Network Theorems 4.1. General 1. Generat sweknow,a network is justa combinationof various 2: SuPerpostion Theorem Asem such as resistors etc., interconnected in 3. Ideal Constant-Valtage | sorts of manner. Most of these networks cannot Source be solved merely by applying laws of series and parallel 4. Ideal Constant Current Circuits. Of course, Kirchhoff’s laws can always be used. But Source often it makes the solution quite long and laborious. Hence, 5. Thevenin’s Theorem vatious network theoremshave been developed which provide 6b HEWHE: THevenizer a very shortand time-saving methods o solve these complicated * Cheut ? circuits. The reason is that such theorems enable us toconvert bok the given complicated network intoa muchsimpler one which 7” No't0"'s Theorem can then bc easily solved by only applying the rules of sezies 8 How to Nortontse a and parallel circuits, We will discuss the following network Given Circut theorems which find wide application in electronic and 9.“ Maximum Power transmission circuit Tronsfer Theorem 1 Superposition Theorem 2. Thevenia's Theorem 3. Norton's Theorem 4. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Though we will consider only de networks in this chapter, these theorems are applicable to ac networks as well. 4.2. Superposition Meorem According to this theorem. if there are a number of voltage or current sources acting simultaneously in a network,36 © Basic Electronics then each source can be treated as ifit acts independently of the others. Hence, we can calculate the effect of one source ata time and then superimpose i.e., algebraically add the results of all the other sources. Following steps are taken while applying this theorem to the solution of networks which con- tain more than one voltage or current source : 1. First, all sources except the one under consideration are removed. While removing these voltage sources, their internal resistances (if any) are left behind. While removing current sources, they are ceplacedDy an open circuit since their intemal resistance (by definition) i infinite (An. 4.4) 2. Next, curents in various resistors and their voltage drops due 10 this single source are calculated. 3. This process is repeated for other sources taken one al a time. 4. Finally, algebraic sum of currents apd voltage drops over aresistor due to different sources is taken. It gives the actual value of current and voltage drop in that resistor or component, Example 4.1. Using Superposition theorem, calculate current in each branch of the network shown in Fig. 4.1 (a). Solution. We will find two sets of branch currents : one when 6 V battery is not there and the other, when 12 V battery 6 ot there. Let the different branch currents be /y.£, and J as showm in Fig. 4.1 (a), In Fig. 4.1 (5), 6 V battery has been removed and then replaced by short-circuit (since its internal resistance is zero). Various branch currents are as under : Ryo = 414 = 20. Hence, total circuit resistance is= 6+ 2= At point B. this current divides equally into two pans. A = 0.75 Aand 1,'=0.75 A In Fig. 4.2 (a) 12 V battery has been removed and replaced by short circuit (since its internal resistance is zero). ah $2 4a ob pores c D od Fig 4 # Q. Therefore, 1," = 12/8 1.5A. Here. Rp = 6 14 = 2.4 2, total resistance, R= 4 +2.4 = 6.4.Q. Hence, L, "= 6/6.4 = 0.94 A. This current divides at point B in the inverse ratio of the resistances of the two parallel paths. fy 94 x 4/10 = 0.38 A; 1 =094 x 6/0 =056 A Nea xeon gents 0 7 ty sev > @ ig. 424: Network Theorems = 37 Chapter I we combine the cesults of Fig. 4.1 (5) and 4.2 (a), we get. Mya 15-038 = LIZA 1, = I", -1',=0.94-0.75 =019 A 12 141" 0.75 +0562 131A ‘Actual currents are shown in Fig. 4.2 (b). Example 4.2. The circuit of Fig. 43 (a) is excited by ewo voltage sources of zero internal resistances. Use Superposition Principle to find current flowing through the common resistance Ry and voltage drop across it Solution. Of course, it is understood in Fig. 4.3 (a) that negative terminal of each voltage source is grounded. ov We will first replace V, 0 +N a by short-circuit and then V, i ei V, shortcircuited == RiSaq R380 nist When V, is shorted. circuit becomes as shown in . Fig. 4.3 (6) which further simplifies to that shown in R120 vps Fig. 4.3 (c). MSR, = RyRy 1, = 206 +4)=2A Vgq= 6X2=12V @) © V, short-circuited Now, when source V, is shorted out