Microlink Information Technology College

Linear algebra

Chapter one

Introduction to vectors

An ordered pair of numbers (a1, a2… an) is called vector. Here ai’s for i=1, 2… n are called
components.

The set of all vectors with n-components. The set of all vectors with n-components is
denoted by IRn.

Vectors are denoted by small case letter with an arrow at the top like𝑎⃗,⃗⃗⃗
𝑏,𝑐⃗.

Zero vector: suppose 𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2… an) is any vector in IRn. Then 𝑎⃗ is said to be zero vector if
and only if all components are zero. That is 𝑎⃗ = 0 if and only if ai=0, ∀i = 1, 2, 3… n.

Equal vector: let 𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2… an) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (b1, b2… bn) be vectors in IRn. Then the two vectors
are said to be equal if and only if their corresponding components are all equal.

That means 𝑎⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ if and only if ai = bi∀i = 1, 2, 3… n.

Example: find the values of x, y, z if 𝑎⃗= (x-y, -1, 7) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (5, x+y, 3z+1) are equal.

Solution: 𝑎⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ ⇒ (x-y, -1, 7) = (5, x+y, 3z+1)

𝑥−𝑦=5
⇒ {𝑥 + 𝑦 = −1
3𝑧 + 1 = 7

⇒ z=2, x=2, y=-3

Operation on vectors

Let 𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2… an) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (b1, b2… bn) be any two vectors in IRn. Then, we define the sum
and differences of these vectors as follows.

Addition of vectors: we define 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ to be the vector given by

𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2, … an + bn ).

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That is, 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ is a new vector obtained by adding the corresponding components 𝑎⃗ and⃗⃗⃗
𝑏.

Subtraction of vectors: We define 𝑎⃗ - 𝑏⃗⃗ to be the vector given by

𝑎⃗ - 𝑏⃗⃗ = (a1 - b1, a2 - b2, … an - bn ).

That is, 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ is a new vector obtained by subtracting the corresponding components 𝑎⃗
and⃗⃗⃗
𝑏.

Multiplication of a vector by scalar:

If k is scalar, then k𝑎⃗ is a vector given by

k𝑎⃗= (ka1, ka2…, kan)

Example: Let 𝑎⃗= (2,3,5) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (1,-1,3).

Then 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = (2,3,5) + (1,-1,3)

= (2+1,3+(-1),5+3)

=(3,2,8)

𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = (2,3,5) - (1,-1,3)

= (2-1,3-(-1),5-3)

=(1,4,2)

3𝑎⃗ = (3*2,3*3,3*5)

= (6,9,15)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is
Directed vector: Any vector with initial point A and terminal point B denoted by 𝐴𝐵
called directed vector from A to B.

It is obtained by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = B –A.

Examples:

1. Find a vector 𝑣⃗ directed from A to B where A =(2, -1, 3) and B=(5, -4, 7).

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Solution:𝑣⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = B – A = (5,-4,7) – (2,-1,3)

= (3, -3, 4).

2. Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (-2, 0, 4). If the midpoint of the segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is (2,3,-2). Then find the end
point of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵.

Solution: Let A =(a, b, c) and B = (x, y, z) be the coordinate of the end point of the segment.

Then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 =B – A = (x-a, y-b, z-c) = (-2, 0, -4)

⇒ x-a = -2, y-b = 0 and z-c = -4. …………………….(*)

On the other hand, from the mid-point formula, the mid-point of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is given by
𝑥+𝑎 𝑦+𝑏 𝑧+𝑐
( , , ) = (2, 3, -2)
2 2 2

⇒ x+ a = 4, y+ b= 6 and z+ c = -4 ……………………………..(**)

From (*) and (**), we get

A = (3, 3, 0) and B = (1, 3, -4).

Norm or magnitude of a vector

Definition: Let 𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2… an) be vectors in𝐼𝑅𝑛 . Then the norm of 𝑎⃗ which denoted by ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣
is given by ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √a12 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2

Geometrically, the norms of 𝑎⃗ = (x, y) in 𝐼𝑅2 and 𝑣⃗ = (x, y, z) in 𝐼𝑅3 represent the length of
the line segment from origin to the point (x, y) and (x, y, z) respectively.

Properties of norm

Let 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗be vectors in 𝐼𝑅𝑛 and k be scalar. Then

a) ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣≥ 0 and ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ =0 if and only if 𝑎⃗ = 0.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∣∣ = ∣k∣‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣
b) ‖𝑘𝑎

c) ‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣≤ ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ + ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣

Examples:

1. Find the norm of 𝑎⃗ = (3, -1, 1) and ⃗𝑏⃗⃗ = (2, 3, 0, 6).

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Solution:

‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √32 + −12 + 12 = √9 + 1 + 1 = √11

‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √22 + −32 + 02 + 62 = √4 + 9 + 0 + 36 = √49 = 7.

