About the Author

Dr. Ambreen Yusufi (Phd. Botany.)

Dr. Ambreen Yusufi have 10+ years teaching experience.

Author Dr. Ambreen dones her B.Sc. (General Science), M.Sc. and Phd. in
botany from Delhi University. She is teaching in Fatehpuri Muslim Sr. Sec. School
to class XI and XII biology. Dr. Ambreen guides me to write the book. I am very
thankful for her kind help.

Dt. Ziaul-Haq
M.Sc. Clinical Nutrition
6 year teaching experience.

The author Dt. Ziaul-Haq done B.Sc. in life science from Delhi University and
M.Sc. in clinical nutrition from institue of Public Health and hygine (IGNOU).
2
 CHAPTER 1 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 3

This book is dedicated to

"RAHAT USMANI SIR"

Retd. Head Clerk in Health Ministry

for helping me in learning, caring for my education

and being and excellent teacher.
4 CHAPTER 1 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
 5
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

BREATHING
AND EXCHANGE OF GASES
Chapter 2 Æ Human Respiratory
System
Based on Chapter 17 (NCERT)
Æ Mechanisim of
BREATHING Respiration
AND EXCHANGE OF GASES
Æ Regulation of
Respiration

Æ Disorders
 6 CHAPTER 2 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

CHAPTER 2
BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES
Organisms need oxygen to break down nutrient molecules and derive energy.CO2 is
released during this process. This process of exchange of O2 from atmosphere with CO2
produced by the cell is called respiration.

RESPIRATORY ORGANS IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS:-

Respiratory organs depend on the habitat and level of organisation of animals.

Lower Invertebrates :- Simple diffusion over their entire body surface

example phylum porifera, coelenterata, platyhelmenthes.
Phylum annelida - Cuticle
Phylum arthropoda - Trachea
Aquatic animals - Gills
Terrestrial animals - Lungs
Amphibians - Moist skin

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Pair of nostrils are present above the upper lip.
Nostrils → Nasal Chamber → Naso pharynx → Glottis → Larynx (Voice box) → Trachea
(wind pipe)
 CHAPTER 2 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES 7

Ÿ During swallowing glottis is covered by a thin cartilages flap called epiglottis to prevent
entry of food in it.
Ÿ Trachea is a straight tube which extends upto mid thoracic cavity. It divides into two primary
bronchi which open into two lungs.
Ÿ Each lung is covered by a double layered wall called pleura. A pleural fluid is filled between
two wall layers. This fluid helps to reduce friction and protects the lungs.
Ÿ Primary bronchi enters the lungs and get branched into secondary and tertiary bronchi and
bronchioles. Each bronchiole ends into a very thin, vascularised sac-like structure called
alveolus. (pl-alveoli).
Ÿ The part of respiratory system from nostrils to bronchioles is called conducting part, while
alveoli form the respiratory /exchange part.
Ÿ Conducting part conducts /transports atmospheric air to alveoli, cleans it and brings it to
body temperature.
Ÿ Respiratory part is responsible for exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood and
atmospheric air.
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION:-
(1) Breathing/pulmonary ventilation – Atmospheric air comes in, CO 2 rich
air released out.
(2) Diffusion of O2 and Co2 across alveolar membrane
(3) Transport of gases (O2 & Co2) by blood.
(4) Diffussion of O2 & Co2 between blood and tissues.
(5) Utilisation of O2 by cell and release of Co2.

1. BREATHING/PULMONARY VENTILATION-
There are two stages -
(1) Inspiration- Atmospheric air comes in body.
(2) Expiration- Alveolar air released out of body.
There is a pressure gradient between lungs and atmosphere. The movement of air is due
to this pressure gradient. Diaphragm, muscles and ribs help in generation of the pressure
gradient.
Pressure in Lungs < ATM pressure → Inspiration (2 sec.)
Pressure in Lungs > ATM pressure → Expiration (3 sec.)
 8 CHAPTER 2 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

Diaphragm contracts - Volume of thoracic chamber increased towards upper and lower
side. External intercostal muscles contract - Volume of thoracic chamber increased towards
dorsal and ventral side → Volume of lungs increases - Intra- pulmonary pressure decreases,
and becomes lower than atm pressure-
Air from outside moves into lungs ====> INSPIRATION Occurs.

Diaphragm relaxes, intracostal muscles relax - Ribs, of and sternum come back to normal
position - Thoracic volume reduces - Intra-pulmonary pressure increases-
Air moves out from of lungs ===> EXPIRATION Occurs
An average adult human being breathe 12-16 Times per minute. The instrument used for
measuring the volume of air breathed is called spirometer.
1. Respiratory volume-
Tidal volume (TV)- Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal respiration-Approx.
500ml. A healthy person can inspire or expire about 6,000-8000 ml of air per minute.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume(IRV)- Additional volume of air a person can inspire by
forcible respiration approx 2500-3000ml.
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)- Additional volume of air a person can expire by
forcible expiration-approx 1000-1100 ml.
Residual volume (RV)- Volume of air remaining in lungs even after forcible expiration-
approx. 1100 ml-1200 ml.
Inspiratory capacity (-IC)- Total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal
expiration.
IC = TV + IRV
 CHAPTER 2 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES 9

Expiratory capacity(EC)- total volume of air a person can expire after a normal
inspiration.
EC = EV + TRV
Vital capacity (VC)- maximum volume of air a person can inspire after forced expiration.
VC = TV + IRV + ERV
Total lung capacity (TLC)- Total volume of air which can be accommodated in lungs after
forced inspiration.
TLC = RV + ERV + TV + IRV = RV + CV

2. EXCHANGE OF GASES
Diffusion of O2 and CO2 across alveolar membrane and diffusion of O2 and Co2 between blood
and tissues.
Alveoli- Primary site of exchange of gases.
Tissues- Secondary site of exchange of gases.
O2 and Co2 are exchanged by simple diffusion according to concentration gradient and
pressure gradient.
Partial pressure- Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases.
Partial pressure of O2 and Co2 is represented as PO2 and PCO2 respectively.
3. Transport of gases by blood-
1. Transport of O2-
97% of O2 is transported by RBC's cells of blood
3% of O2 is transported in dissolved state by plasma.
 10 CHAPTER 2 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

O2 binds with haemoglobin (red coloured iron containing pigment in blood.)

O2 + Hb → Oxy – HB O2
↓
1Hb-molecule can carry 4 O2 molecules oxy haemoglobin
O2 Hb O2

↓
Co2, PCo²,H+ ions and temperature affect the binding of Hb to oxygen. ↓
At Alveoli - High PO2, high PCO2, less H+, low temp => oxy-HB O2
At body tissues Low pO2 , High pCO2 more H+, high temperature → oxy – Hb dissociates
and O2 released in tissues.
Oxy hb → Hb +O2.
100 ml of oxygen generated, blood carries 5 ml of O2 to tissue
3. Transport of CO2
20-25% of CO2 is transported by RBC's 70% of CO2 is transported as bicarbonate in blood.
About 7% of co2 is transported in dissolved state by plasma.
By RBC => CO2+Hb => CARBAMINO – Hb
pCO²and pO² affect the binding of CO2 to Hb.
At tissue high ====> high PCO2, Low PO2 => carbamino Hb formed.
At Alveoli => low PCO2, high PO2 =>Hb Co2 disassociated, and Co2 released in alveoli.
As bicarbonates-
RBC is having enzyme carbonic anhydrase which facilitates following reaction-
Carbonic Carbonic
Co2 + H2O H2 Co3 HCo3 – +H+
Anhydrase Anhydrase
At tissues – PCO2 high -Co2 diffuses into blood and about 70% of it forms HCO3 - and H+
At Alveoli – PCO2 low, opposite reaction takes place, Co2 and H2O are formed and Co2
released in alveoli.
100 ml of deoxigeneted blood carries 4 ml of CO2 to alveoli.
 CHAPTER 2 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES 11

REGULATION OF RESPIRATION-
Respiration can be altered according to the requirements of the body. This is under the
control of CNS. Respiration is controlled by three centres/areas.
a. Respiratory rhythm centre- Present in Medula region of the brain.
b. Pneumetic center - In the pons region of the functioning of respiratory rhythm centre.
Its sends neural signals which can increase/reduce the duration of inspiration and
respiratory rate.
c. Chemosensitive area:- Present in the the wall of medulla near the respiratory rhythm
centre. It is highly sensitive to the Concentration of CO2 and H+ ions. If there is increase in
CO2 concentration and H+ ions. This centre is activated when it sends signals to
respiratory rhythm centre which causes expiration.
Some receptors are also present near aorchtic arch carotid artery. These receptors recognise
the changes in concentration of co2 and H+ions, and send signals to respiratory rhythm
centre.

DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM-

1. Asthma- Difficulty in breathing leading to wheezing caused due to narrowing and
inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles-caused by dust, pollen grains, pollutants
certain drugs etc.
2. Emphysema- Chronic disorder-walls of alveoli are damaged and respiratory surface
is decreased caused by cigarette smoking. (also called COPD). Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease.
3. Occupational respiratory Disorder:– Observed in workers of those industries which
involves grinding /breaking of stones, cutting of woods, mines or any industries that
produce high amount of dust and particulate matter. This particulate matter enter
respiratory tract and deposit there. Long exposure to these may cause inflammation
and proliferation a fibrous tissues (fibrosis). This causes serious lung damage leading
to even death. To prevent it, workers should wear protective mask.