leaving behind only V,, the circuit sea, becomes as shown in Fig. 4.4 (a) which further reduces to that shown in Fig. 4.4 (5). * I, = HNS=2.4.A; Vps =3X2.427.2¥ Ren Drop across R, due to both sources V, and V, =12472=19.2V *TRy RU, 19.2 Current through R, = —3—= 16A ia, 4.3. Ideal Constant-Voltage Source {tis thatvoltage source or generator whose output @ o voltage remains absolutely constant whatever the change Fig. 44 in load curr ent, Such a voltage source must possess zero intemal resistance so that intemal voltage drop in the source is zero. In that case, output voltage Fig. 4538 = Basic Electronics provided by thesource would remain constant irrespective ofthe aneurs of current drawn from ita practice, none such ideal constant-voltage source can be obtained. However, smaller the internal resistance r of a voltage source, closer it comes to an ideal source described above. Suppose, a6 V battery has an intemal resistance of 0.005 & (Fig. 45). When it supplies no current ie. itis on no-load. V,=6 V ie., output voltage provided by it at its output terminals A and Bis6 V. If load current increases to 100 A. internal drop = 100 x 0.005 = 0.5 V. Hence, V= 6 —0.5 =55V. Obviously, an output voltage of 5.5 —6 V can be considered constant as compared to wide variation in load current ftom 0 A to 100 A. 4.4. Ideal Constant-Current Source lis thatvoltage source whose internal resistance is infinity. In practice. itis approached by a source which possesses very high resistance as compared to that of the external load resistance. AS shown in Fig. 46, let the 6 V battety have an internal resistance of | MQ2 and let load resistance vary from 20 K to 200 K. The current supplied by the source varies from 6/1.02 = 5.9 WAto6/1.2= SA. ‘As seen, even when load resistance increases 10 times. current decreases by 0.9 WA. Hence, the source can be considered. for all practical purposes, to be a constantcurrent source. Network 4.5. Thevenin's Theorem a as This theorem is very useful when _ = ey, we desire to know the amount of power, B: current or voltage drop in a particular Box component of a given citcuit. With the help Py =a of this theorem, anotmally complex citcuit Fig. 47 can be simplified to a series circuit” consisting of (i) an ideal voltage source and (it) a resistance connected in series with it. ———sA In Fig. 4.7 (a), imagine that the block contains a network connected toits terminals A and B. According to this theorem, the entire network connected to A and B can be replaced by a single voltage source V,, connected in series with a single resistance Ry, acfoss the same terminals, V, is actually the open-circuit voltage (V,,) existing actoss terminals A and & and R,,, is the resistance of the network as looked into or viewed back from the same terminals with all sources removed leaving behind their internal resistance if any. Actually, an ohmmeterconnected across Aand B would read this resistance. 4.6, How to Thevenize a Circuit ? Suppose we are asked to find current through the 15 9 load resistor in Fig. 5.8 by a using ‘Thevenin’s theorem. The procedure for Thevenizing this circuit would be as follows : 1. First Step. @isconnect the 15 0 resistor from terminals A and B (incidentally, don’t throw it away, we will need it again towards the end), © Noron's theoem reduces it to-a parallel circuit (At. 5)Chapter : 4: Network Theorems » 39 2. Second Step. With load ternninals A and 8 open, calculate the open-circuit voltage (V,.) between them by any convenient method. In the present case, V,. is equal to the voltage drop across 12 2 resistor because point A is at the same potential as point C. , 30 Now, a Veg = 15K 12=18V Itis also called Thevenin voltage Vy 3. Third Step. Now, cemrove the 24 V battery leaving behind its internal resistance of I Q as shown in Fig. 4.9 (a), aa ‘When looked into from AW open-circuit terminals A and B, the circuit consists of two patallel paths : one having a ta resistance of 12 Q and the other of (3+ 1) =4.0. Hence, equivalent resistance of the ® network when viewed back from these two tenninals is na 12x4_ * 0244) Itis also called Thevenin resistance Ry. Consequently, as seen from points A and &, the given network can be reduced to a single voltage source (called Thevenin’s source) of 18 V whose internal resistance R,, equals 3 $2 (Fig. 4.9 (b)}. 