Research Article

Research on Social Work Practice

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The Efficacy of an SFBT-Based Positive © The Author(s) 2024
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Psychology Intervention in Promoting sagepub.com/journals-permissions

DOI: 10.1177/10497315241229667

University Students’ Post-Traumatic Growth

journals.sagepub.com/home/rsw

and Psychological Resilience After the

COVID-19 Pandemic: A Quasi-Experiment

Chun-Ying Wang1, Li Shen2 , John Shields3, Qian-Chuan Huang4,*,

Yu-Jia Wu4, Jue-Wen Yin4, and Jia-Lin Zhao4

Abstract
Purpose: This study examines the efficacy of a positive psychology intervention involving solution-focused brief therapy
(SFBT) techniques in promoting university students’ post-traumatic growth and psychological resilience after the COVID-
19 pandemic. Methods: The research hypotheses were tested via a quasi-experimental design with pre- and post-tests
including three groups: intervention (n = 28), active control (n = 25), and control groups (n = 57). We followed convenience
sampling and recruited Chinese students after the peak of the pandemic. Results: Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed that
there were significant main effects of groups in post-traumatic growth, F(2, 107) = 3.17, p < .05, η2 = .05, and psychological
resilience, F(2, 107) = 4.19, p < .05, η2 = .06. The SFBT-based positive psychology intervention significantly increased both
positive outcomes in the intervention group. Discussion: By applying SFBT techniques in positive psychology interventions,
pandemic experiences can become an opportunity for students’ positive growth.

Keywords
COVID-19, post-traumatic growth, psychological resilience, university students, positive psychology intervention, solution-
focused brief therapy

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, nations worldwide the pandemic experiences. Yet the level of post-traumatic
have implemented various control measures, including lock- growth among young adults is still relatively low and needs
downs, quarantines, social restrictions, and enforced remote to be further developed (Hyun et al., 2021).
work and education (e.g., Hyun et al., 2021; Pierce et al., Current published research on interventions to support uni-
2020). These measures appear to have had a particularly pro- versity students during the pandemic has focused primarily on
found impact on the academic studies and daily lives of uni- those interventions intended to address immediate psycho-
versity students, with acute uncertainty (e.g., low quality of social problems (e.g., Krifa et al., 2022). Yet mental health
information received) and social isolation leading to psycho-
social problems (Wathelet et al., 2021). The prevalence of
anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress symptoms 1
Counseling and Psychological Services of ECNU, East China Normal
was around 30% among university students during the pan- University, Shanghai, China
2
demic (e.g., Li et al., 2021). However, while being a traumatic Department of Sociology, School of Public Affairs, Nanjing University of
experience for many, there is some evidence that the pan- Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
3
The University of Sydney Business School, The University of Sydney,
demic may also have brought about certain positive changes Sydney, Australia
for university students, including post-traumatic growth and 4
College of Philosophy, Law and Political Science, Shanghai Normal
an increase in psychological resilience (Hyun et al., 2021; University
Van der Hallen & Godor, 2022). Factors such as positive *Current address: Department of Social Work, Shanghai Pudong Hospital,
self (Jian et al., 2023), emotional abilities (Tang et al., Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai, China.
2022), stress coping (Harwood-Gross et al., 2023), gratitude
Corresponding Author:
(Collazo-Castineira et al., 2022), and social support (Hyun Li Shen, Department of Sociology, School of Public Affairs, Nanjing
et al., 2021), are found to be positively related to individuals’ University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, Jiangsu, China.
post-traumatic growth and resilience through transforming Email: [email protected]
2 Research on Social Work Practice 0(0)