Al tude Sickness
Ÿ Tourist from plane area when go to high al tude they experience al tude sickness.

Ÿ Symptoms :- Nausea, Fa gue, Heart palpita on

Ÿ Because of low atmospheric pressure of high al tude body does not get enough O₂

Body compensate gradually by increase RBC produc on, increase breathing rate, decrease
 12 CHAPTER 2 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

Hemoglobin binding affinity.

Ÿ Asphyxia on (Carbon mono oxide)

Carboxy hemoglobin ( stable compound form when Hb + CO )

Iron (II) of Hb + Co → Iron (III) of Hb
Iron (III) does not carry O2
O2 starvation leads to difficulty of breathing and may leads to death.
Note:- CO + Hb is 250 times more stable then Hb + O2

INTRAPLEURAL PRESSURE
Intraalveolar Pressure 760mm Hg (0 mm Hg relative to atmosphere)
Intrapleural pressure 756mm Hg (-4 mm Hg relative to atmosphere)
Intrapleural pressure is the pressure of air within plural cavity
It is always negative.
The act like suction Cup to keep the lungs inflated and prevent it from collapsing.
It is due to main factors
A. Surface tension of pleural fluid
B. Elasticity of lungs
C. Elasticity of wall if no session lungs will collapse.
Note :- If no suction cup is present lungs will collapse.
 13
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

BODY FLUIDS
AND CIRCULATION
Chapter 3 Æ Blood Composition

Based on Chapter 18 (NCERT) Æ Blood Groups

Æ Blood Coagulation
BODY FLUIDS
AND CIRCULATION
Æ Circulatory Systems

Æ Cardiac Cycle

Æ ECG

Æ Regulation of Cardiac
Activity

Æ Disorders
 14 CHAPTER 3 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

CHAPTER 3
BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION
Human beings have special fluids like lymph and blood for transport of materials like digested food, nutrients,
O², vitamins and hormones, etc. To the tissues, harmful and waste substances and CO2 out of the body. The
common body fluid is blood.

1. BLOOD:– It is the fluid connective tissue it consists of fluid matrix plasma and formed elements RBC
WBC and platelets. The constituents of blood are-
2. Plasma:– it is a pale yellow coloured viscous fluid. It constitutes about 55% of total blood. It is made up
of
· Water :- 90%–92%
· Proteins:– 6-8%
Fibrinogens(for blood coagulation.)
Globulins(for defence mechanism)
Albumirs(for maintaining osmotic balance)
· Minerals:– Na+,ca²+,mg²+,HCO-³,Cl–1,etc.(In small amounts)
· Blood clotting factors :– Special protein for blood coagulation present in inactive forms.
· Glucose, Amino acids, Lipids :– In very small amount.
· Plasma without blood, clotting factors is known as serum.
3. Formed Elements:– These are RBC, WBC and platelets. This constitutes about 45% of blood, various
formed elements are
a. RBC Erythrocytes:– Most abundant- 5 to 5.5 million per mm3 of blood. Formed in bone marrow
cells. Nucleus is absent. RBCs are Biconcave in shape. They contain a red coloured iron
containing pigment haemoglobin, which imparts red colour to the blood. HB is involved in
 CHAPTER 3 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION 15

exchange of gases during respiration. A healthy human being has 12-16 gram of Hb in 100 ml of
blood. RBCs is have a lifespan of about 120 days. After that they are destroyed in spleen, which
is also called as graveyard of RBC.
b. WBC Leucocytes- 6000 to 8000/mm³ of blood. Do not contain haemoglobin, so are colourless.
There are two types of leucocytes-
§ Granulocytes:– Contains small granules in their cytoplasm. There are three types of
granulocyte.
§ Neutrophils:- 60-65% of total WBCS. These are phagocytic cells which destroy
foreign organisms entering in the body.
§ Eosinophils:– 2–3% of total WBCs. These resist infec ons and allergy. Give
allergic reac ons.
§ Basophils:– 0.5-1% of total WBCS. These secrete certain chemicals like
histamine, serotonin, heparin etc. Which are involved in inflammatory reactions.
4. Agranulocytes:– Do not contain granules. These are of two types-
a. Lymphocytes:- 20-25% of total WBC. These are two types of Lymphocytes
T-lymphocyte and B-lymphocyte is, which are responsible for immune response of body.
b. Monocytes:- 6-8% of total WBC these are also phagocytic cells. They destroy foreign
organisms enduring in the body.
c. Platelets and thrombocytes:- These are about 1.5 to 3.5 lac. per mm³ of blood. These are cell
fragments formed by megakaryocytes. Megakaryocytes are special cells of bone marrow.
Platelets help in blood coagulation. These are oval-shaped, colourless and non-nucleated.

BLOOD GROUPS
Blood is grouped according to two methods ABO-grouping, RH-grouping
1. A B O GROUPING :– On the basis of presence or absence of two antigens in RBC (A and B) and
presence or absence of two antibodies in plasma (A and B)there are four types of blood groups in
humans.
 16 CHAPTER 3 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

2. Rh-grouping :– Rhesus (Rh) is an antigen protein found in blood. It was first discovered in blood of
rhesus monkeys. It is present in about 80% of human beings.
If Rh-protein present = Blood group → Rh+ve
If Rh-protein absent = Blood group → Rh-ve

If a person with Rh-ve is given Rh+ve blood, then his body will form antibodies against the given blood. This
blood will be destroyed and not accepted in the body. This leads to acute immune response and may result in
even death.
Erythroblastosis foetalis:– If mother is Rh-ve and Foetus is Rh+ve. In first pregnancy, blood of mother and
foetus are separated by placenta. During delivery maternal blood mixed with foetal blood- Mother's body will
form antibodies against Rh- protein. In next pregnancies, these antibodies can leak into blood of Rh +ve fetus
and may destroy foetal RBC. This leads to severe anemia, jaundice and even death of foetus - it is called as
erythroblastosis foetalis. To avoid this mother should be given anti RH -antibodies, immediately after birth of
first child.

Blood coagulation:– Also called as blood clotting. It is a mechanism to prevent excessive loss of blood from
the body during an injury. After some time of injury blood clots and a reddish brown covering called scum is
formed on the wound. Scum is a network of threads called fibrins, which trap the dead and damaged formed
elements of blood.
Injury → blood platelets stimulated → Platelets release certain protein factors → Mechanism of coagulation is
2+ +
activated → Ca and K ions required.

Prothrombin → Enz.thrombokinase → thrombin

Inactive form { Fibrinogen (in plasma) → Enz.Thrombin → fibrin
Fibrin forms network → Scum.

LYMPH/TISSUE FLUID
It is the fluid present between intercellular space in the tissue. It moves along with blood in Lymph Vessels and
intestinal spaces. It contains water and many small water soluble molecules. Its composition is same as that of
plasma. It is colourless. It also contains special lymphocytes which are responsible for immune response of the
body.
There is a network of lymph vessels which are connected to major veins. These form lymphatic system.
Exchange of nutrients and gases between blood and cells takes place through lymph. It also transports
nutrients and hormones. A lymph vessel called lacteal is present in villi of intestine which helps in absorption of
fats.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
There are two types of circulatory systems-
· Open circulatory system:– Blood flows through large vessels into open spaces, body cavity and
between tissues- Found in Arthropoda, Mollusca, etc.
 CHAPTER 3 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION 17

· Closed circulatory system:– Blood flows through closed blood vessels (arteries,veins and
capillaries) found in Chordata, Annelida, etc.
Heart:– Muscular organ which pumps blood.
Fishes:– 2 chambered heart (one atrium, one ventricle)
Single circulation

Amphibians and Reptiles:– 3 chambered heart

(two atria, one ventricle) (except crocodile).
Incomplete double circulation.

Birds and Mammals:- Four chambered heart. (2atria,2ventricles) Double circulation.

 18 CHAPTER 3 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Also called as blood vascular system. It consists of heart blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) and
blood.

HUMAN HEART
· Made up of cardiac muscles.
· Walls of ventricles are thicker than walls of atria.
· Special nodal tissue is present in heart, which is made up of muscles. This tissue is present at two
places-
1. In right upper corner of right atrium-SAN (sino atrial node)
2. In the left lower corner of right atrium-AVN (Atrio-ventricular Node)

· A bundle of nodal fibres emerges from AVN . It is called as Atrio-ventricular Bundle

(AV bundle). It passes through atrio-ventricular septa and emerges on top of interventricular septum. It
then divides into right and left bundle.
· Right and left bundles give rise to minute fibres called purkinje fibres.
Purkinje fibres + right and left bundles → bundle of His.
· Nodal tissue can generate action potential without any stimulus- i.e. it is auto excitable.
· SAN generate 70-75 action potentials per minute- It causes rhythmic contraction and relaxation activity
of heart-SAN is also known as pace-maker.
· Heart beats 70-75 times per minute.
 CHAPTER 3 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION 19

CARDIAC CYCLE:–

Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of heart muscles forms cardiac cycle.