2. If 𝑎⃗ = (x, 2, x) and ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = 6, find the values of x.

Solution:

‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √x 2 + 22 + 𝑥 2 = √2x 2 + 4 = 6

⇒2x 2 + 4 = 36

⇒ x = ±4

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3, y+8, -6). If ‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ =5, then find the values of y.
3. Given 𝑎⃗ = (1, -5, 6) and 𝑏

Solution: Here 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = (4, y+3, 0). Then

‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √42 + (𝑦 + 3)2 + 02 = 5

⇒√16 + y 2 + 6𝑦 + 9 =5

⇒√y 2 + 6𝑦 + 25 =5

⇒y 2 + 6𝑦 + 25 = 25

⇒ y = 0, y = -6.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 4. Find the scalar k.

4. Given vector 𝑎⃗ where ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = 6 and ‖𝑘𝑎

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 4
Solution: By properties of norm, ‖𝑘𝑎

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∣∣ = ∣k∣‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣
⇒‖𝑘𝑎

⇒6 ∣k∣ = 4
2
⇒ k = ±3

Note: Any vector whose magnitude is unit is called unit vector.

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Examples:

1. The vector 𝑢
⃗⃗ = (2/3, 1/3, -2/3) is unit vector because

⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √(2/3)2 + (1/3)2 + (−2/3)2 =1

‖𝑢

2. If 𝑢
⃗⃗ = (2/3, 1/3, t) is unit vector, then find the value of t.

Solution:‖𝑢
⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √(2/3)2 + (1/3)2 + (𝑡)2 =1

⇒√5/9 + (𝑡)2 =1

⇒𝑡 2 =4/9
2
⇒t = ±
3

The standard unit vectors are i= (1, 0, 0), j= (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1).

Let 𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2, a3) be vectors.

𝑎⃗ = (a1, a2, a3) = a1(1, 0, 0) + a1(0, 1, 0)+ a1(0, 0, 1) = a1i + a1j + a1k

𝑎⃗⃗
Let 𝑎⃗ = a1i + a2j + a3k be non -zero vector. The unit vector along 𝑎⃗ is given by ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣.

Examples:

1. Let 𝑎⃗ = 2i - j + 2k be given vector. Find unit vector in the same and opposite direction
of 𝑎⃗.

Solution: Here ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √22 + −12 + 22 = √9 = 3.

𝑎⃗⃗ 2i − j + 2k
The unit vector in the direction of 𝑎⃗ is ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = = 2/3i -1/3j +2/3k.
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−𝑎⃗⃗ 2i − j + 2k
The unit vector in the opposite direction of 𝑎⃗ is ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = = -2/3i + 1/3j - 2/3k.
−3

2. Let 𝑎⃗ = i - j + k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 3i + j + k be given vectors. Then find a unit vector in the
direction of 𝑎⃗+ 𝑏⃗⃗.

Dot product of vectors

Definitions: If 𝑢
⃗⃗ and 𝑣⃗ be vectors and 𝜽 is angle between 𝑢
⃗⃗and 𝑣⃗, then the dot product of 𝑢
⃗⃗
and 𝑣⃗ is denoted by 𝑢
⃗⃗ . 𝑣⃗is given by

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⃗⃗ . 𝑣⃗ = ‖𝑢
𝑢 ⃗⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑣⃗ ∣∣cos𝜽

Example: Find the dot product of 𝑢

⃗⃗ and 𝑣⃗ when 𝑢
⃗⃗=(1,0) and 𝑣⃗ =(2,0).

Then, 𝑢
⃗⃗ .𝑣⃗ = ‖𝑢
⃗⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑣⃗ ∣∣cos𝜽 = 1(2) cos0 = 2.

Let 𝑎⃗ = a1i + a2j + a3k and ⃗⃗⃗

𝑏 = b1i + b2j + b3k be vectors.

Then, 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

𝑎 = 2i + 3k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 4i + 6j – k, the dot product is 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 2(4) +0(6) +3(-1) = 5.

Example: If ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Properties of dot product

a) 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ . 𝑎⃗
b) 𝑎⃗ . (𝑏⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑐) = 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗ . 𝑐⃗
c) (k𝑎⃗). 𝑏⃗⃗= k(𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗)
d) 𝑎⃗ . 𝑎⃗ = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2

Orthogonal and parallel vectors

Two non – zero vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are said to be orthogonal if their dot product is zero.

Denoted by 𝑎⃗⊥𝑏⃗⃗ if and only if 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 0.

Any two non-zero vectors are said to be parallel if and only if one is the scalar multiple of the
other. Let 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ be non-zero vectors. Then 𝑎⃗//𝑏⃗⃗ if and only if ∃𝑡 ≠0 such that 𝑎⃗ = t𝑏⃗⃗.

Examples:

1. Show that the vectors 𝑎⃗ = (3, -1, 5) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (1, 13, 2) are orthogonal.

Solution:𝑎⃗ .𝑏⃗⃗ = 3(1) + (-1)(13) + (5)(2) = 3 – 13 +10 = 0.