4. Fourth step. Finally, connect back the load resistor to the terminals A and B thereby giving 2a simple series circuit shown in Fig. 4.9(b). Finding current I though R, should be no problem now. 1 = 18/3 +15)=1A Example 4.3. Apply Thevenin's theorem to find current through the 12. resistor of the circuit shown in Fig. 4.10 (a). Solution, In Fig. 4.10 (6), point A is at the same potential as point C since there is oo current through the 4 Q resistor and hence no drop across it. Va = Veg=Ix6 Now 1 = 36/3 +6)=4A ‘ Vy = 4x6=26V Since, 36 V battery has no internal resistance, it has been replaced by a short-circuit in Fig. 4.11 (a).@® « Basic Electronics 3 4 ie oar ' 6 Vow D | @ Fig. 4.10 Ryn 44 28 5 6+3) Having found the Thevenin’s source, the 12 © resistor is connected back in series with this source as shown in Fig. 4.11 (6). Current flowing through it is, Jac tells co oa = + 6 +k Bn wy s D 3 | @ {) Fig. 4.1 I = 2412 +6) =L3I3A — from A1oB Example 4.4. Using Thevenin's theorem, calculate the current through the 4 K resistor of Fig. 4.12 (a), Solution. If we remove 4 K resistor. circuit becomes as shown in Fig, 4.12 (6). As seen. full current of 10 mA passes through 2 K resistor producing a drop of 10 x 2 = 20 V. Hence, V, = 20 V. w.cg. ground. Now, 12 V baltety is connected in seties with two resistors 3 K and 6 K which form a voltage divider circuit. = drop across 6 K resistor* 12x 6(6+3)=+8V — —wst. ground v, p.d between points A and 8 is V, = 20-8=12V — with B at a higher potential 3K 4K 3K Ahn a nv chav 6x 2Kg m0) 10 a ga? @ l Fig. 412 7 OrV,= 12 —érop seois 3 K resistor.Chapter : 4 : Network Theorems = 4. Now, we will find Ry i.e. resistance of the network as looked back into the open-circuited terininals A and B. For this piupose, we will replace both the voltage and current sources. Since voltage source has no internal resistance, it would be replaced by a short-circuit i.e. zero resistance. However, current source would be removed and replaced by an infinite resistance i.e., an ‘open’ (Act, 4.4). Jo that case, the citcuit becomes as shown in Fig. 4.13 (a). Infinite Resistance @ © Fe 413 AAs seen from Fig. 4.13 and Fig. 4.14 (a), the value of Ry=2+2=4.2 Hence, Thevenin source has a voltage of 12V 4 8 18 and an internal resistance of 4 2 as shown in Re i] Fig. 4.14 (0). e E o T= 12K4+4)=1L5A4 % IT 43 (a + 4) Ain 4.7. Norton’s Theorem : 2 . A ‘This theorem is used where itis easier to simplify a network in terms of currents instead of voltage. This theorem reduces a normally complicated network to a simple parallel circuit consisting of (a) an ideal current source /,, of infinite internal resistance and (b) aresistance Ry (or conductance Gy = //R,) in parallel with itas shown in re 45 Here, 1, is the current which Network would flow through a short circuit inate £ Fig. 4.14 7A placed actoss terminals A and B. Ry is the circuit resistance looking back from the open A-B terminals, These B terminals are not short-circuited for finding Ry but are ‘open’ as for cal- «@ ro) culating &,, for Thevenio’s Theorem*, Fig 4.15 Ry 4.8. How to Nortonise a Given Circuit Suppose we want to Nortonise the circuit shown in Fig. 4.16(a) i.e., we want to find Norton’s equivalent of this cir- cuit between tertoinals A and 8. ‘The different steps are as under : L. First Step. Put a short across terminals A and & (Fig. 4.16 (2)}. As seen, itresults in shorting out 12 $2 resistor as © Tn fet, this vesictance is the same both for Thevenis and Norton equivalent cicuite, In Norion's case. thitresisior is in paral with the current source whereas in Thevenin’s case, iti in sexes with Vp (AA. 4 6).42 = Basic Electronics shown separately in Fig. 4.16 (c). s Ig = 244 = 6A This current is usually called Norton current Iy- 2. Second Step. Remove the short from terminals A and B so that they are again open. 3. Third Step. Remove the battery and replace it by its internal resistance which, in the present case, is zero, The resistance Ry of the circuit as viewed back or looked into from open terminals A and Bis | eine es A | i : aa Lo. 42 ” o * Fig, 416 124230 F Hence. Norton's equivalent of the -——vii—>——oA sense seek given circuit in Fig. 4.16 (a) becomes thal shown in Fig. 4.17 (6). It consists of a6 A. 22 Ry (fea 30: constant-current source (of infinite resis- tance) in parallel with a 3 £2 resistance. i <8 Example 4.5. Using Norton's 8 theorem, calculte the current flowing @ through the 12 Q resistor in