 20 CHAPTER 3 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

All these events takes place in sequence. This is called as cardiac cycle. It is repeated cyclically. Heart beats
about 72 times per minute. i.e.
72 cardiac cycles per minute.
One cardiac cycle takes about
0.8 sec.
· Stroke volume:-
Vo l u m e o f b l o o d
pumped by ventricle in
a cardiac cycle →
about 70 ml.
· Cardiac output:-
Vo l u m e o f b l o o d
pumped by ventricles in
a minute = stroke vol. ×
heart rate = 70 ml into
72 = approx 5 litre.
Cardiac output varies in
different conditions and
individuals.
· Lub-dub sound:–
Sound-produced by
heart during cardiac cycle.

Electrocardiograph (ECG)
It is the graphical representation of electrical activity of heart during a cardiac cycle. Three electrical leads from
ECG machine are connected to the patient-one to left wrist, one to right wrist and one to left ankle. If detailed
evaluation is required, then multiple leads are attached to chest.
 CHAPTER 3 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION 21

P = Electrical excitation/depolarization of atria.

↓
It leads to contraction of atria.
QRS complex= depolarisation of
ventricles
↓
It leads to contraction of ventricles
T = r e p o l a r i z a t i o n o f
ventricles/return to normal state.
By counting the number of QRS
complexes, heart beat is
determined. Any deviation from
normal shape indicates any
abnormality/disease.

Double circulation-
 22 CHAPTER 3 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

a. Pulmonary circulation :– Flow of blood

between heart and lungs. For
oxygenation of blood.

b. Systematic circulation:– Flow of blood

between heart and body organs. It
provides nutrients, O 2 and other
essential substances to tissues and
removes Co2 and harmful substances.

Hepatic Portal System:– Hepatic portal vein is present, which carries blood from intestine to liver before going
in for systematic circulation.
Coronary system:– It is the circulation of blood to and form cardiac muscles.
Regulation of cardiac activity:– Activity of heart (cardiac activity) is auto regulated by specialised nodal

tissue such regulation is called Myogenic regulation.

A neural centre is present in medulla, which can alter the activity of heart.
Sympathetic nerves from Autonomic Neural System (ANS) can increase rate of → heart beat → action

potential → strength of contraction of ventricles → cardiac output.

Parasympathetic nerves can decrease rate of → heartbeat → action potential → cardiac output.
Disorders of circulatory system-

· High blood pressure (hypertension):– BP is higher than normal (120/80).

Normal systolic (pumping)pressure-120 mm of HG.

Normal diastolic (resting) pressure -80 mm of HG. Continuous high BP causes heart diseases,
 CHAPTER 3 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION 23

blindness and affect brain and kidney.

· Coronary artery disease CAD /Atherosclerosis:– It is caused by deposition of fat, cholesterol,

calcium and fibrous tissues in coronary arteries (arteries that supply blood to cardiac muscles). Due to

the position of the lumen of arteries becomes narrower.

· Angina/Angina pectoris:– Acute chest pain due to lack of O2 in heart muscles. It is a symptom of
CAD, and may lead to heart attack.

· Heart failure/Congestive heart failure:– Heart does not pump enough blood to meet the
requirements of body. Rate of flow of blood to heart is slow. It can be caused by CAD.

Main symptom is congestion of lungs.

· Heart attack:– Heart muscles suddenly get damaged due to inadequate blood supply. It may be due to
blocking of coronary arteries due to blood clot.

· Cardiac arrest:– Heart stops beating.

24 CHAPTER 3 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION
 25
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS
AND THEIR ELIMINATION

Chapter 4 Æ Types of Excretion

Based on Chapter 19 (NCERT) Æ Human Excretory

Æ Urine Formation
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS
AND THEIR ELIMINATION Æ Functons of Different
Parts of Renal Tubule

Æ Counter Current
Mechanisim

Æ Regulation of Kidney
Function

Æ Disorders
 26 CHAPTER 4 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

Chapter 4
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION
The waste products of the body are eliminated by the excretory system.

The waste materials are generated due to metabolic ac vi es or due to Excess inges on.

The main excretory products are

+ + –6 3– 2–
NH3, Urea, Uric acid, CO2, H2O, Na , K , CL , PO4 , SO4 etc.

The main nitrogenous waste are Ammonia, Urea and uric acid Ammonia is most toxic and requires
large amount of water for its removal uric acid is least toxic and requires very less water. The process of
removal of N- waste along with water and salts out of the body is called as excre on.

Types of excre on:–

On the basis of the nature of nitrogenous waste, excre on is of 3 types:-

1. Ammonotelism:– It is the process of excre ng N-waste in the form of ammonia. It is observed

in aqua c animals like many bony fishes, aqua c amphibians, aqua c insects etc .These
Animals are called as ammonotelic animals. Ammonia is soluble in water it is excreted by
Simple diffusion across body surface or gills.

2. Ureotelism:– It is the process of excre ng and N-waste in the form of Urea it is adopted by

Ureotelic animals for conserva on of water in body e.g.: mammals, marine fishes and

Terrestrial and amphibians. Ammonia produced by metabolism is converted into urea in liver.

It is released into blood and then later filtered and excreted out of the body by kidneys

3. Uricotelism:– It is the process of excre ng and N-wastes in the form of uric acid. The
animals are called ureotelic animals e.g.: rep les, birds and insects. It allows minimum loss
of water.

Excretory organs:- Different group of animals have different excretory organs.

• Platyhelmintes (flatworms) and some annelids- protonephridia flame cells.

• Annelids – Nephridia

• Crustaceans e.g (prawns) - Antennal gland/green gland

• Vertebrates - Kidneys
 CHAPTER 4 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION 27

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Includes a pair of Kidneys, a pair of ureters,
urinary bladder and urethra.

Kidney:– Reddish brown, Bean shaped

structure, situated between last thoracic
and third lumbar vertebra, close to dorsal
inner wall of abdominal cavity.

Size → 10 to 12 cm length X 5 - 7cm width X

2-3cm thickness. AV.WT → 120-170g

In the concave face of kidney, there is a notch

called Hilem, through which ureter, blood
vessels and nerves enter. The outermost layer
is tough and called renal capsule. Inner to
Hilem is a broad funnel shaped space called
renal pelvis. Renal pelvis as projec ons called Calyes (calyx-singular).Inner zone of kidney is divided
into 2 zones

1. Outer cortex 2. Inner modulla

Medulla is divided into modullary pyramids.

Zone of cortex present between medullary
pyramids is called a renal column / column of
ber ni. Each kidney has about 1 million
tubular structures called nephrons.
 28 CHAPTER 4 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

NEPHRONS
Nephrons are the func onal unit
of Kidneys nephron-two parts

1 .Glomerulus

2. Renal tubule

(a) Glomerules:– Tu of
capillaries formed by afferent
arteriole → a branch of renal
artery.

Blood from glomerulus is carried

away by Efferent arteriole.
 CHAPTER 4 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION 29

(b) Ranel tubule:– 5 parts

i) Bowman's capsule:- Cup-shaped and

encloses glomerulus.

ii) Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT):-

Highly coiled tubule.

iii) Henle's loop:- Hair pin-shaped

tubule, with a descending Limb and an
ascending limb.

iv) Distal convoluted tubule (DCT):-

Highly coiled tubule.

v) Collec ng duct:- DCT's of many

nephrons open into a common collec ng
duct, which opens into renal pelvis
through medullary pyramids in the calisys.

• Bowman's capsule + glomerulus= rennal corpuscle/malpighian body.

• Renal Corpuscle, PCT and DCT are present in cortex.

• Henle's loop is present in medulla.

• On the basis of length of henle's loop, there are two types of nephron

1. Cor cal Nephron:– Henle's loop is very short and extends very li le into the medulla.

2. Juxta Medullary Nephrons:– Henle's loop is very long and runs deep into the Medulla.

• Efferent arteriole forms a network of capillaries around the renal tubule called peritubular
capillaries. The Tubular capillaries around Henle's loop are called vasa recta. It is absent or
very reduced in cor cal nephrons.

URINE FORMATION- 3 STEPS:-

(1) Glomerular filtra on:- It is the filtra on of blood in glomerulus. About 1100 to 1200 ml of
blood/min is filtered in glomerulus. (About 1/5 of blood pumped by ventricles in a minute.) It is
caused by blood pressure of Glomerular capillaries. It is a three layered filtra on

i) Endothelium of Glomerular blood vessels

ii) Epithelium of bowman's capsule

iii) Basement membrane b/w these two layers.

 30 CHAPTER 4 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

It is also called ultra-filtra on because blood is filtered very finely all the cons tuents of Plasma
except proteins pass on to the lumen of Bowman's capsule. The amount of filtrate produced per min
is called Glomerular filtra on rate (GER)- It is approx 125 ml/min i,e: 180 litre/day.

• GFR is regulated by Juxta glomerular Apparatus (JGA)- Present at the contact of DCT and
afferent arteriole.

• A fall in GFR ac vates JG cells renin released s mulates glomerular blood flow GFR back to
normal.

(2) Reabsorp on:– Volume of filtrate formed per day= 180 litre.

Volume of urine released per day= 1.5 litre.

→ 99% of filtrate is reabsorbed by the renal tubule

• Reabsorp on is done by tubular epithelial cells by ac ve or passive diffusion

+ –
Glucose, amino acid, Na CL → Ac ve absorp on

N-wastes → Passive absorp on.

