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International Organizing Committee of the FAPM-2019:

 Quantum Optics and
Quantum Computation
An introduction
 IOP Series in Advances in Optics, Photonics and Optoelectronics

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 Quantum Optics and
Quantum Computation
An introduction

Dipankar Bhattacharyya and Jyotirmoy Guha

Department of Physics, Santipur College, Santipur, Nadia, West Bengal, India

IOP Publishing, Bristol, UK

ª IOP Publishing Ltd 2022

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authors of this work in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.

ISBN 978-0-7503-2715-2 (ebook)

ISBN 978-0-7503-2713-8 (print)
ISBN 978-0-7503-2716-9 (myPrint)
ISBN 978-0-7503-2714-5 (mobi)

DOI 10.1088/978-0-7503-2715-2

Version: 20220101

IOP ebooks

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from the British Library.

Published by IOP Publishing, wholly owned by The Institute of Physics, London

IOP Publishing, Temple Circus, Temple Way, Bristol, BS1 6HG, UK

US Office: IOP Publishing, Inc., 190 North Independence Mall West, Suite 601, Philadelphia,
PA 19106, USA
 Dedicated to Our teachers

Professor Pradip Narayan Ghosh

Former Vice Chancellor, Jadavpur University, West Bengal, India.

Former Professor of Physics, Calcutta University, West Bengal, India

and

Professor Padmanava Dasgupta

Former Professor of Physics, University of Kalyani, West Bengal, India

A teacher affects eternity; He can never tell where his influence stops.
 Contents

Preface xvi
Acknowledgments xvii
Author biographies xviii

1 Bra ket algebra of Dirac 1-1

1.1 The bra and ket notation of Dirac 1-1
1.2 Hermitian conjugation 1-2
1.3 Definition of inner product (also called overlap) 1-2
1.4 Definition of outer product 1-3
1.5 Eigenvalue equation 1-4
1.6 Linear vector space 1-4
1.7 Linear independence 1-5
1.8 Linear dependence 1-5
1.9 Span (expansion of an arbitrary ket)/expansion postulate 1-6
1.10 Ket space, bra space, dual space 1-7
1.11 Physical significance of inner product <m∣n> 1-7
1.12 Norm and the process of normalization 1-9
1.13 Ortho-normalization (orthogonal + normalized) 1-11
1.14 Orthonormal basis (orthogonal + normalized + linearly 1-12
independent + span)
1.15 Expansion postulate 1-13
1.16 Projection operator 1-13
1.17 Normal matrix 1-16
1.18 Spectral theorem 1-16
1.19 Elements of a matrix in Bra Ket notation 1-17
1.20 Hermitian matrix operator 1-19
1.21 Unitary matrix 1-22
1.22 Diagonalization of a matrix—change of basis 1-23
1.23 Triangle laws (inequality and equality) 1-26
1.24 Cauchy–Schwarz laws (inequality and equality) 1-26
1.25 Commutator bracket 1-27
1.26 Trace 1-30
1.27 Pauli spin matrices 1-31
1.28 Orthogonal matrix operator 1-35

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 Quantum Optics and Quantum Computation

1.29 Standard method of ortho-normalization Graham–Schmidt 1-35

ortho-normalization procedure
1.30 Definition of average value 1-38
1.31 Some definitions 1-39
1.32 Kroneckar product (symbol ⊗) or direct product or tensor product 1-41
1.33 Further reading 1-42
1.34 Problems 1-42

2 Postulates of quantum mechanics 2-1

2.1 First postulate: observables are replaced by operators 2-1
2.2 Second postulate: state vector and wave function 2-2
2.3 Third postulate: process of measurement 2-7
2.4 Fourth postulate: Time evolution of a state 2-11
2.5 Solution of the Schrödinger equation 2-12
2.6 Unitary operator keeps the length of state vector constant 2-14
2.7 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle or principle of indeterminism 2-15
2.8 Further reading 2-17
2.9 Problems 2-17

