1.0 F 4.0
Na 0.9 CI 3.0
K 0.8 Br 2.8
Rb 0.8 I 2.5
Cs 0.7 At 2.2
(a) How does electronegativity varies along a period and why?
(b) Why does K and Rb have same electronegativity although Rb is bigger than K?
(c) Why is CI2 O7 more acidic than Cl2O5?
Long Answer Type Questions
31 a. Assign the position of the element having outer electronic configuration, 5
 (i) ns2 np4 for n = 3 (ii) (n – 1) d2 ns2 for n = 4 and (iii) (n – 2) f7 (n – 1) d1 ns2 for n = 6 in
the periodic table?
b. Write the general electronic configuration of s– p– d–, and f-block elements?
32 First member of each group of representative elements (i.e., s and p-block elements) 5

shows anomalous behaviour. Illustrate with two examples.

33 p-Block elements form acidic, basic and amphoteric oxides. Explain each property by 5

giving two examples and also write the reactions of these oxides with water

Answers / Hints
1 (c) Ne, F, O, N, Cl 1
2 (b) Na < Mg <Al < Si 1
3 (d) C < N < F< O 1
4 (c) N2O 1
5 (a) It is an endothermic reaction 1
6 (c) N 1
7 (c) O < Se < S 1
8 (c) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 1
9 (d) less than p-electrons 1
10 (d) I– > I > I+ 1
11 (b) Dobereiner 1
12 (b) Gallium 1
13 C 1
14 D 1
15 B 1
16 C 1
17 Fluorine has a smaller size as compared to chlorine. As a result, the attraction outside the 2
shell to gain the electrons is less. Moreover, they possess inter-electronic repulsions in the 2p
orbitals, resulting in less negative electron gain enthalpy.
18 The elements having their outermost shell filled with the d electrons are called the d block 2
elements. All the d blocks are not the transition elements as it is important to have an
incompletely filled d orbital of the given element like calcium and zinc etc.
19 (i) Carbon possesses the highest ionisation enthalpy. It increases from left to right along the 2
period and also decreases as we go down the group.

(ii) Aluminium possesses the most metallic character. On moving down, the metallic
character increases and decreases across the period from left to right.
20 There are 118 elements found in the seven periods of the modern periodic table. Thus, the 2
element with the atomic number 119 will lie in the 8th period of the first group and have the
outermost electronic configuration of 8s1. It belongs to group 1 and has the valency one. The
formula of the oxide would be M2O.
21 The ionisation enthalpy of oxygen is lower than that of nitrogen as when we remove one 2
electron from the oxygen then it easily donates it to attain half-filled stability; however, in
the case of nitrogen, it is difficult to remove one electron because it already has half-filled
stability and it will become unstable after that.
22 In the third period, we provided that element. The element’s highest principal quantum 3
number (n) into which the last electron enters is called the period number. As a result, n=3
for the 3rd period. In addition, the element could be found in the seventeenth group. The
elements for the seventeenth group have the following general configuration: ns2np5.

As a result, the needed element’s overall electronics configuration is 3s23p5 (because n=3).

The element’s complete electrical configuration will now be: 1s22s22p63s23p5.

then add up the total number of electrons in the element’s ground state: 1+2+6+2+5=17
electrons.

The element’s atomic number equals its ground state’s total number of electrons.

As determined above, the element has 17 electrons in its ground state; its atomic number is
17. Chlorine is an atomic number 17 element (Cl).
23 Ionisation enthalpy is the energy required by the isolated and gaseous atom in its ground 3
state to remove an electron. The effective nuclear charge is due to the screening effect; inner
core electrons shield the valence electrons. eThe effective nuclear charge is less than the
actual charge on the atom. Penetrated orbital: It is difficult to remove an electron from the
orbitals closer to the nucleus and penetrate towards the nucleus. The order of the penetration
has been given by s>p>d>f Stability of the orbitals: Half-filled and filled orbital have a high
ionisation enthalpy as well as they don’t want to lose their stability. Across a period,
 ionisation enthalpy increases along with the period. Down the group, the ionisation enthalpy
decreases.
24 The electronic configuration of both the atoms are as follows: 3

Na: [Ne]3s1

Mg: [Ne]3s2

The ion formed after removing one electron from the sodium atom takes on the configuration
of an inert gas, neon, whereas Mg retains one electron. As a result, the first ionisation energy
of Na is lower than that of Mg. High energy is required to remove an electron from a noble
gas configuration.

As a result, the second ionisation enthalpy of calcium is greater than that of magnesium.