• Some passive reabsorp on also takes place in ini al segments of nephrons.

(3) Secre on:– Cells of renal tubules secrete H+, K+ and NH3 into filtrate. It helps to maintain ionic
and acid base balance of body fluids.
 CHAPTER 4 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION 31

FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF RENAL TUBULE

1. Proximal convoluted Tubule (PCT):– Lining of PCT is made up of cuboidal Brush border
epithelium- which increases surface area of reabsorp on.
• Reabsorp on of all essen al nutrients 70 to 80% electrolytes and water
• Selec ve secre on of H+ K + and NH3 and absorp on of HCO3- to maintain PH and ionic
balance.
 32 CHAPTER 4 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

2. Henle's Loop:– Maintains high osmolarity of medullary inters al fluid.

Descending loop→ permeable to water impermeable to electrolytes→ water absorbed→ filtrate
dilutes.
Ascending loop→ permeable to electrolytes, impermeable to water→ electrolytes absorbed→
filtrate concentrates.

3. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

• Reabsorp on of HCO3
+
• Condi onal reabsorp on of Na and H2O
+ +
• Selec ve secre on of H K and NH3– to maintain pH and Na-K balance in blood.
4. Collec ng duct-
• Large amount of water is absorbed to produce concentrated urine
• Small amount of Urea is absorbed into Medullary fluid to maintain osmolarity.
• Selec ve secre on of H+ and K+ to maintain PH and ionic balance of body.

Mechanism of concentra on of filtrate -

All the mammal produce concentrated urine main role is played by Henile's loop and Vasa recta.
 CHAPTER 4 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION 33

• Flow of blood b/w Limbs of Vasa recta → opposite → forms counter current

• Flow of filtrate b/w two Limbs of Henle's loop → opposite → forms counter current.

• Both form the counter current mechanism - it helps to concentrate the urine and maintains
concentra on gradient in medullary interstai um. There is a gradient b/w cortex and
medulla osmolarity increases towards inner medullary interstai um.

• NaCl → Exchanged B/W ascending Limb of henle's Loop and descending Limb of Vasa recta
it goes to inters um from ascending Limb of Vasa recta.

• Urea → Enters ascending Limb of henle's loop transported back to interstai um by

collec ng duct.

The filtrate formed is called as urine it is four mes more concentrated than the ini al filtrate
formed

• Urine → Light yellow coloured watery fluid with PH–6 and a characteris cs odour. Analysis
of urine helps in clinical diagnosis of many disease malfunc oning of Kidneys.

Mictura on:–
It is the process of release of urine.

Urine formed by nephrons → goes to ureter → goes to urinary bladder → stored ll CNS gives
voluntary signal.

When urinary bladder gets filled → its walls stretch → stretch receptors are present on Walls →
send signals to CNS.

CNS→ send signals for contrac on of muscles and relaxa on of urethral sphincter → urine is
released.

The signals are called Mictura on reflects an adult human excretes 1 to 1.5 litre urine per day,
having about 20 to 30 gram urea in a day.

Regula on of Kidney Func on -

Kidney func on is regulated by hormones of hypothalamus, JGA and heart.

1. Hypothalamus:-

• Decrease in blood volume, body fluid volume, ionic concentra on → osmoreceptors

ac vated→ S mulate hypothalamus → release ADH (an diure c hormone) or vasopressin
→ facilitate reabsorp on of water to prevent diuresis(form of urine)
 34 CHAPTER 4 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

• Increase in body fluid volume → osmorecepters switch off →ADH release stops.

• ADH effects Kidneys produces constrictory effects on blood vessels → blood pressure
increases → glomerular flow and GFR increases.

2. Juxta glomerular Apparatus (JGA)

• Low GFR/low glomerular blood pressure /low glomerular blood flow → JG cells release
renin → Convert angiotensinogen to angiotensin I & then to angiotensin II.

Angiotensinogen → Renin → Angiotensin I →Renin → Angiotensin II

(present in blood)

• Angiotensin II produces constrictory effects on blood vessels → Glomerular blood pressure

increases → GFR increases.

• Angiotensin II also ac vates adrenal cortex to release Aldosterone- which causes

reabsorp on of an Na+ and water increases blood pressure and GFR. This mechanism is
called renin angiotensin mechanism .

3. HEART

• Increased blood flow to atria → Atrial Nature c factor (ANF) released→ blood vessels dilate
→ blood pressure decreased.

• It acts as a check on renin-angiotensin mechanism.

Accessory/Secondary excretory organs-

1. LUNGS:– Remove 18 liter of Co₂ per day along with about 400 ml water in gaseous form

2. LIVER:– Secretes bilirubin, biliberdin cholesterol hormones steroids u e vitamins and drugs
pass out along with diges ve waste.

3. SKIN:– a) Sweat glands:– Sweat is watery fluid containing NaCl urea and lac c acid it cools
the body and also remove wastes.

b) Sebaceous/Oil glands:– Remove sterols, hydrocarbon waxes along with sebum also
provides protec ve oily covering on the skin.
 CHAPTER 4 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION 35

Disorders of Excretory System

1. Uremia:– Kidneys do not perform normally urea accumulates in blood very harmful for
Kidneys may lead to kidney failure

Urea is removed by hemodialysis. A Dialysing machine (ar ficial kidney) is connected to

pa ent's body. Blood is drained from an artery, an an coagulant (heparin) is added to blood it
is then pumped into the Dialysing machine.
The dialysing unit has a coiled cellophane tube surrounded by dialysing fluid. Dialysing fluid has
same composi on as that of Plasma (but without N- wastes). The membranes of cellophane
tube is porous. It allows passage of molecules according to concentra on gradient. N-waste
move out of blood into the Dialysing fluid. Cleaned blood is pumped back to vien a er adding
an heparin.
2.
Renal failure/Kidney failure:– Kidneys stop func oning due to accumula on of toxic N-wastes.
The only treatment is kidney transplanta on. A Func onal kidney is taken from a Donor and
transplanted in the pa ent. Donars are usually siblings or close rela ves. Medicines called as
immunosuppressant's are given to pa ents for life me to avoid rejec on by the immune
system.
 36 CHAPTER 4 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

3.
Renal calculi /Kidney stones:– Crystals of insoluble salts like Oxelates, phosphates etc. are
formed within the Kidneys. Treatments include medicines and surgery.

4.
Glomerulo–Nephri s/Bright's disease:– Inflamma on of glomeruli of kidney.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

LOCOMOTION
AND MOVEMENT

Chapter 5 Æ Types of Muscles

Based on Chapter 21 (NCERT) Æ Structures of

Contractile Proteins

LOCOMOTION Æ Muscle Contraction

AND MOVEMENT
Æ Human Skeleton
System

Æ Disorders
 38 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

CHAPTER - 5
Locomotion and Movement
Movement is an important characteristic of living beings a movement that causes a change in
the location are called locomotion/locomotory movements. Generally, animals are
locomoted for food, shelter, reproduction, favorable climatic conditions, or to escape from
predators.

Organs for movement and locomotion-

• Pseudopodia - in Amoeba.
• Cilia - in Paramecium.
• Flagella - in Algae, Euglena etc.
• Tentacles in Hydra.
• Limbs - in higher animals.

Types of Movement in living beings-

1. Amoeboid:– During protoplasm streaming, Pseudopodia are formed- this movement
transports nutrients, proteins, and organelles within the cell.
2. Ciliary:– Celia are present in the inner lining of many organs like the intestine, reproductive
tract, etc.
3. Muscular:– in muscles of limbs jaw tongue eyelids etc.
MUSCLES:–
Muscles are specialised tissue formed by the mesoderm 40% to 50% of the dry weight of
the human body is of muscles. Muscular tissue has the following properties-
a. Excitable
b. Contractile
c. Extensible
d. Elastic

Types of muscles three types

1. Striated/ skeletal/ voluntary
muscles-
Elongated cylindrical and multinucleated.
They show light and dark bonds on the
surface they are attached to bones
skeleton they are under the control of our
will.
 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT 39

2. Non–striated/Smooth/Involuntary muscles:– Elongated, spindle-shaped, and uni-

nucleate. They are present in the walls of the alimentary canal, blood vessels,
urinary tract, reproductive tract etc. Their activity is not under the control of our will.
3. Cardiac muscles are muscles of the heart:– They are cylindrical, branched, and
maybe uni-nucleate or bi-nucleate. They are striated and involuntary. They work
continued throughout the life.