2. Let 𝑎⃗ = (3, -t, 2) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (5t, 17, 3) be vectors. Find t so that 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are orthogonal.

Solution: Since 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are orthogonal, 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ =0.

3. Are the vectors 𝑎⃗ = (1, 3, -2) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (3, 9, -6) parallel?

Yes, because ∃𝑡 = 3 such that 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑏⃗⃗.

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4. Let 𝑎⃗ = (m, 3, -4) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (2, -n, 8) be vectors. Find m and n so that 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are parallels.

Solution: Here, from the definition of parallel vectors

𝑎⃗//𝑏⃗⃗ if and only if ∃𝑡 ≠0 such that 𝑎⃗ = t𝑏⃗⃗

⇒ (m, 3, -4) = t(2, -n, 8)

⇒ t =-1/2, m = -1 and n = 6.

5. Let 𝑎⃗ = 2i -3j and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 2i. Find a vector 𝑐⃗ such that 𝑐⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ = 6 and 𝑐⃗⊥𝑎⃗.

Solution: Here, let 𝑐⃗ = xi +yj

Then, 𝑐⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ = 6⇒2x – 0 = 6

⇒x=3

6. Again, 𝑐⃗⊥𝑎⃗⇒ 𝑐⃗ .𝑎⃗ =0

⇒2x – 3y= 0
⇒ y = 2.

Hence, 𝑐⃗ = 3i +2j.

Angle between two vectors

The angle between two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ is 𝜽 with 0≤𝜽≤𝜋 when the vectors share the same
initial point.

Recall, the definition of dot product of vectors 𝑎⃗and 𝑏⃗⃗,

𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣cos𝜽

⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ .𝑏
From this,𝜽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣‖𝑏⃗⃗∣∣)

This is the formula which is useful to compute the angle between any two non-zero vectors.

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Properties: Suppose 𝑎⃗ and𝑏⃗⃗ are non-zero vectors. Then

a) ‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 + ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 +2‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣cos𝜽

b) ‖𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 + ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 - 2‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣cos𝜽

c) ‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 = ‖𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 if and only if𝑎⃗⊥𝑏⃗⃗

Examples:

1. Find the angle between the vectors 𝑎⃗ = i + k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = j + k.

Solution: Here, ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √2 and ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √2

𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 1.

⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ .𝑏 1 𝜋
𝜽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣‖𝑏⃗⃗∣∣) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (2) = 3

𝜋
2. Find the value of c for which the angle between the vectors 𝑎⃗ = i – 2cj + k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = i + jis 4 .

Solution: Here,

𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 1 – 2c

‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √4𝑐 2 + 2 and ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √2

⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ .𝑏 𝜋 1−2𝑐
Cos𝜽 = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣‖𝑏⃗⃗∣∣ ⇒ Cos 4 = (√4𝑐 2 )(1/√2)
+2

⇒ 4𝑐 2 + 2 = 4𝑐 2 − 4𝑐 +1
−1
⇒c=4

3. If 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are orthogonal unit vectors, show that ‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = ‖𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ =√2.

Solution: since 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are orthogonal unit vectors, ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ =‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 1 and 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ =0.

Hence,

I. ‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 = (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ). (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ) =‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 + ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 +2𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 1+1+0 = 2

⇒‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √2.

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 II. ‖𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 = (𝑎⃗ - 𝑏⃗⃗ ). (𝑎⃗ - 𝑏⃗⃗ ) =‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 + ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 - 2𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 1+1-0 = 2

⇒‖𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √2.

4. Given the vectors with ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = 2, ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 2√7, 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 2. Then find the angle between the
vectors
𝑎⃗and𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗.

Solution: Let the angle between the vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ be 𝜽. Then,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑏
𝑎⃗⃗.(𝑎 ⃗⃗ )
Cos𝜽 = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣‖𝑎⃗⃗+𝑏⃗⃗∣∣

But, ‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 + ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 +2𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 4 + 28 +4 = 36

⇒‖𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 6.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑏
𝑎⃗⃗.(𝑎 ⃗⃗ ) ⃗⃗ )
𝑎⃗⃗.𝑎⃗⃗+𝑎⃗⃗.𝑏 ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣2 +𝑎⃗⃗.𝑏⃗⃗ ) 4+2 1
Hence, Cos𝜽 = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣‖𝑎⃗⃗+𝑏⃗⃗∣∣ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣‖𝑎⃗⃗+𝑏⃗⃗∣∣ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣‖𝑎⃗⃗+𝑏 ⃗⃗ ∣∣
= 2(6) = 2

1 𝜋
⇒ 𝜽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (2) = 3

Projection of vectors

Definition: Let 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ be two non-zero vectors. The components of 𝑎⃗ along 𝑏⃗⃗ is called
⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ .𝑏
the parallel projection of 𝑎⃗ onto 𝑏⃗⃗ and it is given by proj 𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗= (‖𝑏⃗⃗∣∣2) 𝑏⃗⃗.