25 (i) In case of Be (1s2 2s2) the outermost electron is present in 2s-orbital while in B 3
(1s2 2s2 2p1) it is present in 2p-orbital. Since 2s – electrons are more strongly attracted by the
nucleus than 2p-electrons, therefore, lesser amount of energy is required to knock out a 2p-
electron than a 2s – electron. Consequently, At of Be is higher than that ∆iH1 of B.
(ii) The electronic configuration of
N7 = 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
O8 =1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
We can see that in case of nitrogen 2p-orbitals are exactly half filled. Therefore, it is difficult
to remove an electron from N than from O. As a result ∆iH1 of N is higher than that of O.
26 Isoelectronic species are those species (atoms/ions) which have same number of 3
electrons. The isoelectronic species are:
(i)Na+ (iii) Na+
(ii)K+ (iv) Sr2+
27 (a) All of them are isoelectronic in nature and have 10 electrons each. 3
(b) In isoelectronic species, greater the nuclear charge, lesser will be the atomic or ionic
radius.
Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+ < F– < O2- < N3-
28 The sixth period corresponds to sixth shell. The orbitals present in this shell are 6s, 4f, 5p, 3
and 6d. The maximum number of electrons which can be present in these sub¬shell is 2 + 14
+ 6 + 10 = 32. Since the number of elements in a period corresponds to the number of
electrons in the shells, therefore, sixth period should have a maximum of 32 elements.
29 (a)Zn 4
(b) The oxidation state of p -block elements varies by 1 unit while the oxidation state of p -block
elements differs by 2 units.
(c) The atomic radii of group 1 elements are large, hence the nuclear attraction will be less
on the electrons. As a result, the elements can easily lose electrons. Hence, elements of group
1 of the periodic table are the most electropositive as compared to the rest of the elements.
30 (a)Electronegativity increases as we move left to the right in the period because as we move 4
across the period, the effective nuclear charge increases and the atomic size decreases.
 Therefore, the tendency to attract shared pairs of electrons increases, thereby increasing
electronegativity.
(b) the electronegativity of potassium and rubidium is similar because they have the same
number of inner-shell electrons, resulting in a comparable effective nuclear charge
experienced by their valence electrons.
(c) Because it reacts with water, it gives the strongest acid perchloric acid. In Dichlorine
heptoxide, chlorine is the highest oxidation state of chlorine is +7.
31 a. (i) n = 3 5
Thus element belong to 3rd period, p-block element.
Since the valence shell contains = 6 electrons, group No = 10 + 6 = 16 configuration
=1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 element name is sulphur.
(ii) n = 4
Means element belongs to 4th period belongs to group 4 as in the valence shell (2 +
2) = 4 electrons.
Electronic configuration.=1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2, and the element name is
Titanium (Ti).
(iii) n = 6
” Means the element belongs to 6th period. Last electron goes to the f-orbital,
element is from f-block.
group = 3
The element is gadolinium (z = 64)
Complete electronic configuration =[Xe] 4 f7 5d1 6s2.

b. (i) s-Block elements: ns 1-2 where n = 2 – 7.

(ii) p-Block elements: ns2 np1-6 where n = 2-6.
(iii) d-Block elements:(n – 1) d1-10 ns 0-2 where n = 4-7.
(iv) f-Block elements: (n – 2) f0-14 (n -1) d0-1 ns2where n = 6 – 7.

32 The first member of each group of representative elements (i.e., the s- and p- block elements) 5
exhibits anomalous behaviour due to:

(i) small size

(ii) higher ionisation enthalpy

(iii) higher electronegativity

 (iv) the absence of d- orbitals.

For example, in s – block elements, lithium behaves differently than the other alkali metals.

(a) Lithium compounds have a high covalent character. Alkali metal compounds are
predominantly ionic.

(b) Lithium nitride is formed when lithium reacts with nitrogen, whereas other alkali metals
do not form nitrides.

In p- block elements, the first member of each group has four orbitals in their valence shell,
one 2s orbital and three 2 p orbitals. As a result, these elements have a maximum covalency
of four, whereas other members of the same or different group have a maximum covalency
that is greater than four due to the availability of vacant d – orbitals.

33 Due to their various properties, p – block elements produce acidic, basic, and amphoteric 5
oxides:

• The higher an element’s electronegativity, the more acidic its oxide.

For example- Boron has an electronegativity of -2, carbon has an electronegativity of
2.5, and nitrogen has an electronegativity of 3. As a result, the order of acidic
character of B, C, and N oxides is B2O3 < CO2 < N2O3
• If the ionisation enthalpy of an element is high, it will form acidic oxide; if it is
intermediate, it will form amphoteric oxide; and if it is low, it will form basic oxides.
For example, the ionisation enthalpy of boron is 800 while that of carbon is 1086.5,
implying that carbon oxide is more acidic than boron oxide.
• The oxides of the first element in each group in the p – block are more acidic than the
oxides of other elements. As we move down the group, the acidic character
decreases, followed by elements that form amphoteric oxides and then basic oxides.
For example- In the Boron family, B forms a weak acidic oxide, while Al, Ga, and In
form amphoteric oxides, and Tl forms a strong basic oxide.
Reactions of some of the oxides with water:

• Acidic Oxides:
B2O3 + 3H2O → 2H3BO3
• Basic Oxides:
Tl2O + H2O → 2TlOH
• Amphoteric Oxides are insoluble in water and thus reacts with acid and base:
Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O
Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O