“is more than the absence of illness” (WHO, 2006, as cited in Psychological resilience refers to a person’s ability to
Auyeung & Mo, 2019, p. 2527), requires consideration of bounce back from stress and adversity (Yu et al., 2011).
longer-term developmental needs, and limited attention has The COVID-19 pandemic presented university students
thus far been paid to interventions designed to promote sus- with a challenging situation in which they faced various
tainable post-traumatic growth and psychological resilience obstacles, including disruptions in their education, feelings
among university students after the pandemic. Positive psy- of isolation, lockdown measures, and even the loss of loved
chology interventions along these lines may have a positive ones (Cohen-Louck, 2022). Moreover, they also experienced
and potentially enduring impact on the self-growth and psy- mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, and high
chological resilience of university students (e.g., Auyeung levels of stress (Pierce et al., 2020). However, adversity can
& Mo, 2019). It is also suggested that techniques based on also cultivate a person’s resilience (Fletcher & Sarkar,
solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) such as compliments, 2013). If university students experience positive personal
miracle questions, and exception questions (Bavelas et al., growth while coping with adversity, they are likely to be
2013; Franklin et al., 2017) can assist individuals’ self- better equipped to face future challenges with confidence.
reflection and personal growth, leading to positive changes There is also evidence that individuals with higher levels of
in their psychological well-being and social functioning psychological resilience experienced more post-traumatic
(Kim et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2018). growth during and after the pandemic (e.g., Hyun et al.,
Informed by these possibilities, we used a 2021). Accordingly, it is important to find ways of improving
quasi-experimental design to examine the efficacy of an students’ resilience through the use of pandemic experiences.
SFBT-based positive psychology intervention to promote
post-traumatic growth and psychological resilience among
Positive Psychology Interventions
university students. The study involved an intervention
group (28 participants), an active control group (25 partici- The objective of positive psychology interventions is to enhance
pants), and a control group (57 participants) from a university positive emotion, cognition, and personal attributes (Schueller
in Shanghai. The intervention group and active control group et al., 2014; Seligman et al., 2005). In a narrow sense, these inter-
included students who took psychological health courses, ventions have focused primarily on positive emotions and well-
while the control group involved students who had not being (Kwok et al., 2016). More broadly, they also encompass
taken such courses. The intervention was conducted in positive personal traits and abilities such as positive self-concept,
April 2023, the semester immediately following the peak of emotion regulation abilities, and interpersonal communication
the COVID-19 pandemic in China (Chinese Center for skills (e.g., Carr et al., 2023; Krifa et al., 2022). All these con-
Disease Control and Prevention, 2023). Our findings, we tents have been found to be related to individuals’ post-traumatic
believe, offer valuable guidance for future positive psychol- growth and resilience during the pandemic (e.g., Hyun et al.,
ogy interventions aimed at supporting university students in 2021; Tang et al., 2022).
the post-pandemic period. Empirically, positive psychology interventions can have
positive effects on the well-being, mental health, and resil-
Post-Traumatic Growth and Psychological Resilience of ience of university students (e.g., Auyeung & Mo, 2019).
Researchers have investigated a number of positive psychol-
University Students During the Pandemic
ogy interventions for university students implemented during
Post-traumatic growth refers to the positive changes that occur in the pandemic to reduce depression and increase positive emo-
an individual after experiencing a traumatic event or a major life tions (e.g., Krifa et al., 2022). However, there is currently a
crisis, which may include an increase in personal strength, lack of research on positive psychology interventions for
improvement of interpersonal relationships, and a positive the post-traumatic growth and psychological resilience of uni-
view of life (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Although the outbreak versity students. Our study has been designed to contribute to
of the COVID-19 pandemic was a traumatic event, it may also remedying this knowledge gap.
have served as an opportunity for individual psycho-social
growth (Cohen-Louck, 2022). Studies have found that university
SFBT
students with certain characteristics experienced post-traumatic
growth during and after the pandemic (Hyun et al., 2021). The SFBT is a strength-based therapeutic approach (Bavelas et al.,
characteristics include positive self-efficacy (Jian et al., 2023), 2013). It concentrates on the current circumstances and future
emotion regulation ability (Tang et al., 2022), active stress hopes of clients and emphasizes their strengths and resources to
coping (Harwood-Gross et al., 2023), gratitude toward others create positive change (De Jong & Berg, 2013). The focus is
(Collazo-Castineira et al., 2022), and perceived social support on clients’ health rather than problems, strengths rather than weak-
(Hyun et al., 2021). Nevertheless, the degree of post-traumatic nesses or deficits, and resources and coping abilities that can help
growth among young adults is still low (Hyun et al., 2021) clients reach future goals (De Jong & Berg, 2013). SFBT involves
and may be able to be enhanced through purposeful psycholog- various techniques such as compliments, miracle questions,
ical interventions. exceptions to the problems, and so on (Bavelas et al., 2013;
Wang et al. 3