3 Introduction to quantum computing 3-1

3.1 Introduction 3-1
3.2 Some basic ideas about classical and quantum computing 3-1
3.3 Definition of certain terms relating to quantum computing 3-3
3.3.1 Information 3-3
3.3.2 Computability 3-3
3.3.3 Algorithm 3-4
3.3.4 Quantum parallelism 3-4
3.3.5 Quantum reversible computing 3-4
3.3.6 Ancilas (Ancila bits) 3-5
3.3.7 No-cloning theorem 3-5
3.3.8 Quantum entanglement 3-5
3.3.9 Quantum teleportation 3-5
3.3.10 Quantum cryptography 3-6
3.3.11 Protocols of quantum computing 3-7
3.3.12 Quantum de-coherence 3-7
3.4 Journey towards quantum computing 3-7
3.4.1 Moore’s law (1965) 3-8

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 Quantum Optics and Quantum Computation

3.4.2 Feynman idea of quantum computer (1982) 3-9

3.4.3 Deutsch algorithm 3-9
3.4.4 Shor’s algorithm 3-9
3.4.5 Concept of qubit 3-9
3.4.6 Grover’s algorithm 3-9
3.4.7 Experimental demonstration of quantum teleportation 3-9
3.4.8 First quantum computer 3-10
3.4.9 Other milestones 3-10
3.5 Need for quantum computers 3-11
3.6 Landauer’s principle 3-11
3.7 Quantum computing 3-12
3.8 Bits 0 and 1 3-12
3.9 A bit of Boolean algebra 3-13
3.10 Gate 3-14
3.11 Computational complexity 3-16
3.12 Further reading 3-17
3.13 Problems 3-17

4 Quantum bits 4-1

4.1 Qubits and comparison with classical bits 4-1
4.2 Qubit model applied to the Stern–Gerlach experiment 4-3
4.3 Qubit model applied to polarized photon (computational and 4-6
Hadamard basis introduced)
4.4 Bloch sphere representation of a qubit 4-8
4.5 Multiple qubits 4-11
4.6 Explicit representation of the basis states 4-13
4.7 Bell state or EPR pair (or state) 4-14
4.8 Global phase and relative phase 4-16
4.9 Measurement depends on choice of basis 4-17
4.10 Further reading 4-18
4.11 Problems 4-18

5 Quantum circuits 5-1

5.1 Quantum gate and quantum circuit 5-1
5.2 Single-qubit gates 5-2
5.3 Quantum NOT gate or Pauli X̂ gate (σ̂x ) 5-2
5.4 Ẑ gate or Pauli Ẑ gate (σ̂z ) 5-6

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 Quantum Optics and Quantum Computation

5.5 Pauli Ŷ gate or σ̂y 5-6

5.6 Phase shift gates (P̂ gate, Ŝ gate, T̂ gate) 5-7
5.6.1 P̂ gate 5-7
5.6.2 Ŝ gate 5-8
π
5.6.3 T̂ gate or gate 5-8
8
5.6.4 Ẑ gate as a phase shift gate 5-8
5.6.5 Special P̂(ϕ ) gate: Rˆ k = P( ˆ 2π ) 5-8
2k
5.6.6 Inter-relations 5-9
5.7 Hadamard gate Ĥ , Hadamard basis ∣+>, ∣ − > 5-9
5.8 Unitary matrix as length preserving matrix 5-15
5.9 Rotation gates RˆX (θ ), RˆY (θ ), RˆZ (θ ) 5-16
5.9.1 R̂Z (ξ ) represents rotation of the Bloch vector about Z-axis by ξ 5-17
5.9.2 Rotation about an arbitrary axis (n̂ ) 5-18
5.9.3 An arbitrary single qubit unitary operator can be converted 5-18
into a Hadamard gate
π
5.9.4 RˆX (π )RˆY ( 2 ) is a Hadamard operator 5-19
5.9.5 Evaluation of XY ˆ ˆ Xˆ , XR
ˆ ˆY (θ )Xˆ 5-19
5.9.6 Hadamard operation is equivalent to rotation on Bloch sphere 5-20
about Y-axis by 90° followed by rotation about X-axis by 180°
5.10 Multi-qubit gates 5-21
5.11 Controlled-NOT gate or CNOT gate 5-22
5.11.1 CNOT gate is Hermitian 5-24
5.12 Preparing Bell states 5-24
5.13 Swap gate 5-26
5.13.1 Construction of SWAP gate using three CNOT gates 5-28
5.14 Controlled U gates 5-28
5.14.1 Note on controlled Xˆ , Yˆ , Zˆ gates 5-31
5.15 Toffoli quantum gate or CCNOT gate (controlled controlled 5-31
NOT gate)
5.16 Controlled SWAP gate or CS gate or Fredkin gate 5-32
5.17 Deutsch gate 5-33
5.18 Implementing classical computation by quantum gates 5-34
5.18.1 Implementation of NOT operation by quantum gate 5-34
5.18.2 Implementation of XOR operation 5-34
5.18.3 Implementation of AND operation 5-34
5.19 Plan of a quantum circuit 5-35
5.20 Quantum half adder circuit 5-36
5.21 Quantum full adder circuit 5-37

