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Sampling Design
Research Methodology (Chapter-4) C.R. KOTHARI

When we decide to study a population, most often we are unable to look at all the individuals
in the population. Real life issues like the lack of time, limited amount of money and
inconvenience to the individuals under study disallow us to include the entire population in
our study. Instead, we choose a sample from the population, which reflects its structure and
nature. We want our results to be reliable and dependable, and for those reasons our sample
must represent the entire population. Choosing a right sample is a critical matter.

A sampling design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers
to the technique or the procedure, the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the
sample. Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the
sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected.
There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are
relatively more precise and easier to apply than others. Researcher must select/ prepare a
sample design which should be reliable and appropriate for the research study (Kothari 2004:
55).
When choosing a sample there are certain cautions that we must be aware of. As mentioned,
in the earlier Units, choosing a random sample is a very important matter. When we choose
individuals randomly, we minimize bias. Samples are often biased when individuals
volunteer themselves to be included in studies/experiments. In addition, favoritism of certain
individuals over others, which in effect implies choosing a pre-selected group of individuals,
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can also yield results that will not reflect the characteristics of the overall population. In this
Unit, we study the importance of choosing a right sample design in detail.

 STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:

(i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the
set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or
infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe
the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of
items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are examples
of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio
program, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.

(ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that he has to select for his study.

(iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list
is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct,
reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative
of the population as possible.

(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should
neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is
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one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as also
an acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of population variance needs to
be considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of
population must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of
interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample.
Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must
invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.

(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question
of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be
interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the population,
or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure concerning the
population. There may also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would
like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the sample design we
would accept.

(vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of
sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use
i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In
fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are several
sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which the researcher must
choose one for his study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample
size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.
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 CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

In this context one must remember that two costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz., the
cost of collecting the data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data.
Researcher must keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz., systematic bias and
sampling error.
A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced or
eliminated by increasing the sample size. At best the causes responsible for these errors can be
detected and corrected.
Usually, a systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following factors:

1. Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased

representation
of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.

2. Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result
in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the
interviewer is biased.
Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there will be systematic bias in the
data collected through such a measuring device.

3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the
sample, there may arise a systematic bias.
The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a
response from an individual is often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.

4. Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept
under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations. For instance, if
workers are aware that somebody is observing them in course of a work study on the basis of
which the average length of time to complete a task will be determined and accordingly the
quota will be set for piece work, they generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the speed
with which they work if kept
unobserved. Thus, the indeterminacy principle may also be a cause of a systematic bias.
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5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of
data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries.
There is usually a downward bias in the income data collected by government taxation
department,
whereas we find an upward bias in the income data collected by some social organization.
People in general understate their incomes if asked about it for tax purposes, but they overstate
the same if asked for social status or their affluence.
Generally, in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think is the ‘correct’ answer
rather than revealing their true feelings.

 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good sample design
as under:

(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for
the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

 Difference Between Probability and Non Probability Sampling

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Short Note:
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 What is Cluster Sampling?

Cluster sampling divides a large target group into multiple smaller groups or clusters for
research purposes. Researchers then form a sample by randomly selecting these clusters.

The random selection gives every group in that target population an equal chance to be a part
of the sample group. However, only a few relevant groups are selected and the rest are
eliminated.

We use a cluster sample to study large populations. Typically, clusters are obtained from pre-
existing groups such as schools or cities.
Then we group the samples together by certain shared characteristics or attributes. Samples
include multiple attributes such as demographics, goals, habits, backgrounds, etc.
Providing more attributes helps you accurately target the right group that could give you
accurate feedback. Instead of selecting the entire population, researchers pick a smaller, more
productive group within that population to research and collect data.

Cluster sampling example

If you’re looking to conduct a survey on the performance of smartphones in the United States,
you can divide America’s population into certain popular cities such as New York or Los Angeles.
You can then target those individuals who own smartphones in the respective cities and who
use a certain kind of mobile OS. All of the above are valid attributes that would help you target
the right group of people to research.

 What is Area Sampling?

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Area sampling is a type of sampling technique used in many different fields of research. This
method involves taking a sample from a specific area or region and using this sample to make
generalizations about a larger population. Area sampling is often used in marketing research,
health sciences, and other fields where the researcher wants to draw conclusions about a large
population from a smaller sample.

Examples of Area Sampling:

Area sampling is used in many different fields of research, including marketing, health sciences,
and political science. Some examples of area sampling include:

A marketing research firm conducting a survey of shoppers in a mall to determine their buying
habits.
A health sciences researcher collecting data on the prevalence of a disease in different regions.
A political scientist studying voting patterns in different states or regions.

 What is Stratified sampling

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If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a

homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain a
representative
sample. Under stratified sampling the population is divided into several sub-populations that
are individually more homogeneous than the total population (the different sub-populations are
called ‘strata’) and then we select items from each stratum to constitute a sample.
Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total population, we are able to get more
precise estimates for each stratum and by estimating more accurately each of the component
parts, we get a better estimate of the whole. In brief, stratified sampling results in more reliable
and detailed information.

 Systematic sampling
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Systematic sampling is a probability sampling method in which researchers select members

of the population at a regular interval (or k) determined in advance.

If the population order is random or random-like (e.g., alphabetical), then this method will
give you a representative sample that can be used to draw conclusions about your
population of interest.

 Multistage sampling

Multistage sampling is an extension of cluster sampling in that, first, clusters are randomly
selected and, second, sample units within the selected clusters are randomly selected. In this
design, random selection occurs at both the cluster or group level and at the sample unit level.

 Sequential sampling
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Sequential sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher picks a

single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study, analyzes the results
then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on.
Example #1
Consider a chocolate factory using sequential sampling for quality control. Rather than
inspecting every chocolate bar in a batch simultaneously, the quality control team regularly
tests small samples throughout production. Production continues smoothly if the initial samples
meet the desired taste and texture. However, if an issue arises, adjustments can be made
immediately, preventing the need for large-scale recalls.