On the other hand, the vector ⊥proj𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ - proj 𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗ is called the orthogonal projection of 𝑎⃗
onto 𝑏⃗⃗.

⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ .𝑏
Similarly, the projection of 𝑏⃗⃗ onto 𝑎⃗ is given by (‖𝑎 2 ) 𝑎⃗.
⃗⃗∣∣

Examples:

1. Let 𝑎⃗ =3i -6j +12k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = i+ j + k. Find the parallel and orthogonal projection of 𝑎⃗ onto
𝑏⃗⃗.

Solution: Here,

𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 9 and ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ =√3. Thus the parallel projection of 𝑎⃗ onto 𝑏⃗⃗ is

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 ⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ .𝑏 9
proj𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗= (‖𝑏⃗⃗∣∣2) 𝑏⃗⃗ = ( 2 ) (i+ j + k) = 3i +3j + 3k.
√3

The orthogonal projection of 𝑎⃗ onto 𝑏⃗⃗ is given by

⊥proj𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ - proj 𝑎⃗𝑏⃗⃗ = (3i -6j +12k) – (3i +3j + 3k) = -9j + 9k.

2. Let 𝑎⃗ = (1,2,3,4,5) and 𝑏⃗⃗ = (6,7,8,9,-10). Find the projection of 𝑏⃗⃗ onto 𝑎⃗.

Solution:𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 6 + 14 + 36 -50 = 30 and ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ =√55

⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ .𝑏 30
Hence, the projection of 𝑏⃗⃗ onto 𝑎⃗ is given by (‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣2 ) 𝑎⃗ = 2 ) (1,2,3,4,5)
√55

= (6/11,12/11,18/11,24/11,30/11)

Direction angles and direction cosines

The angles α, β, γ in [0, 𝜋] formed by the non-zero vector 𝑎⃗ and the positive coordinate axes
are called direction angles.

The cosine values (cosα, cosβ, cosγ) of these angles are called direction cosines.

Let 𝑎⃗ = a1i + a2j + a3k be a non-zero vector and let α, β and γ be the direction angles of 𝑎⃗ with
respect to x, y and z axes respectively.

Then, the corresponding direction cosines are calculated as:

𝑎⃗ . i = a1 ⇒‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑖 ∣∣ Cosα = a1
a1
⇒ Cosα = ‖𝑎
⃗⃗∣∣

𝑎⃗ . j = a2 ⇒‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑗 ∣∣ Cosβ = a2
a2
⇒ Cosβ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣

𝑎⃗ . k = a3 ⇒‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑘 ∣∣ Cosγ = a3
a3
⇒ Cosγ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣

Besides, from these values the angles themselves can be calculated as

10
 a1 a2 a3
α = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣), β = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣) and γ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣) .

Examples:

1. Find the direction cosines and direction angles of the vector 𝑎⃗ = i + k.

Solution: ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = √2

From the definition of direction cosines, it follows that

a1 1 1 𝜋
Cosα = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = ⇒ α = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( 2) = 4
√2 √

a2 0 𝜋
Cosβ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = =0⇒ β = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (0) = 2
√2

a3 1 1 𝜋
Cosγ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = ⇒ γ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( 2) = 4
√2 √

2. Let α, β, γ be direction angles of a non-zero vector. Then, show that

(Cosα)2 + (Cosβ)2 +(Cosγ)2 = 1 and(sinα)2 + (sinβ)2 +(sinγ)2 = 2.

Proof: From the definition,

a1 𝑎12
Cosα = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ ⇒(Cosα)2 = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣2

a2 𝑎22
Cosβ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣⇒(Cosβ)2 = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣2

a3 𝑎32
Cosγ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣⇒(Cosγ)2 = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣2

𝑎12 𝑎22 𝑎32 𝑎12 +𝑎22 +𝑎32

(Cosα)2 + (Cosβ)2 +(Cosγ)2 = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣2 + ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣2 +‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣2 = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣2
=1

Beside, using the identity, (Cosα)2 + (sinα)2 =1⇒(sinα)2 =1- (Cosα)2

Similarly, (sinβ)2 =1- (Cosβ)2 and (sinγ)2 =1- (Cosγ)2

(sinα)2 + (sinβ)2 +(sinγ)2 = 1- (Cosα)2 +1- (Cosβ)2 +1- (Cosγ)2

= 3 – ((Cosα)2 + (Cosβ)2 +(Cosγ)2 )

= 2.

11
3. Suppose 𝑎⃗ = a1i + a2j + a3k is a vector in first octant such that ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = 3 and the direction
1 2
cosines with respect to x and y axes 3 and 3 respectively.

Find the direction cosine with respect to z axis and determine𝑎⃗.

Solution: suppose (Cosα, Cosβ, Cosγ) is the direction cosinesof 𝑎⃗.

1 2
Then, from (Cosα)2 + (Cosβ)2 +(Cosγ)2 =1 with Cosα = 3 and Cosβ= 3 .