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 Quantum Optics and Quantum Computation

5.22 Oracle (black box) in quantum computer 5-38

5.23 Hadamard transformation on each of n qubits leads to a linear 5-39
superposition of 2n states
5.24 Process of measurement 5-40
5.25 Quantum coin flipping 5-40
5.26 Further reading 5-41
5.27 Problems 5-41

6 Teleportation and super dense coding 6-1

6.1 Quantum no-cloning theorem 6-1
6.2 Teleportation 6-2
6.3 Super dense coding (or dense coding) (of Bennett and Wiesner) 6-5
6.4 Further reading 6-9
6.5 Problems 6-9

7 Pure and mixed state 7-1

7.1 Pure state 7-1
7.2 Mixed state 7-1
7.3 Density operator (introduced by Von Neumann) 7-2
7.4 Density operator for a pure state 7-2
7.4.1 Coherence 7-3
7.4.2 Decoherence 7-3
7.5 Average 7-3
7.6 Density operator of a mixed state (or an ensemble) 7-4
7.7 Quantum mechanics of an ensemble 7-7
7.8 Density matrix for a two-level spin system (Stern–Gerlach 7-8
experiment)
7.9 Single-qubit density operator in terms of Pauli matrices 7-11
7.10 Some illustration of density matrix for pure and mixed states 7-15
7.11 Partially mixed, completely mixed, maximally mixed states 7-21
7.12 Time evolution of density matrix: Liouville–Von 7-23
Neumann equation
7.13 Partial trace and the reduced density matrix 7-24
7.14 Measurement theory of mixed states 7-26
7.15 Positive operator valued measure (POVM) 7-29
7.16 Further reading 7-31
7.17 Problems 7-31

xi
 Quantum Optics and Quantum Computation

8 Quantum algorithms 8-1

8.1 Quantum parallelism 8-1
8.2 Reversibility 8-2
8.3 XOR is addition modulo 2 8-2
8.4 Quantum arithmetic and function evaluations 8-3
8.5 Deutsch algorithm 8-7
8.6 Deutsch–Jozsa (DJ) algorithm 8-12
8.7 Bernstein–Vazirani algorithm 8-16
8.8 Simon algorithm 8-17
8.9 Grover’s search algorithm 8-25
8.10 Discrete integral transform 8-31
8.11 Quantum Fourier transform 8-33
8.12 Finding period using QFT 8-35
8.13 Implementation of QFT 8-37
8.14 Some definitions and GCD evaluation 8-43
8.15 Inverse modulo 8-44
8.16 Shor’s algorithm 8-47
8.17 Further reading 8-58
8.18 Problems 8-58

9 Quantum error correction 9-1

9.1 Error in classical computing 9-1
9.2 Errors in quantum computing/communication 9-3
9.3 The phase flip 9-4
9.4 Qubit transmission from Alice to Bob 9-5
9.5 Converting a phase flip error to qubit flip error 9-9
9.6 Shor’s nine-qubit error code 9-13
9.6.1 Encoding circuit 9-14
9.6.2 Why is it called Shor’s nine-qubit error code? 9-15
9.6.3 Decoding circuit 9-16
9.7 Further reading 9-19
9.8 Problems 9-19