Fig. 4.18 (a). Solution. It is the same circuit as shown i Fig. 4.10 (a) and solved earlier with the help of 's theorem (Example 4.3). When applying Norton's theorem, the procedure would be as Fig. 4.17 1, First Step. Remove 12.9 resistor from terminals A and B and then put a short-circuit across them a5 shown in Fig. 4.18 (b) The current passing through 4 resistor is also the short-circuit current Ie (als0 written as fy). Far finding this current. we have to find by simplifying the circuit, As seen, (otal circuit resistance =34684=3424 =5.42 1 = 36/54 =208 A ‘This currert divides at point C into two unequal parts 206 he = 3 "30 2. Second Step. Remove the short circuit, thereby leaving temiinals A and B open. Also re: move the battery. Since its internal resistance is zeo, it is replaced by a tesistanceless piece of com necting wire thereby closing the circuit (Fig.4.19 (a) The esistance R, of the circuitas viewed frem terminals A and 8 is 2c 4 Sa 4AChapter : 4 =44+613=6Q Hence, the Norton's Nine ‘equivalent of the given circuit is as shown in = Fig, 4.19 (b), Load current 6 By J, through 12 9 resistor as can be found by using the , |. 8 Bi ae Proportional Current “a tea) Formula (Act. 2.16). Fig. 419 1, = 4x 1334 —fromA and B. 6+ tis the same value as found in Example 4.3 earlier. Example 4,6. The circuit of Fig. 4.20 (a) is excited by a voltage source and a current source. Using Norton's theorem, calculate current through the 6 Q resistor. Solution. Io Fig. 420 (b), 6 9 resistor has been removed and a short placed across terminals, A and 8. Short-citcuit current fg¢ (Ot Jy) is = current from voltage source + current of current-source. 60 = So +12=15A 20 2 A 20 A WA Nie AW —>—9—4 RA 6 5 + i ¢ 2 B @ ) ig. 4.20 Mshould be noted that shor across AB also shorts out S Qresistor. Hence. all the 12 A current passes through short-circuit andnone through 4 $2 resistor. In Fig. 4.21 (a), ‘short’ has been cemoved leaving terminals A and B open. Voltage source has been replaced by 2 connecting wire of zero eesistance (since its internal resistanceis zero). Current source has been replaced by an ‘open’ since ithasinfinite ls resistance. ; zo + When looked into the circuit from @ ) © terminals A and B, there are two patallel paths Fie: 42 between points A and B having resistances of 209 and 5 Q. Theie combined resistance, as. seen from Fig. 4.21 (c) is = 20115 = 40. Hence, Ry= The Norton's equivalent of the original circuit with respect to terminals A and B is shown in Fig. 422. The 6 © resistance has been connected back to the terminals A and B (from where it was, temoved earlier). = 15x46 +4) =6A44 « Basic Electronics 4.9. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem A This theorem is very useful for analysing electronic and h communication networks where main consideration is to transfer maximum power to the load irrespective of the efficiency.fts application 3 to power transmission snd. distribution net? Fig 4.22 works is limited because ia their case, the goal is high efficiency and aot maximum power transfer. When applied to de networks, this theorem states that @ resistive load will abstract maximum power from @ network when its resistance equals the resistance of the network as viewed from the output terminals with all voltage and current sources removed leaving behind their internal resistances if any. Example 4.7. in the circuit of Fig. 4.23, find the value of load resistance R, to be connected across terminals A and B which would abstract maximum power from the circuit. Also find the value of this maximum power, Solution. As seen, resistance of the network as viewed back from terminals A and B (with battery removed) is +6113=62 3 aa Hence, R, should be equal (06.0 Lets now find power developed in R, for which purpose we have to find /,. $ $ In Fig. 423 (b), ‘@) o) Total circuit resis- Fig 423 tance =3+6010 = 74a (= 35262163 A M6) om 3 (6 +10) Max. power possible in load resistance R, = 2? x6 = 24 W Itcan be verified that if we bave any other value of R,, power drawa will be less than 24W. CONVENTIONAL PROBLEMS = 1. Use Superposition Principle 0 find current through 12 02 resistor of Fig. 424. All resistance values are in ohms (3420 Al i me oxz D6 ma i Pisa 62. Using Superposition Theorem. cale shownin Fig. 4.25. 