5
+ (Cosγ)2 =1
9

2
⇒ Cosγ = ±3

2
Since the vector is in first octant only Cosγ = is valid.
3

Moreover,
a1 1
Cosα = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = 3⇒ a1 = 1

a2 2
Cosβ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = 3 ⇒ a2 = 2

a3 1
Cosγ = ‖𝑎⃗⃗∣∣ = 3 ⇒ a3 = 2

Therefore, 𝑎⃗ = i + 2j + 2k.

Cross product of vectors

Definition: Let 𝑎⃗ = a1i + a2j + a3k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = b1i + b2j + b3k be vectors. Then the cross product of
𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ denoted by 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ is the vector given by

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3| = i(a2 b3 - a3 b2) –j(a1 b3 – a3 b1) +k(a1 b2 –a2 b1)
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

Examples:

1. Given the vectors 𝑎⃗ = 2i+ j and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 4i+ j + k. Then

a) Find 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗
b) Give a vector perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗and 𝑏⃗⃗.
c) Give a unit vector perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗and 𝑏⃗⃗.

12
 d) List at least three vector perpendicular to 𝑎⃗
e) Give unit vector in the direction 2𝑎⃗ X𝑏⃗⃗
f) Find a vector with norm 9 in the same direction of 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗

Solution:

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗⃗
a) 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏 = |2 1 0| = i(1-0)-j(2-0)+k(2-4) = i -2j – 2k
4 1 1

b) Always the vector 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ is perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗. Thus the vector 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ = i -2j –
2k and all its scalar multiples are perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗and 𝑏⃗⃗.

⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗ X 𝑏
c) Always aunt vector perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ is 𝑢
⃗⃗ = ∣∣𝑎⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ∣∣
X𝑏

But, 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ = i -2j – 2k and ∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 3

𝑎⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
X𝑏 1
There fore, aunt vector perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ is 𝑢
⃗⃗ = ∣∣𝑎⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ∣∣
= 3(I -2j -2k).
X𝑏

d) Since 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ is perpendicular to 𝑎⃗, for any scalar t, the vector t.(𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗) is perpendicular
to 𝑎⃗.

Hence, the vector like 2𝑎⃗ X𝑏⃗⃗ = 2i -4j -4k, 3𝑎⃗ X𝑏⃗⃗ = 3i – 6j -6k, -𝑎⃗ X𝑏⃗⃗ = -i +2j +2k and other
multiles are perpendicular to 𝑎⃗.

2𝑎⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
X𝑏
e) A unit vector in the direction of 2𝑎⃗ X𝑏⃗⃗ is 𝑢
⃗⃗ = ∣∣2𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ∣∣
X𝑏

But 2𝑎⃗ X𝑏⃗⃗ = 2i -4j -4k and ∣∣2𝑎

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 6

⃗⃗
2𝑎⃗⃗ X 𝑏 1 1
The unit vector in the direction of 2𝑎⃗ X𝑏⃗⃗ is 𝑢
⃗⃗ = ∣∣2𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ∣∣
= 6(2i -4j -4k) = 3(i -2j -2k)
X𝑏

f) A vector with norm 9 in the same direction of 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ is 𝑐⃗ = 9𝑢

⃗⃗ where 𝑢
⃗⃗ is unit vector in
1
the direction of 𝑎⃗X 𝑏⃗⃗. But we did in part (c),𝑢
⃗⃗ = (I -2j -2k).
3

Therefore 𝑐⃗ = 9𝑢
⃗⃗ = 3i -6j -6k.
2. Suppose :‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = 3, ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 4, 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = 4. Then find ∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣.

13
Solution; Let𝜽 be the angle between the vectors. Then

𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ cos𝜽 ⇒12cos𝜽 = 4

1
⇒cos𝜽 = 3

From trigonometric identity, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜽 +𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜽 =1

1
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜽 = 1- 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜽 = 1-
9

2√2
⇒ sin𝜽 =± 3

2 √2
Hence, ∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ sin𝜽 = 3(4)( ) = 8√2
3

3. Show that ∣∣ 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ 2 = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 - (𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗)2 . If ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ = 2, ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 10 and 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = -16, then
find
∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ .

Solution:

Using the relations, ∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ sin𝜽

𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ cosand

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜽 +𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜽 =1
∣∣ 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ 2 = (‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ sinθ)2 = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2(1- 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜽)

=‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 - ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2

=‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣2 ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣2 - (𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗)2

Application of vectors
Area and volume

The area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides is the vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗is computed by using

Area = ∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = ‖𝑎⃗ ∣∣ ‖𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ sin𝜽

The area of triangle whose sides is the vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ is given by
1
Area = ∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣
2

14
Examples:

1. Find the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given by the vectors
𝑎⃗ = i+2 j +3k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 4i+5j + 6k
𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

Area =∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗
⃗
But 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏 = 1
| 2 3| = i(12 -15) –j(6-12) +k(5 - 8) = -3i +6j -3k
4 5 6

