Metrology

Metrology is the defined as “science of measuring”. Metrology has many different fields.

7 base SI (International System/ Système International) Units

A meter was once defined to be approximately 40000 km. Metre convention was held on 20
May 1875, hence we always have 20th of May each year as metrology day.

Relationships of the SI derived units with special names and symbols and the SI base units
Types of metrology
1. Dimensional Metrology equipment

Dimensional metrology is a process of determining the linear and angular magnitudes of a

technical parts measured units of length and angle, which is a vital link between the designer’s
intent and the final product. Therefore, dimensional metrology is science of accurate linear and
angular measuring.

Calipers, Micrometers, Dial Indicators, Gages, Borescopes, Hardness, Surface Testers, CMM, Bevel
protractors.
Errors that may occur when measuring using analogue instruments:

1. Progressive error- Error caused by gear train or one of

the components in a measuring instrument (e.g., in
DTI).

2. Periodic Error- Error caused by eccentricity in teeth of

pinion and the axis of rotation of the pointer (e.g., in
DTI).

3. Parallax Alignment Error- Error caused by the

line of sight not normal to the instrument
scale (analog and graduated instruments).

4. Cosine Alignment Error- Error

caused by misaligned instrument
relative to workpiece (when the
measuring instrument is inclined at
an angle to the required surface or
line of measurement).
2. Electrical Metrology equipment

Cable Location and Fault Detection, Digital Multimeters, Electrical Installation Meter, Leakage
Current Meters, Loop Impedance Meters, Phasing Sticks, Portable Appliance Testers, Power
Instruments, Resistance Instruments, Solar PV Test Equipment, Transformer Test Equipment

3. Force Metrology

Compression force transducers, Tension/compression force transducers, Bending beams/shear

beams
4. Flow Metrology equipment

Flow nozzle, Orifice plates – concentric orifice, eccentric orifice, conditioning orifice,
Pitot tube, Averaging pitot tube, annubar, Variable area flowmeter, rotameter.
V-cone flow element, Venturi tube, Wedge flow element (slurries, heavy liquids)
5. Humidity Metrology equipment

Hand-Held Thermo Hygrometer, Kew Pattern Masons Hygrometer, Portable Humidity &
Temperature Meter with Dewpoint & Wet Bulb Temp Measurement

6. Mass Metrology equipment

7. Pressure Metrology equipment

The Barometer, Piezometer or Pressure Tube, Manometers, The Bourdon Gauge, The
Diaphragm Pressure Gauge, Micro Manometer (U-Tube with Enlarged Ends).

8. Radio Frequency Metrology equipment

Frequency Counter, Microwave Power Meter, Radio Test Set, Avionics Tester,
Signal Generation, Microwave Signal Generation, Signal Switching System,
Microwave System.
Broadband Microwave.
9. Temperature Metrology

Thermometers, thermocouples, Thermistors, Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

Pyrometer, Langmuir probes (for electron temperature of a plasma), Infrared thermometer.

10. Time & Frequency Metrology

Chronometers and oscilloscope, stopwatches,

11. Torque Metrology

Torsion meter and torque wrench, dynamometers, torque sensors, torque gauge
Selection of instrument
Points to consider when selecting an instrument for measuring.
a) The choice of the design of an instrument must be based on the dimension which you
have to measure (appropriate instrument).
b) The dimensions of the components and the manufacturing tolerance allowed.
 The tolerance on the component drawing and
 The inherent accuracy/inaccuracy of the measuring instrument
c) Rule of thumb is to choose an instrument which is clearly graduated to read to an
accuracy ten times (10:1 rule) that of the component tolerances, e.g., specified
tolerance on the component is 1.0 mm, the instrument should be graduated to read to
the nearest 0.1 mm. If the tolerances are very small e.g., tolerance of 0.005 mm then
this rule falls away as it will become difficult to measure using ordinary hand-held
instruments.

Factors affecting physical measurement of a component.

1. Temperature- in hot weather metals expand while shrinking in cold weather

(metrology labs are kept at 20 degrees Celsius) (thermal expansion error)
2. Type of material measured- Soft materials and hard materials resist applied
pressure differently or smooth and uneven surface material.
3. The individual’s measuring pressure- some people may squeeze the
instrument more than others when measuring.
4. Level of skill- due to lack of experience some measurements may require a
certain skill to be measured satisfactorily.
5. Inherent accuracy/inaccuracy of the instrument- Instruments of similar
capabilities may give different measurement depending on the care/abuse they
are subjected to.