Structure of skeletal muscles:–

Each muscle is made up of a number of
muscle bundles (fasciles), held
together by a layer of collagen
connective tissue called fascia. Each
muscle bundle contains many muscle
fibers (muscle cells) each fiber is
covered by a membrane called
sarcolemma. Each fiber is filled with
sarcoplasm. The sarcoplasm contains
many nuclei i.e. syncytium condition.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum (ER)
contains large no: Ca2+ ions. Each
fiber contains many myofibrils
(myofilaments) arranged parallel to each other. Each myofibrils has alternate dark and light
bands on it.
The light bands contains a protein actin and is called as Isotropic Band/ I-band.
The dark band contains a protein Myosin and is called as anisotropic band/A - bond.
Actin filaments are thinner than Myosin, So also called thin filament, while myosis is called
thick Filament.
The thin filaments are bisected by Z-line, and thick filaments are bisected by M-line the portion
between two Z-lines is called sarcomere. Sarcomere is the functional unit of contraction. In
resting stage, the thin and thick
filaments overlap each other. The
region of thick filament not overlapped
is called H-zone. The actin and myosin
proteins are contractile proteins.
 40 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

Structure of contractile proteins-

1. Actin/Thin filament:–
Each actin filament is
made up of two F-actins
(filamentous actins),
which are coiled around
e a c h o t h e r. E a c h
F-actin is made up of
many G-actins
(Globalular Actins).
Two filaments of another
protein tropomyosin run
close to F-actins.
Another protein Troponin
is present at regular intervals on tropomyosin.Troponin covers the myosin- binding
sides on actin-filaments.
2. Myosin/Thick filament:–
Each myosin filament is made up of small units called meromyosins. Each meromyosin is made up of
two parts-
(a) A Globular head with short arm- called Heavy meromyosin (HMM)
(b) A tail called light Meromyosin (LMM)
H M M comes out words at regular intervals. Head has ATP- binding site, actin-binding site and is an active
AT pase enzyme.
 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT 41

Muscle Contraction:–
Theory is called sliding filament theory. According to this theory, contraction of muscle fibre
takes place by sliding of thin filaments over thick filaments.

• CNS → sends signal to motor neurone.

• Motor neurone is attached to a muscle fibre-forms a motor unit. The junction of
motor neurone with sarcolemma of muscle fibre is called neuro-muscular junction/
motor-en plate.
• Neural signal→reaches
neuro-muscular juntion→
releases a chemical
neurotransmitter (acetyl
chloine)→ generates action
potential in muscles→ Ca2+
released in sarcoplasm→
2+
Ca binds to troponin on
actin filament- the Myosin
binding site becomes free.

• ATP in Myosin fibre is

 42 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

hydrolysed into ADP & Pi→ energy released→ myosin binds with actin at binding sites-
A cross Bridge is formed.
• Actin filaments are pulled towards centre of A-band-Z-lines is also pulled inwards-
Muscle contracts size of I-band is reduced.
• ADP & Pi released from myosin→ a new ATP binds→ cross Bridge broken.
• The new ATP is again hydrolysed-a new cross-Bridge is formed-more sliding-more
contraction and so on.
• This cycle is repeats till Ca2+ are Bound to troponin
• When Ca2+ ions go back to sarcoplasmic reticulum- troponin released- again covers
the active site of actin filament - Z-line returns to normal- Muscles relaxes.
• Repeated activity can cause lack of O2 & produce anaerobic conditions in the muscle
cell → glycogen break down into lactic acid-fatigue is caused.

Red and White Muscles:–

Some muscles have a large amount of red pigment myoglobin, which stores O2 these
muscles have more mitochondria to utilise O2 and release ATP Such muscles are red in
colour and called red fibers or aerobic muscles. Some muscles have less myoglobin and
few mitochondria these depend on anaerobic process for energy. They appear whitish and
are called white fibers or anaerobic muscles.
 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT 43

HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM:–

It consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages.
BONE:– Solid connective tissue, with solid and very hard matrix, due to the presence of
Ca - and P -salts there are 206 bones in an adult human.
CARTILAGE:– Special connective tissue with widely spaced cells. Matrix is solid and
composed of proteins, sugar, and chondroitin salts. The human skeletal system is divided
into two parts-
i. Axial skeleton- Composed of the skull, vertebral column sternum, and ribs has 80
bones.
ii. Appendicular skeleton- Composed of limbs and girdles has 126 bones.

Axial skeleton- Made up of 80 bones- present along the main axis of the body-
composed of the skull- vertebral column, sternum, and ribs.
 44 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

1. Skull- contains 22 bones there are two sets of bones

a. Cranial- 8 in number form hard

protective covering called cranium (brain
box)

b. Facial- 14 in number form the front part

of the skull.

c. Hyoid- A single U-shaped bone

present at the base of the buccal
cavity.

d. Ears- Each ear has three bones called ear ossicles (mallers,incus&stapes) present in
the middle ear.

Skull is attached to vertebral column with the help of two occipital condyles- so our skull
is also called a dicondylic Skull.
 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT 45

2. Vertebral column:– It is present on the dorsal side of the body made up of 26 vertebrae
extends from base of the Skull. it supports the head and protects the spinal cord each
vertebra is Hollow in the center through which the spinal cord passes the hollow portion
forms the neural Canal.
There are
Ÿ 7 cervical vertebrae

Ÿ 12 thoracic

Ÿ 5 lumbar

Ÿ 1 fused sacral

Ÿ 1 fused coccygeal vertebrae

The first vertebra is called Atlas

and it is attached to occipital
condyles.
 46 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

3. Sternum- A single flat

bone on the ventral side
in the middle. It is
connected to the ribs

4. Ribs- 12 pairs each rib is

a thin flat bone rib are
connected to the
vertebral column on the
dorsal side and to the
sternum on the ventral
side.
Ÿ 1st 7 pairs - True ribs attach to Thoracic vertebrae and sternum directly.
Ÿ 8th, 9th, and 10th pair- false ribs not attached directly to sternum but to 7th rib.
Ÿ 11th and 12th pair- floating ribs- attached to thoracic vertebrae dorsally but not
connected ventrally. Thoracic vertebrae + Ribs +Sternum →Ribcage.
ii. Appendicular Skeleton- Made up
of 126 bones composed of limbs
and griddles.
1) Limbs- each Limb is made up of 30
bones.

a. Hands-

Humerus (1),

Radius (1)

Ulna (1)

Carples/wrist bones (8)

Metacarpals/Palm bones(5)

Phalanges digits (14)

 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT 47

b. Legs-

Femur/thigh bone (1)

Tibia (1)

Fibula(1)

Tarsals/ankle bones (7)

Metatarsals/foot bone(5)

Phalanges/digits (14)

Patella/knee cap(1).
Patella is a cup-shaped bone which covers the knee.
Note :- Femur is the longest bone of the body.

2) Girdles- 2 girdles- pectoral & pelvic.

a. Pectoral Girdle:– Present at

the shoulder-each half is made up
of clavicle & a scapula.
Ÿ Clavicle is called collarbone (2)
Ÿ Scapula (2) is a triangular flat
bone present in dorsal side
between 2nd and 7th ribs.
It has a slightly elevated edge
called Spine and a flat expanded
portion called acromion. Clavicle
articulates with acromion. Below acromion is a cavity called glenoid cavity. It
articulates with humerous and forms shoulder joint.
 48 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

b. Pelvic Girdle (hip bone): Formed by

coxal bones (2) is coxal bone is formed
by fusion of 3 bones ilium, pubis,
ischium. A cavity is present at the point
of fusion. It articulates with femur and
forms hip joint.

5. JOINTS:– Joints are point of contact of bones or bones and cartilage. These are
essential for movement. On the basis of structure, there are 3 types of joints -
1. Fibrous joints:- Present in the skull between flat skull bones. The bones are
joined end to end with the help of fibrous connective tissue- these joints do not show any
movement.

2. Cartilaginous joints:- Present in

vertebral column between the
vertebrae. Formed with the help
of cartilage these joints show
Limited movement.
 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT 49

3. Synovial joints:- Of fluid-filled Synovial cavity is present between two bones show much
moment help in locomotion different types of Synovial joints are-
 50 CHAPTER 5 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

a. Pivot joint b/w Atlas and axis

b. Hinge Joint- knee joint
c. Saddle joint b/w carpal and metacarpal of thumb.
d. Plane joint/Gliding joint between tarsal bones
e. Comdyloid joint between radius and carpal bones of rist.
f. Ball and socket joint b/w humerus and pectoral girdle.

Disorders of muscular and skeletal system-

1. Myasthenia gravis:- Auto immune disorder neuromuscular junction is affected may cause fatigue,
weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscles.
2. Muscular dystrophy:- Genetic disorder degeneration of skeletal muscles.
3. Tetany (nas chadna):- Spasms/ contractions in muscle caused due to low Ca2 + in body fluid.
4. Arthritis:- Inflammation of joints.
5. Osteoporosis:- Age related disorder estrogen level decreases bone mass decreases chances of
fracture increases.
6. Gout:- Uric acid crystals accumulate in muscle cells inflammation of joints occur.
 51
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

NEURAL CONTROL
AND COORDINATION

Chapter 6 Æ Neural System in

Humans
Based on Chapter 21 (NCERT)
Æ Nerve Impulse

NEURAL CONTROL Æ CNS

AND COORDINATION (Central Nural System)

Æ Reflex Action

Æ Eye

Æ Ear
 52 CHAPTER 6 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Chapter 6
Neural Control and Coordina on
The process by which two or more organs interact and complement the func ons of one another is
called as coordina on.
Human being exhibit coordina on to maintain homeostasis.
Coordina on is brought about by the neural system and the endocrine system. Neural system has an
organised network of nerves and endocrine system produces hormones to coordinate the ac vi es of
all organs.
Neural system in humans
The structural and func onal unit of neural system is “neuron”. Neuron are highly specialized cells
that which receive and transmit s muli.
Human nervous system has two parts
1. CNS Central nervous system
2. PNS Peripheral nervous system
CNS :- Includes brain and spinal cord. It is the site of informa on processing & control.
PNS :- Includes all the nerves associated with CNS. There are two types of nerves.
Afferent fibres :- Transmit impulse from organs to CNS.
Efferent fibres :- Transmit regulatory impulse from CNS to organs.
PNS is further divided into two parts.
1. Soma c Neural System:- Transmits impulse from CNS to skeletal muscles.
2. Autonomic Neural System:- Transmits impulse from CNS to involuntary/smooth muscles.