Area = ∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √−32 + 62 + (−3)2 = √54

2. Find the area of the triangle whose adjacent sides are given by the vectors
𝑎⃗ = i-3 j +2k and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 2i+2j - 2k

Solution:
1
Area = 2∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
But 𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ = |1 −3 2 | = i(6 -4) –j(-2-4) +k(2 +6) = 2i -6j +8k
2 2 −2

∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √22 + (−6)2 + (8)2 = √104

1 √104
Area = 2∣∣𝑎⃗ X 𝑏⃗⃗ ∣∣ = = √26
2

3. Find the area of the parallelogram whose vertices are p(1,2,0), Q(3,4,0), R(4,1,0) and
S(2, -1,0).

Solution: First let’s find six directed vectors formed by the four vertices

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 2i +2j , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑅 = 3i – j, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = i - 3j, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑆 = i - 3j, 𝑅𝑄 𝑅𝑆 = 2i +2j and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑆𝑄 = i +4j.

From these six vectors, the pair of equal (parallel) vectors are ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 2i +2j with ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑆 = 2i +2j
and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = i - 3j.
𝑃𝑆 = i - 3j with 𝑅𝑄

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2i +2j from the first and 𝑃𝑆

Hence, we take 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = i - 3j from the second.

15
 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ X𝑃𝑆
𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |2 2 0| = -8k
1 −3 0

Area = ∣∣ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 X𝑃𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∣∣ = 8.

4. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are p(3, -2, 0), Q(2, 2, 2) and R(-1, 0, 3).

Solution: first find two vectors with common initial point using the three vertices. Taking R
as common,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3i +2j – k

𝑅𝑃 = 4i -2j -3k and 𝑅𝑄

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑃 X𝑅𝑄 = |4 −2 −3| = 8i – 5j +14k
3 2 −1

So, area = ∣∣ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑅𝑃 X𝑅𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∣∣ = √285
2

𝑎 𝑏⃗⃗,𝑐⃗ is given by the

The volume of the parallelepiped determined by three non-zero vectors⃗⃗⃗,
absolute value of their scalar triple product.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
That is 𝑎 (⃗⃗⃗
Volume =∣⃗⃗⃗⃗. 𝑐 = |𝑏1
𝑏𝑥⃗⃗⃗)∣ 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3

Example: Find the volume of parallelepiped generated by

𝑎⃗ = 2i + j +3k,𝑏⃗⃗ = -i + j -2k and 𝑐⃗ = i + j -2k

2 1 3
𝑎 (⃗⃗⃗
Solution: Volume = ∣⃗⃗⃗. 𝑐 = |−1 1
𝑏𝑥⃗⃗⃗)∣ −2| = ∣-6 -12∣ = 28.
1 1 −2

Equation of lines and planes in space

Let l be a line in pass through P(𝑥0, 𝑦0, 𝑧0 ) and parallel to the non-zero vector 𝑢
⃗⃗ = ai +b j +ck
and suppose X(x, y, z) is arbitrary point on this line. Since both P and X are on l the directed
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is parallel to l. Besides, the line is supposed to be parallel to the vector𝑢
vector 𝑃𝑋 ⃗⃗.

Hence, by transitivity ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃𝑋//𝑢 ⃗⃗ if and only if ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑋 = t𝑢⃗⃗

⇒X – P = t𝑢
⃗⃗⇒X = P + t𝑢
⃗⃗ is called vector equation of line and t is parameter.

16
Now from the vector equation by letting X = (x, y, z), P = (𝑥0, 𝑦0, 𝑧0 ) and 𝑢
⃗⃗ = (a, b, c), we get
that the vector equation to be l: (x, y, z) = (𝑥0, 𝑦0, 𝑧0 ) + t(a, b, c)

Equating corresponding components from these equations, we have

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡
{ 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 (This is called parametric equation)
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡

Solve t, we get
𝑥 − 𝑥0
𝑡=
𝑎
𝑦 − 𝑦0
𝑡=
𝑏
𝑧 − 𝑧0
{𝑡 = 𝑐

Equating the value of t,

𝑥−𝑥0 𝑦−𝑦 𝑧−𝑧0
= = is called symmetric equation of line.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Examples:

1. Give the vector, parametric and symmetric equation of the line pass through the point
A(1, 3, 0) and parallel to the vector 𝑢
⃗⃗ = 2i -5 j +7k.

Solution: the vector equation of the line is

X = (1, 3, 0) + t(2, -5, 7)

The parametric equation is

𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑡
{ 𝑦 = 3 − 5𝑡
𝑧 = 7𝑡

The symmetric equation of the line is

𝑥−1 𝑦−3 𝑧−0
= =
2 −5 7

2. Give the vector, parametric and symmetric equation of the line pass through the point
A(2, -1, 1) and B(1, 3, -2).

Solution: The directed vector is parallel to line is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 = (-1, 4, -3).