Popular terms used in metrology

(a) Accuracy may be defined as how close a measurement is to the agreed
value/position/standard.
(b) Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements/goals to each other.
 (c) Tolerance is the permissible deviation from the agreed values/measurements.
(d) Calibration is a comparison between a known measurement (the standard) and the
measurement using an instrument.
Calibration is important to determine:
1. If the measuring equipment is within specification.
2. Capability of an equipment.
3. The type of error within the instrument.
4. Traceability.
(e) Graduation is least distance between two lines or 'least count' or 'resolution' of the
instrument.
(f) Measuring is to determine magnitude of acceptable error of a component using a
graduated instrument.
(g) Gauging is the acceptance or rejection of components without determining the exact
magnitude of error

Factors affecting science of accurate measuring:

 The knowledge of the process of measuring.
 The ability and know the restrictions of this measuring process.
 An intimate knowledge of the techniques and equipment.
Parts of Vernier Caliper

Parts of outside micrometer

Vernier Height Gauge parts

Parts of dial test indicators

Plunger and lever dial test indicators

Types of magnetic stands

Switchable and flexible magnetic stands used with DTIs

Reading Vernier calipers

Vernier Caliper

The Vernier caliper can be used to measure an internal measurement, an external

measurement, a step measurement, and a depth.

It consists of a beam which accommodates a sliding component. The beam contains the
main scale and the sliding component holds the Vernier scale. It also has two sets of
jaws and a depth rod

Why is the Vernier scale necessary?

The Vernier scale is used on several instruments and it is a clever way of improving the
precision of a reading on an instrument scale.
A Vernier scale is visual aid to take an accurate measurement reading between two
graduation markings on a linear scale by using mechanical interpolation; thereby
increasing resolution and reducing measurement uncertainty by using vernier clarity to
reduce human estimation error.
The Vernier scale is basically taking 1 division (1mm) on the main scale, then
magnifies it over a certain distance (49mm) and at the same time splitting it into several
divisions (50).

MAIN SCALE

VERNIER SCALE

Proving the accuracy of 50 Division Vernier Caliper

The Vernier scale is basically splitting 1 division (1mm) on the main scale into 50
divisions (1mm/50 = 0.02mm) which means that 50 divisions would be .02mm apart.
The 50 divisions are therefore spread over 49mm on the vernier scale.
Therefore, the length of each division on the vernier scale is 49/50 = 0.98mm
This means that 1 division on the vernier scale is 0.02mm shorter than 1 division on
the main scale. This is visible when both zeros coincide or when
the Vernier caliper is closed.
Therefore, if you line up the first division on the vernier scale
with a line on the main scale, then the vernier would have
opened 0.02mm proving that the caliper can be used to measure
0.02mm.

How to take a reading using the Vernier Caliper

When no measurement is taken, it is commonly known as the vernier caliper
is closed, the zero on the main scale coincides with the zero on the vernier
scale. Let us consider the picture below to take a reading when a
measurement has been taken.
a) Determine where the zero line of the vernier scale cuts the datum line.
b) Take the nearest main scale reading to the left of this point. (3mm)
c) Now determine where a line from the vernier scale coincides with a line from the main
scale.
d) Take the nearest main division reading of the vernier scale to the left of this point.
(0,5mm)
e) Determine the number of subdivisions (on the vernier scale) between that nearest
main division and the point where the lines coincide. (4x0,02=0,08mm)
f) Now add the findings of lines b, d and e. (Ans = 3,58mm)

External Micrometer

The external Micrometer is designed for external

measurements such as pins, shafts and keys to an
accuracy of 0,01mm
The micrometer consist of a C-frame with an anvil
attached to it. The anvil is made of tungsten
carbide which is resistant to wear.
It contains a barrel which holds a sleeve and an internal thread.
The length of the scale on the sleeve is 25mm.
The circumference of the thimble is divided into 50 divisions.
The internal thread has a pitch of 0,5mm which means that if the thimble is rotated a full
revolution, the spindle will advance or retract 0,5mm.
A spindle lock is provided to prevent the spindle from moving after a measurement
has been taken.
The thimble is fitted with a ratchet to apply constant pressure when taking a
measurement.
Reading the external Micrometer

a) Determine where the front edge of the

thimble cuts the main scale. (between
5 and 6mm)
Consider that the thimble needs to do two
revolutions to travel 1mm.
b) Is the thimble busy with 1st or 2nd
revolution. Is the halfway mark visible
or not. If yes, then 0,5mm should be added. (0,5mm)
c) Determine which line on the thimble coincides with the datum line.
(28x0,01=0,28mm)
d) Now add the findings of lines a, b and c. (Ans = 5,78mm)

Depth Micrometer

The depth micrometer is used for measuring the depths of

holes, slots, recesses, and similar applications.
The micrometer principle is the same as for the other
instruments, however, the readings with this instrument
increase as the thimble is advanced, resulting in the numbering
of sleeve and thimble graduations in the opposite direction to
those on the external micrometers. To take a reading, you
must note the 1mm and 0.5mm divisions is covered by the
thimble.