Neuron : 3 parts :

a. Cell body

b. Dendrites

c. Axon
· Cell body:-
Contains cytoplasm, cell organelles and some granular bodies c/a Nissle granules
· Dendrites:- Short branched fibres which emerges from cell body. These also contain Nissle
granules.
· Axon:-
Long fibres with distal end branched. Each branch terminates into a bulb like
structures called as synap c knob. Synap c knob contains a chemical substance
called as neurotransmi er
 CHAPTER 6 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION 53

There are two types of Axons

1. Mylenated :– These are surrounded by Schwann cells, which form a myelin sheath around the
axon. The gap between two myelin sheaths is called as Node o Ranvier. These types of axons are
found in cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
2. Non-Myclinated/Unmyelinated :– Schwann cells are not found around the axon. These are
found in autonomous and soma c neural systems.
On the basis of no: of axons and dendrites, there are 3 types of neurons.

a. Mul polar:- Having

one axon and two or
more dentries – Found
in cerebral cortex.

b. Bipolar:- Having one

axon and one dendrite.
Found in re na of eye.

c. Unipolar:- Having only

one axon. Found in
embryonic stage.

Genera on and conduc on of Nerve Impluse

Res ng stage:- When no impulse is conducted Axon.
Membrane has ion channels which are selec vely permeable
Membrane of axon:- Permeable to k+ ions.
Impermale to Na+ ions
Impermeable to –vely charged pro ens(Present in axoplasm)
Axoplasm – High concn of K+ & –vely charged pro ens
Low concn of Na+
Fluid outside axon – Low concn of K+


High concn of Na+
→ A concentra on gradient is formed across the membrane
Outer surface of membrane has +ve charged.
Inner surface of membrane has –ve charge.
→Axon is polarised:– The electrical poten al difference across the plasma membrane in res ng
stage in called res ng poten al.
 54 CHAPTER 6 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Excited stage :– When s mulus is applied at site A

→The ion channel becomes permeable to Na+.

→It causes rapid influx of Na+ → Leads to reversal of
polarity

Outer surface becomes –vely charged

Inner surface becomes +vely charged

Axon is Depolarised.
The electrical poten al difference across the plasma membrane is
excited state is called Ac on Poten al/ Nerve Impluse.
Current flows from A to B on inner surface and B to A on outer
surface =>
The nerve impluse/ac on poten al transmi ed to B. This is
repeated along the length of the axon.
The permeability of Na+ lasts for Vshorts me Ca frac on of
second). Immediately K+ diffuses out and restores the res ng
poten al.
 CHAPTER 6 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION 55

Transmission of impulse from one neuron to another.

A synapse is responsible for transmission
of a impulse from one neuron to other.
Synapse is formed by the membranes of
pre–synap c neuron and post–synap c
neuron (dendrite)

A gap may or may not be present between

these two membranes. This gap is called
synap c cle and is filled with
neurotransmi er (chemical subs)
In synapses where synap c cle is present are called chemical synapses
In synapses where synap c cle is not present are called electrical synapses.
Electrical synapses:– The pre and post synap c membrane are very close. Current can flow directly
through it. From one neuron to other. (The transmission is similar to conduc on of impulse in the
axon.) These type of synapses are very fast. Not present in our body.
Chemical synapses:– The synap c cle between pre & post synap c membrane is filled by a chemical
c/a neurotransmi er ( Acetylchoine or adrenaline). The axon terminals have synap c vesicles filled
with neurotransmi ers. When impulse arrives at axon terminal, these vesicale move towards the
membrane and fuse with plasma membrane. The neutro transmi ers bind to specific receptors
present on post–synap c membrane. The impulse travels from on e axon to the other.

Central Neural Sytem:– CNS

Includes the brain and the spinal cord.
Brain:– Central informa on processing organ.
It controls voluntary movements, func oning
of involuntary organs, thermoregula on,
circandian rhythm (body-clock), balance of
body and behaviour of the person. It
processes our senses, memory, intelligent,
emo ons and thought.
Brain is present inside the skull & (cranium).
The cranium has three protec ve layers

a. Outer duramater
b. Middle arachnoid
c. Inner pia mater which is in direct contact with brain.
 56 CHAPTER 6 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Brian is divided into three parts Forebrain, Mid-brain and Hindbrain.

1. Forebrain :– It consists of
Cerebrum, Thallamus and
Hypothalamus.
a. Cerebrum:– Forms major
part of the brain. It is divided
longitudinally into two halves.

Ÿ Right cerebral hemisphere

Ÿ Le cerebral hemisphere.

The two cerebral hemispheres are

connected by nerve fibres called
Corpus Callosum. The cerebral
hemispheres are covered by layers
of cells called cerebral cortex.
The cerebral cortex has folding in it. The cerebral cortex is grey in colour due to concentra on of
neuron cell bodies, so it is also called as grey ma er. It contains motor areas, sensory areas and
associa on areas ( large regions that are neither clearly sensory nor motor). The associa on areas are
responsible for memory, communica on and inter sensory associa ons. The corpus callosum (tract of
nerve fibres) is whi sh in colour and called white ma er. It is covered with myclin sheath.
b. Thalamus:– It is present towards inner side of the cerebrum. It is responsible for coordina on
between sensory and motor signals.
c. Hypothalamus:– It is present at the base of the thalamus it contains a number of centres.
These centres control the body temperature, urge of ea ng and drinking kidney func on etc.
The hypothalamus also contains nervousecretory cells with secrete hypothalamic hormones.
Note :- Fore brain also contains some structures named as hippcampus amygdala, etc. These
structures along with hypothalamus form other complex structures called limbic system/ limbic lobe.
These are responsible for sexual behaviour emo onal reac ons mo va on, empathy, etc.

2. Mid brain:– it is present between thalamus and hypothalamus of forebrain and owns the forebrain
and pons of hind brains. The dorsal por on contains four round lobes called Corpora Quadrigemina. A
Canal c/a cerebral aqueduct passes through midbrain.

3. Hind Brain:– It consists of Pons, Cerebellum and Medula.–

a. Pons:– It consists nerves fibres that inner connect different regions of the brain.
b. Cerebellum:– Highly coiled structure to provide surface area for more neutrons.
c. Medulla (Medulla oblongata):– Connects brain to the spinal cord. It has centres to control
respira on cardiovascular system and gastric secre ons.
 CHAPTER 6 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION 57

Reflex ac on and Reflex are

The involuntary response to a
nervous s mula on through CNS is
called reflex ac on. It includes one
afferent neurone (receptor) and one
afferent neuron (excitor) that are
arranged in a series.
The afferent neuron receives
signals from sensory organs and
transmit the impulse to CNS via
dorsal nerves root the CNS send
signals to the effector or efferent
neuron which carries it to the organ
and result in a reflex ac on.

Sensory recep on and processing:– We have many sense organs which detect the changes
around us and give appropriate response.
A Sense organ or sensory receptor is a group of highly specialised cells which received the
s mula on.
We have receptors for vision, touch, taste, smell light, temperature etc.

1. Eye:- it is a sensory organ for vision present in

a pair of each eye is present in sockets of Skull
that is orbits. The eye is almost spherical in
shape it has three layered walls – Sclera,
Choroid and re na.
a. Sclera:– Outermost layer made up of
dense connec ve ssues its front por on
is called cornea.
b. Choroid:– Middle Layer – Bluish in colour –
contains many blood vessels. It is thin but
becomes thick in anterior por on to form
ciliary body. Th ciliary body on its front form the iris which is the visible por on. Ciliary body
projects ligaments which hold a lens in the centre of anterior region. The aperture of lens,
surrounded by iris is called pupil. Iris regulates the diameter of pupil.