10 Quantum information 10-1

10.1 Classical information theory 10-1
10.2 Decision tree 10-3
10.3 Measure of information: Shannon’s entropy 10-5

xii
 Quantum Optics and Quantum Computation

10.4 Statistical entropy and Shannon’s information entropy 10-14

10.5 Communication system 10-15
10.6 Shannon’s noiseless coding theorem 10-15
10.7 Prefix code, binary tree 10-16
10.8 Quantum information theory, Von Neumann entropy 10-18
10.9 Further reading 10-21
10.10 Problems 10-21

11 EPR paradox and Bell inequalities 11-1

11.1 EPR paradox 11-1
11.2 David Bohm’s version of EPR paradox (1951) 11-3
11.3 Bell’s (Gedanken) experiment: EPR and Bell’s inequalities 11-5
11.4 Clauser, Horne, Shimony and Holt’s inequality 11-13
11.5 Further reading 11-16
11.6 Problems 11-16

12 Cryptography—the art of coding 12-1

12.1 A bit of history of cryptography 12-1
12.2 Essential elements of cryptography 12-2
12.3 One-time pad 12-2
12.4 RSA cryptosystem 12-4
12.5 Fermat’s little theorem 12-5
12.6 Euler theorem 12-6
12.7 Chinese remainder theorem 12-10
12.8 RSA algorithm 12-12
12.9 Quantum cryptography 12-17
12.10 Protocol of quantum cryptography 12-18
12.10.1 BB84 protocol 12-20
12.10.2 B92 protocol 12-27
12.10.3 Ekert protocol using EPR pairs (E91) 12-28
12.11 Further reading 12-29
12.12 Problems 12-29

13 Experimental aspects of quantum computing 13-1

13.1 Basic principle of nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computing 13-2
13.2 Further reading 13-4

xiii
 Quantum Optics and Quantum Computation

14 Light–matter interactions 14-1

14.1 Interaction Hamiltonian 14-2
14.2 Rabi oscillations 14-4
14.3 Weak field case 14-6
14.4 Strong field case: Rabi oscillations 14-7
14.5 Damping phenomena 14-9
14.6 The density matrix 14-11
14.7 Pure and mixed states 14-13
14.8 Equation of motion of the density operator 14-14
14.9 Inclusion of decay phenomena 14-15
14.10 Vector model of density matrix equations of motion 14-17
14.11 Power broadening and saturation of the spectrum 14-19
14.12 Spectral line broadening mechanism 14-21
14.13 Natural broadening 14-22
14.14 Collision or pressure broadening 14-23
14.15 Inhomogeneous broadening or Doppler broadening 14-24
14.16 Further reading 14-26
14.17 Problems 14-26

15 Laser spectroscopy and atomic coherence 15-1

15.1 Moving two-level atoms in a travelling wave field 15-2
15.2 Moving atoms in a standing wave 15-7
15.3 Lamb dip 15-12
15.4 Crossover resonances 15-13
15.5 Atomic coherence phenomena 15-14
15.6 EIT Hamiltonian of the system 15-19
15.7 Dressed states picture 15-22
15.8 Coherent population trapping 15-24
15.9 Electromagnetically induced absorption (EIA) 15-25
15.10 Further reading 15-26
15.11 Problems 15-27

16 Quantum theory of radiation 16-1

16.1 Maxwell’s equations 16-1
16.2 The electromagnetic field in a cavity 16-2
16.3 Quantization of a single mode 16-6
16.4 Multimode radiation field 16-9

xiv
 Quantum Optics and Quantum Computation

16.5 Coherent states 16-11

16.6 Squeezed states of light 16-14
16.7 Further reading 16-18
16.8 Problems 16-18

17 Interaction of an atom with a quantized field 17-1

17.1 Interaction Hamiltonian in terms of Pauli operators 17-1
17.2 Absorption and emission phenomena 17-3
17.3 Dressed states 17-5
17.4 Jaynes–Cummings model 17-8
17.5 Theory of spontaneous emission: Wigner–Weisskopf model 17-12
17.6 Further reading 17-15
17.7 Problems 17-15