Reading the Depth Micrometer

a) Determine where the front edge of the
thimble cuts the main scale. (between 13
and 14mm)
Consider that the thimble needs to do two
revolutions to travel 1mm.
b) Is the thimble busy with 1st or 2nd revolution.
Is the halfway mark visible or not. If yes, then
0,5mm should not be added. (0,0mm)
c) Determine which line on the thimble
coincides with the datum line.
(44x0,01=0,44mm)
d) Now add the findings of lines a, b and c. (Ans = 13,44mm)
 Errors in micrometers

Dial test indicator

The dial test indicator shown in Figure 4.58 is very

accurate instrument. It indicates any variation that
you cannot see with the naked eye. A pointer on
the graduated dial indicates the amount of
variation.

The plunger type has a plunger, which carries a

rack, which operates a system of gears for
magnification to the pointer. A dial is attached to the
outer rim and can be rotated so that zero can be
set irrespective of the initial pointer position. A clamp is also provided to prevent the
 dial from moving once it has been zeroed. Dial divisions are usually 0,01mm with an
operating range of between 0mm and 10mm.
Because of the long plunger movement, the instrument is fitted with a secondary scale
and pointer for indicating the number of complete revolutions made by the main pointer.

Uses of the dial test indicator

• Setting up work pieces accurately in a machine.
• Checking the run-out of a work pieces in a machine.
• Testing rectangular work pieces for parallelism.
• Testing shafts for roundness and straightness
• Testing components for concentricity.
• Testing the limits of size when used as a comparator.

Run-out is the condition when the diameter of the work-piece is not

running true to the centre of the machine whereas concentricity is
when the diameter of the work-piece is true to its centre and
usually checked between centres.

Some applications of the dial test indicator.

Reading the Dial Test Indicator

a) First consider the small dial on the DTI.

b) Determine how many revolutions the large dial has made. (7)
This means that the plunger has travelled 7mm.
c) Now consider the large dial.
Remember, when the plunger has travelled 1mm, the large dial will
make one complete revolution.
d) Determine the segment of a millimeter. (0,71mm)
e) Add the two values. (7+0,71 = 7,71mm)
Vernier Protractor

As with linear measurement, vernier

scales can equally well be used to
determine angular measurement
accurately to the nearest 5’ of a degree.

Reading the vernier protractor

When no measurement is taken, the two zeros coincide. Interesting to note that
measurement can be taken to the left or right of the zero on the main scale.
The vernier scale accommodates application by have a scale both ways of the zero.
The vernier scale is basically taking 1 division (1⁰) on the main scale, then magnifies it
over a certain distance (23⁰) and at the same time splitting it into 12 divisions of 5’.
Let’s consider diagram (a)
a) Determine where the zero on the vernier scale cuts
the main scale, usually between two degrees.
(between 45⁰ and 46⁰)
b) Now check if we are using the LHS or RHS of the
main scale. (LHS)
c) Using (LHS) vernier scale, Now determine where a
line from the vernier scale coincides with a line from
the main scale. (35’)
d) Hence, the reading is 45⁰ 35’. Please note how the
answer is presented and not 45,35⁰

Links/website for measuring practicing

https://www.stefanelli.eng.br/en/category/metrology/

www.weldnotes.com

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vkPlzmalvN4
Care and maintaining measuring equipment
Measuring instruments like micrometers, vernier calipers, digital and electronic measuring instruments
and height gauges are all precision instruments and should be treated with great care.

• Cleaning (When not in use, they should be cleaned and returned to their storage cases)
• Handling (They should not be handled for long periods at a time)
• Maintenance (Scheduled Cleaning and Spot Cleaning
• Storage (They should never be placed among other tools as they can be damaged which will
cause inaccuracy).
• They should be used for their intended purposes only.
• Do not drop instruments, as they will cause them to be inaccurate.
• Contact of measuring faces of anvils must be avoided as this can cause rusting.
Exercises:

Vernier Calipers
 b

c
d

e
 f

a
b

c
d

e
a

Dial Test Indicator (DTI)

a
b c

d e