c. Re na:– Innermost layer. It contain three layers of cells ganglion cells bipolar cells and
photoreceptor cells there are two types of photoreceptor cells rods and cones which contain
photo pigments light sensi ve proteins.
 58 CHAPTER 6 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

i. Rods:– They percieve dim light (twilight) rods have scotopic vision. They contains a purple
red protein Rhodopsin/visual purple which is a deriva ve of Vitamin A.
ii. Cones:- They percieve bright light and colours cones are photopic in vision. There are
three types of cones which contains photo pigments for red green and blue
colour. The vision of different colours is due to combina on of these three
cones. White light it is seen when all three are s mulated equally.
c. Op c nerve:- It carries the sensa ons to the brains the point at which op c nerve leaves the
eye, at the posterior end of the eye is called blind spot. There are no photoreceptor cells at this
spot and here no vision is possible blood vessels in the eye at this spot. Lateral to the blind spot
is the yellow pigmented spot for called- fovea. Here re na is U thin and contains only cones.
Here the visual sharpness and clarity (ac vity and resolu on) is maximum. The space between
lens and cornea is called Aquaoues chamber it contains a watery fluid called aqueous
humour. The space between lens and re na is called vitreous chamber it contains a
transparent gel that is vitreous humour.
Mechanism of Vision
Ÿ The cornea aqueous humour, lens & vitrous humour refract light rays to focus on photoreceptors
of re na.
↓
Ÿ Iris act as the diaphragm and it regulates the amount of light entering in the eye.
↓
Ÿ The photoreceptor are sensi ve to light rays of wavelength 380-760 nm.
↓
Ÿ The photo pigments contain a protein opsin and an aldehyde of Vitamin A re nal.
↓
Ÿ These two are bind together.
↓
Ÿ Light induces the disassocia on of opsin and re nal.
↓
Ÿ This causes changes in structure of opsin.
↓
Ÿ The permeability of membrane changes (Na+ channels close).
↓
Ÿ A poten al difference is generated across the membrane.
↓
Ÿ This causes the genera on of ac on poten al in ganglion cells.
↓
Ÿ This ac on poten al is transmi ed by op c nerves to the visual cortex area present in the
cerebrum of brain.
↓
Ÿ The nerve impulse is analysed and image formed on the re na is recognized.
 CHAPTER 6 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION 59

2. The Ear:– It is a sensory organ for

hearing the ear has two func ons
hearing and body balance human
beings have a pair of ears one on
each lateral side of the head ear has
three parts outer ear, middle ear
and inner ear.

a. Outer ear/external ear:- It has

two parts pinna and external
auditory meatus canal

1. Pinna is funnel-shaped and

made up of car lage it collects
sound waves and vibra on in the air.

2. External auditory meatus small tabular canal about 2.5 cm deep and it runs up to the eardrum
tympanic membrane it has fine hair and wax secre ng sebaceous glands for protec on of ear drum.
The tympanum (ear drum) is ghtly stretched membrane made up of connec ve ssues. It is
externally covered with skin and internally by mucus membrane.

b. Middle ear:– It contains three ear ossicles called as malleus, incus and stapes: these are
connected to each other in a chain. Malleus is outer bone and is Hammer shaped it is a ached to the
tympanic membrane. Incus is middle and anvil shaped. Stapes is innermost, s rrup shaped and
smallest. It is a ached to the oval window of chochlea of inner ear. The ear ossicles increase force of
sound waves and efficiency of transmission from ear drum to inner ear. They act as a amplifier. A
Eustachian tube connects middle ear cavity with pharynx.it helps to balance the pressure on both
sides of ear drum.

c. Inner Ear/Labyrinth:– It has two parts Bony Labyrinth and membranous laby nth. The Bony
Labyrinth is a series of channel. The membranous Labyrinth is present inside the channels it is
surrounded by a fluid called perilymph. The membrane Labyrinth is filled with the fluid called
endolymph. The coiled por on of a Labyrinth is called cochlea. Two membranes Surround the
cochlea. These are reissner's membrane and basilar membrane. The membranes divide bony
Labyrinth into an upper Scala ves buli and a lower scala tympani. The space within cochlea is called
as scala media- It is filled with endolymph. Cochlea has an oval window and a round window. Scala
ves buli end at oval window and scala tympani ends at round window. Basilar membrane has organ
of cor it contains hair cells which act as auditory receptors. These cells are present in rows. These are
connect to afferent nerve fibres. Above the rows of hair cells is the tectorial membrane which is an
elas c membrane.
 60 CHAPTER 6 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Above the cochlea there is a complex system called as ves bular Apparatus it has three semicircular
canals and an otolith organ. The otolith organ consists of sacule and utricle. The semicircular canals
lie at right angle to each other. These are suspended in paralymth of Bony Labyrinth the base of canals
is swollen and called ampula having a projec ng ridge called crista ampullaris which contains hair
cells. Seccule and utricle also contain projec ng ridge c/a macula.The crista ampullaris & macula act
as receptors of ves bular apparatus . These are responsible for main aning body balance.

Mechanism of Hearing:–

Ÿ Sound waves are converted into nerve impulses.

↓
Ÿ External ear receive sound waves.
↓
Ÿ It sends them to the tympanic membrane
↓
Ÿ Tympanum produces vibra ons.
↓
Ÿ Vibra ons are transmi ed to malleus incus and stapes to oval window of cochlea.
↓
Ÿ The endolymph and perilymph generate waves in response to vibra ons.
 CHAPTER 6 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION 61

↓
Ÿ It causes ripple in basilar membrane.
↓
Ÿ Ripples are transmi ed to hair cells.
↓
Ÿ These generate nerve impulses.
↓
Ÿ Which are transmi ed by afferent nerve fibres to auditory nerve.
↓
Ÿ Auditory nerves carry impulses to auditory cortex of brain.
↓
Ÿ Here nerve impluses are analysed and sound is recognized.
62 CHAPTER 6 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION
 63
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

CHEMICAL COORDINATION
AND INTEGRATION

Chapter 7 Æ Hypothalamus

Based on Chapter 22 (NCERT) Æ Pituitary Gland

Æ Pineal Gland
CHEMICAL COORDINATION
AND INTEGRATION Æ Thyroid Gland

Æ Parathyroid Gland

Æ Thymus

Æ Adrenal Gland

Æ Pancreas

Æ Gonads

Æ Mechanism
of Hormone Action
 64 CHAPTER 7 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION

CHAPTER 7
Chemical Coordination and Integration
The endocrine system is responsible for chemical coordination by special Chemicals called
hormones secreted by endocrine glands
Endocrine Glands:–
These are the duct less
glands their secretion are
called as hormones.
Hormones are the chemical
substances secreted by
endocrine glands are these
are produced in very small
(trace) amounts and are
transported to target organ
by the blood these are also
called as intercellular
messengers
Human Endocrine System:–
It consists of different endocrine glands and their hormones.
1. Hypothalamus:– It is not an endocrine gland but as it secretes hormones so it is
included in the endocrine system Hypothalamus is the bessel part of the forebrain
(diencephalon) it contains many neurosecretory cells called nuclei which secrete
various hypothalamic hormones.
These hormones regulate pituitary hormones. These are two types of hypothalamic
hormones.
a. Releasing hormones:– These caused the secretion of pituitary hormones example
GnRH gonadotrophin releasing hormone of hypothalamus stimulates the synthesis of
gonadotropin from pituitary gland.
b. Inhibiting hormones:– These inhibit the secretion of pituitary gland hormones e.g.
somatostanin of hypothalamus inhabit growth hormone of pituitary.
The posterior part of pituitary gland receives hypothalamic hormones directly through
hypothelam neurons.
CHAPTER 7 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION 65

The anterior part of pituitary gland receives hypothalamic hormones indirectly i.e. by
hypothalamic neurones via a portal circulatory system.

2.
Pituitary Gland:–

It is present below the hypothalamus in a
Bony cavity called Sella tursica.
It is attached to the hypothalamus by a
stalk.
Pituatory gland is divided into two parts-
i. Adeno hypophysis- It has two portions-

a. Pars distalis also called Anterior

pituitary:– It produces following
hormones-
# Growth hormone (GH)
# Prolactin (PRL)
# Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
# Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
# Luteinizing hormone (LH)
# Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) (Gonadotrophins)
b. Pars intermedia:– It produces only one hormone called melanocyte-stimulating hormone
(MSH). It is almost merged with Pars distalis.
ii. Neurohypophysis- Also called pars nervosa or Posterior Pituitary:–
It stores and releases to hypothalamic hormones Oxytocin and vasopressin (ADH)
Functions of pituitary hormones:–
i. Growth hormone (GH)- It is responsible for growth
→ if low secretion stunted growth (pituitary dwarfism).
→ if high secretion
→ abnormal growth (gigantism)cover secretion.
ii. Prolactin (PRL)- Responsible for growth of mammary glands and secretion of milk
in them.
iii. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)- Regulates the synthesis of thyroid hormones
in Thyroid gland.
iv.
Adreno cortico tropic hormone (ACTH)- Regulates synthesis of steroid hormones
(glucocorticoids) from adrenal cortex.
v.
Gonadotropins (LH and FSH):– regulate the activity of gonads (ovary and testis)-
 66 CHAPTER 7 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION

a.
Luteinising hormone (LH):– regulates synthesise of hormones (androgens)

from testis in males.In females it induces ovulation of mature follicles (grafian
follicles) and maintains Corpus luteum formed from remains of graafian follicle flex
ovulation.

b. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH):– (FSH) and androgens regulate
spermatogenesis in males. In females it regulates growth and development of
follicles in the ovary.
vi.
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)- regulates skin colour and pigmentation by
acting of (melanin containing cells).
vii. Oxytocin- regulate smooth (involuntary) muscle contraction.
It also stimulates virgorous contraction of uterine walls during child birth. It is
also responsible for release of milk from mammary glands.
viii. Vasopressin or Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)- Acts on Kidneys and regulates
reabsorption of water and electrolytes by DCT, and reduces loss of water
through urine.
3.
Pineal Gland:–
Located on dorsal side of forebrain. It secretes a hormone Melatonin. It is responsible for
diurnal rhythm of the body (day night cycle), body temperature metabolism, pigmentation,
menstrual cycle and immune system.