17
The vector equation of the line is X = (2, -1, 1) + t(-1, 4, -3)

The parametric equation is

𝑥 =2−𝑡
{𝑦 = −1 + 4𝑡
𝑧 = 1 − 3𝑡

The symmetric equation of the line is

𝑥−2 𝑦=1 𝑧−1
= =
−1 4 −3

Definition:

Suppose l: X = P + t𝑢
⃗⃗ and m : X = Q + r𝑣⃗ ,t, r ∈ R are any two lines. Then they are said to be

i) Parallel if their direction vectors 𝑢

⃗⃗ and 𝑣⃗ are parallel
ii) Perpendicular if their direction vectors 𝑢
⃗⃗ and 𝑣⃗ are perpendicular.

Examples:

Determine whether the following pair of lines are parallel, perpendicular or neither and for
these which are neither find the angle between.

a) l: X = (1, 2, 3) + t(1, 2, -1) and m: X = (1, 0, 1) + t(-3, -6, 3)

b) the lines through A=(1, 3, 5), B =(4, 7, 5) and C= (5, -2, 2),D = (1, 1, 7)
c) the lines through A=(2, -1, 4), B =(2, -2, 5) and C= (3, 4, 3),D = (3, 5, 3)

Solution:

a) here 𝑢
⃗⃗ = (1, 2, -1) and 𝑣⃗ = (-3, -6, 3)
⇒ 𝑣⃗ = -3𝑢
⃗⃗
⇒ 𝑢
⃗⃗//𝑣⃗

By definition, the lines are parallel.

b) In this case, 𝑢
⃗⃗ = B-A =(3, 4, 0) and 𝑣⃗ = D – C = (-4, 3, 5).
⃗⃗.𝑣⃗ = 0
⇒𝑢
⇒𝑢
⃗⃗⊥𝑣⃗

By definition, the lines are perpendicular.

c) In this case, 𝑢
⃗⃗ = B-A =(0, -1, 1) and 𝑣⃗ = D – C = (0, 1, 0).
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But those vectors are neither parallel nor perpendicular and so are the lines through these
points. Let 𝜽 be angle between the lines.

𝑢
⃗⃗.𝑣
⃗⃗ −1 3𝜋
Then, cos𝜽 = ‖𝑢⃗⃗∣‖𝑣⃗⃗∣∣∣ = ⇒𝜽=
√2 4

d) For what value of k are the lines l: x=2t,y=1-3t, z= -2-7t and the line
m: X = (2, 3, -5) + r(3, k, -3) are perpendicular?

Intersection of lines

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑡
Suppose l: { 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 and m: { 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑛𝑡 are parametric equation of the lines l and
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑧1 + 𝑟𝑡
m.

Here, a point P(x, y, z) will be the intersection of the lines if and only if it satisfies the
equation of both lines at the same time.

𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑡
Hence, at the point of intersection, we have { 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 = 𝑦1 + 𝑛𝑡
𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑧1 + 𝑟𝑡

From this simultaneous equation, determine the parameters t and r. Then substitute the
value of t and r in the equation of the lines where they are.

Example:

Given that lines l: x+1=4t, y-3 = t, z-1=0 and m: x +13=12r, y-1 = 6r ,z-2 =-3r.

Then find the intersection point of the lines.

Solution :

To find the intersection point of the two lines equate corresponding equations.

−1 + 4𝑡 = −13 + 12𝑟
−1
That is, { 3 + 𝑡 = 1 + 6𝑟 ⇒ r = 3 , t =-4
1 = 2 + 3𝑟
−1
Hence, put t= -4 in the equation of l, we get P =(-17, -1, 1) and if we put r = in the equation
3

of m, we get point Q =(-17, -1, 1).

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Plane in space

A vector is said to be normal to the plane if it is perpendicular to all vectors in the plane. That
means for any two points A and B lying in the plane, the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is always perpendicular
to the normal vector of the plane.

⃗⃗ = ai +bj +ck. The

Suppose 𝜋 is plane passing through the point 𝑃0 and normal to the vector 𝑁
point P(x, y, z) be any point in 𝜋.

⃗⃗ = ai +bj +ck is normal to the vector of the plane and the points 𝑃0 (𝑥0, 𝑦0, 𝑧0 ) and
Since 𝑁

P(x, y, z) are on the plane, the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ = ai +bj +ck are
𝑃0 𝑃 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0, 𝑦 − 𝑦0, 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) and 𝑁
perpendicular.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Thus,𝑃 ⃗⃗
0 𝑃 .𝑁 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥0, 𝑦 − 𝑦0, 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ).(a, b, c) = 0

a(𝑥 − 𝑥0, ) + b(𝑦 − 𝑦0, ) +c(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) =0

ax +by +cy =d where d =a𝑥0, + b𝑦0 +c𝑧0 is equation of plane 𝜋.

Examples:

1. Find the equation of a plane passing through the point (6, 1, -3) and normal to the vector
⃗⃗ = 3i -2j +4k.
𝑁

Solution:

Take 𝑃0 =(6, 1, -3) and let P = (x, y, z) be arbitrary point on the plane.