3. Make use of Thevenin’s theoiem to find cuctent in the 12 9 resistor of Fig. 4.26. the cunent fowing through 6 K resistor of the circuit {3mal 106 A} 4 2 We wi zn av 6v Fig. 426 . current thraugh 2 £2 resistor. bence find circuit through the 6 K resistor. Mty= mA, Ry =30,3mA} Jn the citcuit of Fig. 4.27. use Thevenin’s theorem (o find the magnitude and direction of flow of (0.75 A from Ato 8] 5. For the citeuit of Fig. 425, find Norton's equivalent and piv 23 & 6, What is the Norton equivatent for the citcvit shown in 426 7 Use it (0 Find current flowing through 12 9 resistor. Uy= 6 mA, Ry = 4/9: 06 A] = Fig. 428 7. According to Maximum Power Transfer Theoem, what should be the vatue of load resistance R, to abstract maxi ‘mum power from the {6 V battery shown in Fig, 4.28 ? Whatis the value ofthis power ? SELF EXAMINATION QUESTIONS A. Fillinthe blanks with most appropriate word(s) or numerical value (s). 1, While using Superposition Theorem, al} volt- age sources except one areremovedleaving be- hind their .. wesistances if any. 2. Amideat constant-voltage source has resistance. 3. Anidealconstant-cunent source has resistance. 4, According to Thevenin’s theorem, any network ‘with two open terminals can be replaced by a single voltage source Vig i ovsvnocenn With a singleresistance Rig S. While finding Ry, all voltage sources are re- moved but 10 thelr on Resistances. 6 Norton's equivalent of a circuit consists of a constant-current source and a resistance in evn With it 7. Aload draws maximum power from a circuit when its cesistance ... the ciecuit cesistance when viewed back from output terminals. B. Answer True or False 1. Vyis an open-circuit voltage. 2. Jyis an openciccuit cunen. (40, 169 3. Superposition principle treats each voltage source as if itacts independently of others ina circuit. 4. A constant-voltage source has infinite resistance, 5. A constanteurrent source has zero tesistance, 6. Ry isthe same as Ry. C. Multiple Choice Items 1. According to Superposition theorem as applied (0 ciccuits excited by more than one voltage source (a) _curtent is contributed by each source (©) _allvoliage sources sends their currents in the same direction (©) _cumentin any cesistor equals the algebraic sum of currents which each source would send if acting alone (D__algedeaic sum of voltage drops equals the sum of total applied voltage 2. Superposition theotem can be applied only to circuit having ... elements. (@) nonlinear (8) passive (©) linearbilatert (a)46 «@ Basic Electronics 3. The Superposition theorem is essentially based ‘on the concept of (0) duality (6) linearity (©) eeciprocity (2) non-linearity 4. While Thevenizing a circuit between (wo tenninals, V4 equals (@) show-citcuit terminal voltage (6) open-creuit tenninal voltage (c) EMF of the battery nearest (o the terminals (A) net voltage available in the circuit 5. Thevenin resistance Ry is found (a) between any two ‘open’ tenninats () by short. terminals rcuiting the given (wo (c)_ by removing voltage sources along with their internal resistances (a). between same open terminals as for, | 40, 6. Norton's equivalent of a circuit consists of a (a) constant-current source with a conductance in parallel (8) constanteurrent source in series with an infinite resistance (©) _constant-voltage source in paralel with a high resistance (O) single curtent source and asingle voliage source ANSWERS A. Fit in the banks Leiotemat 2, zer0 2. infinite 6. paraiel 7. equals B Thue or Fatse LT LF 3T 4F SF 6T €. —Multipie Choice items Le he 36 4b Sd 6.0 While calculating Ry. constant-current sources in the circuit ae (a) replaced by ‘opens’ (0) replaced by “shorts! (©) Wweated in parallel with other voltage sources (d) converted into equivalent voltage sources ‘The Norton equivalent of a circuit consists of a 2A current source in parallel witha 4 resistor. Thevenin equivalent of this eircuit is a... volt source in series with a 4 9 resistor. (@ 2 ) 05 © 6 @ 8 If two identical 3 A, 4 2 Norton equivalent circuits are connected in parallel with like polarity to like, the combined Norton equivatent circuit is @ 6A40 (®) 6A2Q © 3A20 (d) 6A,80 For abstracting maximum power from any wo given terminals of a circuit, the load resistance across the tenninals sbould be (@) four times the internal resistance of the network (6) equaltothe circuitcesistance when viewed back from the two terminals (G)__lessthan the circuit resistance (A) greater than the circuit resistance. S. intemal Bd 9d WD,