4.
Thyroid Gland:–
It has two lobes which are present on either side of trachea. Both the lobes are connected
with a thin connective tissue called isthmus. The thyroid gland is composed of follicles and
stromal tissues. Each follicle has follicular cells around a cavity.
Follicle cells synthesise two harmones-
i. Thyroxine or tetraiodo thyronine (T4)
ii. Triiodo thyronine (T3)
These hormones regulate
1. Basal metabolic rate.
2. Regulate formation of RBCs.
3. Control metabolism of
Carbohydrates proteins and fats.
4. Maintain water and electrolyte
balance in the body.
5. Regulate blood calcium level (by a
protein Thyrocalcitonin, TCT).
→ The synthesise of hormones is
influenced by iodine. If there is iodine deficiency in the body, the thyroid gland becomes
enlarged (goitre) and there will be hypothyroidism.
i. Hypothyroidism in adult women causes irregular menstrual cycle.
CHAPTER 7 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION 67

ii. Hypothyroidism in pregnant women causes defective development of baby. The baby
may be mentally retarded, Low intelligent, deaf and mute or with a abnormal skin,
stunted growth (retinism)
→ If there is over-secretion of thyroid hormones hyperthyroidism, it causes defects in
physiological functions.
Hyperthyroidism is due to cancer of thyroid gland or development of nodules of thyroid
gland, due to which there is abnormally high level of hormones.
5.
Parathyroid Gland:–
These are four in number and present on back side of thyroid gland. Two parathyroid
glands are present in each lobe of thyroid gland.
They secrete a hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH)-
This hormone increases level of calcium ions in blood (hypercalcemic hormone)
It regulates Ca++ balance of body along with (TCT) (Thyrocalcitonin).
It regulates process of bone resorption, reabsorption of Ca++ by renal tubule, absorption of
Ca2+ from digested food.
The secretion of PTH is regulated by level of Ca++ in the body.
6.
Thymus:-
It is a lobular structure present on the dorsal side of heart and aorta. It is a lymphoid organ.
It is responsible for development of immune system. It degenerates with the age.
Thymus secretes hormones called Thymosins.
Thymosins are responsible for differentiation of T-
Lymphocytes which provide immunity to the body
(cell mediated immunity) Thymosins also promote
production of antibodies (humoral immunity)
Note:– As it retards with age, the immune system
of old people is weak.
 68 CHAPTER 7 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION

7.
Adrenal Glands-

These are present in pairs iron anterior
part of each kidney each adrenal gland
has two parts-
i. Adrenal medulla
ii. Adrenal cortex

i. Adrenal medulla:– It is present in the

centre. It secretes two hormones-
adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
Noradrenaline (nor epinephrine) } (catecholamines)

The hormones are also called emergency hormones or hormones of fight or flight,
because these are rapidly secreted In response to any kind of stress or emergency.They
dilate Pupil, cause sweating, raising of hair (piloerection) and make the person more
alert.They also increase Heartbeat and rate of respiration.They increase amount of glucose in
blood by breakdown of glycogen.They also stimulate breakdown of lipids and proteins.
ii. Adrenal cortex:– It is divided into three layers-
# Outer- Zona glomerulosa
# Middle- Zona fasciculata
# Inner- Zona reticularis
Adrenal cortex secretes many hormones, which are collectively called corticoids-
There are following types of corticoids;-

a. Glucocorticoids:– These are involved in carbohydrate metabolism. The main

glucocorticoids is Cortisal. These stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and
proteolysis. Cortisol maintains cardio-vascular system, kidney functions and
stimulate RBC production. It also produces anti-inflammatory reactions and
suppresses immune response.
b. Mineralocorticoids:– These are involved in regulating the balancy of water and
electrolytes in our body the main mineralocorticoids is aldosterone. It acts at renal
tubule and stimulate reabsorption of Na+ and water and excretion of K + and PO4 3-
ions it also maintains blood pressure, body fluid volume and osmotic pressure.
CHAPTER 7 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION 69

8. Pancreas-
It is a compound or composite gland as it has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The
exocrine function is production
of Alkaline pancreatic juice
containing digestive enzymes
which are transported to
Deodenum by a pancreatic
duct.
The endocrine function is
secretion of hormones. About
1-2% of pancreas has
specialised cells called islets of
Langerhans. There are 1-2
million sets of Langerhans in a
normal adult pancreas. The
Islets contain two types of
cells- α cells and β-cells.
i. α-cells- These secrete
of the hormone glycogon. It is responsible for glycogenolysis in the liver cell. It causes
hyperglycemia i.e. increases in blood sugar level. It is also responsible for gluconeogenesis
and reduces uptake and utilisation of glucose by cells this also causes hyperglycemia.
Glucagon is also called hyperglycemic hormone.
ii. β-cells These Secrete the hormone insulin it is responsible for uptake and utilisation
of glucose by liver cells (hepatocytes) and adipose cells (adipocytes). This cause decrease in
blood sugar level example hyperglycemia. It also helps in conversion of glucose to glycogon
(glycogenesis), thus it cause glucose homeostasis, along with glycogon. If there is
hyperglycemia for a long time, it results in diabetes mellitus it is treated with insulin therapy.
a. Gonads:– It includes ovary and testis
Testis:– Present in males in a pair testis is are found in the scrotum. These are
primary sex organs as they are responsible for spermatogenesis.
• These also act as endocrine gland. These testis have 1-3 seminiferous
tubules in which sperms are produced. The space between seminiferrous
 70 CHAPTER 7 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION

tubules contains stromal cells or interstitial cells or leydig cells. The leydig
cells produce hormones called androgens is testosterone .
• Androgens are responsible for development maturation and The functioning
of other organs Male reproductive system like Vas deferans, seminal
vesicles, etc. These are responsible for male sexual characters like muscular
growth facial hair, low pitch of voice, aggressiveness, sexual behaviour
(libido) at these also have important role in spermatogenesis.
b. OVARY :– Present in females in a PAIR located in the lower abdomen these
are primary sex organs as they are responsible for oogenesis. These also act
as endocrine gland and produce two hormones -
1. Ovary is composed of follicles and stromal tissue. The growing follicle
synthesized the first hormone Estrogen (example ß-estradiol)
2. Estrogen is responsible for development and growth of ovarian follicles,
mammary glands, female sexual characters like high-pitch of voice,
Subtteness and female sexual behaviour.
3. After ovulation, the ruptured follicle is converted into Corpus luteum which
secretes the second hormone Perogesterone it is responsible for support
of pregnancy, maintenance of uterus wall for attachment, nourishment
and development of embryo, formation of alveoli in mammary glands for
secretion and storage of milk.
HARMONES PRODUCED BY OTHER ORGANS:–
1. Heart:– The wall of Atria secrete a hormone called Atrial Naturetic Factor (ANF) which
regulates blood pressure. When blood pressure increases, atreal wall secretes a
enough which diates the blood vessels and thereby reduces blood pressure.
2. Kidney:– The juxtaglomerular Apparatus has JG cells, which secrete a hormone
(JGA) erythro poitin, which is responsible for formation of RBC's (erythropoiesis)
3. Gastrointestinal:– tract different parts of alimentary canal secrete four different
hormones
a. Gastrin:– responsible- for secretion of HCL and pepsinogen by gastric gland
stimulation.
b. Secretin:– responsible for stimulation of exocrine part of pancreas to secrete
water and hco3- ions.
c. Cholecystokinin (CCK):– stimulates pancreas and gallbladder to secrete
pancreatic enzymes and bile juice respectively.
d. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP):– inhibits gastric secretion and movement.
CHAPTER 7 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION 71

MECHANISM OF HARMONE ACTION:

The hormones are carried from the secretive gland to target organs through blood.The target
organs have specific proteins called hormone receptors. There are two types of hormone
Receptor-
a. Membrane-bound receptors:– Present on the cell membrane of target cells.
b. Intracellular receptors:– Present inside the target cell. Most of the intracellular
receptors are nuclear receptors (present in the nucleus).The hormone binds to the
receptor and forms hormone receptor Complex. Each receptor is specific for a
hormone. The hormone receptor Complex leads to biochemical changes in a target
tissue.
There are four types of hormones on the basis of their chemical nature and mode of action
i. Peptide/polypeptide/protein hormones:- e.g. insulin, glycogen, pituitary hormones,
hypothalamic hormones.
ii. Steroids:– e.g. Cortisol testosterone. Progesterone
iii. Iodothyronines:– T3, T4
iv. Amino-acid derivatives:– epinephrine (adrenaline)
 72 CHAPTER 7 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION

Mode of action of protein hormone

That interact with membrane-bound receptors. These do not enter the cell. They generate
second messengers (Cyclic AMP, Ca++, Iono Sitoltriphosphate or IP3).These second
messengers produce biochemical responses and regulate cellular metabolism, leading to
physiological response.
CHAPTER 7 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION 73

Mode of action of steroid hormone/Iodothyronines

These interact with intracellular receptors and form hormone receptor Complex. This Complex interacts
with the genome and producers physiological response, leading to gene expression and chromosome
function.
 74 CHAPTER 7 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION

Abbreviation used:

b/w –– Between

c/a –– called

–ve –– Negative

+ve –– Positive

–vely –– Negatively

+vely –– Positively

etc. –– etcetera

Concn –– Concentration

↑e –– increase

↓e –– decrease
notes
notes