18 Photon statistics 18-1

18.1 Young’s double-slit experiment 18-1
18.2 Hanbury Brown–Twiss experiment 18-3
18.3 Photon counter 18-7
18.4 Outcome of the photon counter 18-7
18.5 Photon statistics of a perfectly coherent light 18-8
18.6 Photon statistics of a thermal light 18-10
18.7 Classification of light by second-order correlation function 18-13
and photon statistics.
18.8 Photon bunching and anti-bunching 18-16
18.8.1 Coherent light 18-16
18.8.2 Bunched light 18-17
18.8.3 Anti-bunched light 18-17
18.9 Further reading 18-18
18.10 Problems 18-19

xv
 Preface

The topics that the book deals with are very current and are the burning topics of the
day. It is argued that information theory and quantum mechanics fit together very
well. We in the book explore this through study of quantum mechanics as applied to
some concepts that are getting increasingly popular with each passing day, e.g.
quantum optics, quantum cryptography, teleportation, quantum computing etc.
Special effort and consideration have been given to make the approach attractive,
putting greater emphasis on illustrations, problem solving and keeping the approach
simple and to the point.
We thank IOP Publishing for publishing this book.

Dr Dipankar Bhattacharyya
([email protected])
Dr Jyotirmoy Guha
([email protected],
https://studio.youtube.com/channel/UCJ1JOEqmmVeyAv5XRY55fiw)
Santipur College, Santipur, Nadia, West Bengal, India
April 21, 2021

xvi
 Acknowledgments

We are thankful to the Institute of Physics (IOP) Publising for giving us such a
wonderful opportunity. Ms Ashley Gasque needs special mention for her support
and for keeping in touch with us all through.
We would like to thank all our departmenal colleagues of Santipur College
especially Dr Atreyi Paul and Dr Anita Gangopadhyay for their constant
inspiration.
Dr Dipankar Bhattacharyya wants to thank his PhD supervisor Professor Pradip
Narayan Ghosh, Department of Physics, University of Calcutta, India and his
postdoctoral supervisor Professor Nir Davidson, Dept of Physics and Complex
System, Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel, both of whom are excellent
researchers and teachers who drew his attention to this field.
Dr Bhattacharyya gratefully acknowledges the suggestions and encouragement
he received from Dr Amitava Bandyopadhyay, Department of Physics, Visva
Bharati as well as his discussions with some PhD scholars with whom he worked
for the last ten years like Dr Bankim Chandra Das, Dr Suman Mondal, Dr Arpita
Das and Dr Khairul Islam, to mention a few.
Dr Bhattacharyya also acknowledges and thanks his co-author Dr Jyotirmoy
Guha for his valuable suggestions and help.

xvii
 Author biographies

Dipankar Bhattacharyya
Dr Dipankar Bhattacharyya is an Associate Professor of Physics,
Department of Physics, Santipur College, Nadia, W.B., India. He
did his PhD at the University of Calcutta, India on Laser
Spectroscopy and later went to Weizmann Institute of Science,
Israel for Postdoctoral research work with Feinberg Graduate
School Fellowship. He has published about thirty publications all
in international journals. He was the principal investigator of three
research projects funded by Govt. of India.

Jyotirmoy Guha
Dr Jyotirmoy Guha, Associate Professor of Physics and currently
Head of the Department of Physics, Santipur College, Santipur,
Nadia, West Bengal, India has a brilliant academic record and did
his PhD in Quantum cosmology. He is the author of books like
Quantum Mechanics (Theory, Problems and Solutions) published by
Books and Allied, Kolkata; Solid State Physics (Theory, Problems
and Solutions) published by Books and Allied, Kolkata; Modern
Physics (Volume I and II) published by Techno World, Kolkata
and regularly contributes in his YouTube channel jg#physics (https://studio.you-
tube.com/channel/UCJ1JOEqmmVeyAv5XRY55fiw).

xviii