Then, from the definition

We have ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃 . 𝑁 ⃗⃗ =0⇒ (𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 1, 𝑧 + 3 ).(3, -2, 4) = 0

⇒3(x-6)-2(y -1)+4(z+3) =0

⇒3x-2y +4z = 4

2. Find the equation of plane through P(1, 2, -1), Q(3, 2, 4) and R(0, 1, 5).

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Solution;

Here, three points are given rather than a point and a normal vector.

Since the three points are on the plane, the vector

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2i +5k,
𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = -i –j + 6k are lying on the plane. But from the property of cross product,
𝑃𝑅
⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
the vector 𝑁 𝑃𝑄 X𝑃𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is perpendicular to both of the vectors and so is to plane containing
them.

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗⃗ = 𝑃𝑄
So, 𝑁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ X𝑃𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = | 2 0 5| = 5i -17j -2k
−1 −1 6

Hence, using point P(1, 2, -1) , we have

: 5(x-1) -17(y-2)-2(z+1) = 0 ⇒ 5x – 17y – 2z = -27.

Definition:

Any two planes in space are said to be

i) Parallel if their normal are parallel

ii) Perpendicular if their normal are perpendicular

Examples:

Determine whether the following pair of planes are parallel, perpendicular or neither and for
these which are neither find the angle between.

a) 2x - 3y + 5z = 11 and x +4y +2z = -7

1
b) 2x – 6y + z = - 2 and –x + y - 2 k = 5

c) X +y +z = 7 and x +y –z = -13

Solution:

a) 𝑛1 = 2i -3j +5k and 𝑛2 = i +4j +2k

⇒ 𝑛1 . 𝑛2 = 2 – 12 +10 = 0
⇒ 𝑛1 ⊥ 𝑛2

Hence, the planes are perpendicular.

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 1
b) 𝑛1 = 2i -6j +k and 𝑛2 = -i + 3j -2k

⇒ 𝑛1 = -2𝑛2
⇒ 𝑛1 //𝑛2
This means the plane themselves are parallel.
c) In this case, 𝑛1 = i + j +k and 𝑛2 = i +j - k which are neither parallel nor perpendicular
and so the planes.
Therefore, the angle between the planes is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛1.𝑛2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 1
Cos𝜽 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗∣∣∣
=3
‖𝑛1∣‖𝑛2

1
𝜽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (3)

3. Find the equation of the plane

a) through P(-2, 1, 4), Q(1, 0, 3) and perpendicular to the plane 𝜋: 4x –y + 3z =2
b) containing the point P(-1, 2,-5) and perpendicular to the planes 𝜋1 : 2x – y + z = 1
and
𝜋2 : x + y - 2z = 3.

Solution:

a) If two planes are perpendicular their normal are perpendicular and thus the normal
⃗⃗ = 4i –j + 3k is
vector f one plane is parallel to the other plane. Thus, the vector 𝑁
parallel to the required plane and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 3i – j + 3k.
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |4 −1
𝑁2 = 𝑁1 X 𝑃𝑄 3 | = 4i + 13j – k.
3 −1 −1
Hence, the equation of the plane is 4(x +2) +13(y - 1) – (z - 4) = 0 ⇒ 4x +13y –z =1.
b) The normal vectors of the given planes are N =2i – j + k and M =i + j -2k. But the plane
that we are required is given to be perpendicular to the given plane and thus it is
parallel to these normal vectors.
Hence, N X M = i+5j +3k can be used as a normal vector to the required plane.
The plane 𝜋: x+1+5(y -2) +3(z +5) = 0 ⇒ x +5y +3z = -6.

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 Intersection of a line and plane

Suppose 𝜋: ax +by +cz =d is a plane and l is a line given in parametric form as l:

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡
{ 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 .
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡

Then, the intersection of the line and planes is a point (x, y, z) which satisfies the equation of
line and plane at the same time.

Examples: Find the intersection point of the line l: x =2-3t, y = 4+3t, z = 3 -5t and the plane

𝜋: 2x +3y +4z = -6

Solution: putting x =2-3t, y = 4+3t, z = 3 -5t in 𝜋: 2x +3y +4z = -6 gives

2(2 – 3t) +3(3 – 5t) + 4(3 – 5t) = -6

⇒17t = 34

⇒t=2

Then, putting t =2 in the equation of line gives x =-4, y = 10, z = -7.

Hence, the intersection point is (-4, 10, -7).

𝑦+1 𝑧−2
3. The line l: x = = and the plane x +y+ z =1
2 −3

Solution: In this case, the equation of the line is not parametric form. So, first change it in
parametric form:

x =t, y = -1 +2t, z = 2 -3t

⇒x + y +z =1

⇒t-1 +2t +2 -3t =1

⇒ 1 = 1 (which is always true for all value of t)

Therefore, the line lies in the plane.

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