Franklin et al., 2017). Miracle questions are “virtual rehearsal” of aspects of post-traumatic growth (Tedeschi & Calhoun,
clients’ preferred future in order to help them articulate goals, 2004), and positively related to post-traumatic growth of indi-
while exceptions relate to prior experiences where a problem viduals during the pandemic (e.g., Collazo-Castineira et al.,
might have arisen but was averted (e.g., due to awareness and 2022; Hyun et al., 2021), we hypothesize that:
solutions) (Bavelas et al., 2013). These techniques can assist
clients in setting positive goals, increasing motivation for Hypothesis 1: SFBT-based positive psychology interven-
change, constructing solutions, and developing a positive self- tion can improve university students’ post-traumatic
image (Kim et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2018). growth after the COVID-19 pandemic.
SFBT is commonly used in psychological counseling and
has positive effects in promoting mental health, positive self- SFBT-based positive psychology intervention may also have
growth, and psychological resilience among university stu- a positive effect on the post-pandemic psychological resil-
dents (e.g., Franklin et al., 2022; Novella et al., 2022). ience of university students. On one hand, positive psychol-
Scholars have also employed SFBT-based group intervention ogy interventions include the cultivation of positive traits
during the COVID-19 pandemic to address the emotional and and skills such as emotion regulation, optimism, and stress
mental health problems of school students (e.g., Li & Liu, coping (e.g., Carr et al., 2023; Krifa et al., 2022). On the
2021). However, there is currently no research on the applica- other hand, by using SFBT techniques such as exception
tion of SFBT techniques in interventions aimed at enhancing and miracle questions (Bavelas et al., 2013), it may be possi-
post-traumatic growth and psychological resilience among ble to guide university students to focus on the successful
university students. experiences of emotional regulation and stress coping previ-
ously, and help them become more optimistic and confident
when dealing with life challenges in the future. Since positive
Research Hypotheses traits and abilities are important sources of psychological
resilience (e.g., Yu et al., 2011), we hypothesize that:
SFBT-based positive psychology intervention may have a
positive impact on the post-traumatic growth of university Hypothesis 2: SFBT-based positive psychology interven-
students. Positive psychology interventions target at the tion can promote university students’ psychological resil-
improvement of self-concept and interpersonal communica- ience after the COVID-19 pandemic.
tion (e.g., Carr et al., 2023; Krifa et al., 2022), which may
help university students perceive the impact of the pandemic
on themselves from more positive perspectives. Additionally, Method
university students can learn the technique of compliment
from SFBT (Bavelas et al., 2013), actively practice their Research Design
skills in being complimentary, and in turn, improve their The research involved a pre- and post-test quasi-experimental
interpersonal relationships. Since positive growth in self- design with an intervention group (28 participants), an active
concept and interpersonal communication are important control group (25 participants), and a control group (57 partici-
pants). The intervention group received a 4-week SFBT-based
positive psychology intervention (one and a half hours a
Table 1. Description of the Demographic Variables Among the
week). At the same time, the active control group took a
Intervention (n = 28), Active Control (n = 25), and Control Groups
(n = 57). regular psychological health course. The regular course included
similar contents such as emotional problems and interpersonal
Intervention Active Control Control relationships, but did not focus on post-traumatic growth and
Group Group Group resilience, nor employ SFBT techniques. Including the active
Age 20.15 (1.59) 19.36 (0.76) 20.23 (1.32) control group may help rule out the possibility of threats to inter-
Gender nal validity such as the Hawthorne effect, participants’ desire to
Male 8 (28.57%) 8 (32.00%) 20 (35.09%) please the therapist, and the placebo effect (Thyer, 2023). There
Female 20 (71.43%) 17 (68.00%) 37 (64.91%) is also evidence that positive psychology interventions have
Major larger effects with inactive rather than active control groups
STEM 11 (39.29%) 9 (36.00%) 27 (47.37%) (Carr et al., 2023). Accordingly, including the active control
disciplines group may increase the robustness of our findings. The control
Humanities 17 (60.71%) 16 (64.00%) 30 (52.63%) group did not undertake any intervention or psychological
and social health course.
sciences All three groups were blinded to the research design (did not
disciplines
know the quasi-experimental design and whether they were in
Note. Age is described by mean and SD. Other variables were described by each of the groups). They only knew that they participated in
frequencies and percentages. a short-term longitudinal study on the change of post-traumatic
4 Research on Social Work Practice 0(0)

growth and resilience after the pandemic. The participants com- responses retained for further analysis. The average age of
pleted the research measurement via an online survey system the control group participants was 20.23 years old (SD =
(wjx.cn) with a participant information statement one day 1.32), with the group including 20 males and 37 females.
before and after the intervention. The survey data were totally
anonymized and the last four numbers of the participants’
Measurement
mobile number were used to match the responses across the
two data captures. The entire intervention was conducted in Post-Traumatic Growth. We used a Chinese version of the
April 2023 after the end of the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic post-traumatic growth inventory (Tedeschi & Calhoun,
in China, which lasted from December 2022 until February 2023 1996) by Wang (2011). This scale consists of 21 questions
(Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2023). The based on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all)
study obtained approval from the ethics committee of the first to 5 (very much). We adapted the instruction from Hyun
author’s university (HR064-2021, March 29, 2023), and all et al. (2021) to conduct the scale by asking participants to
the participants provided written consent. rate the degree of changes that have occurred as a result of
the COVID-19 pandemic. Sample statements regarding post-
trauma changes included “My priorities about what is impor-
Sampling and Participants
tant in life” and “An appreciation for the value of my own
Table 1 provides a description of the demographic variables life.” The scale has been validated with Chinese university
among the intervention, active control, and control groups. The students, demonstrating good reliability and validity (Chi et
participant flow chart is shown in Figure 1. We applied conve- al., 2020). Cronbach’s α of the scale was .92 in the pre-test
nience sampling because the first author of this study was teach- and .95 in the post-test.
ing a psychological health course at the time. We did not
calculate the intended sample size based on the power test and Psychological Resilience. We used the Connor–Davidson
simply followed a rough size of 25–30 for each treatment Resilience Scale Short Version (Chen et al., 2021) to
(Gravetter & Forzano, 2011). The participants were Chinese measure psychological resilience. This scale consists of 10
undergraduates from a project 985 university (a national key uni- questions based on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0
versity) in Shanghai. The students took the course as a require- (never) to 4 (always). The scale has good reliability and valid-
ment of their degrees. Participation in the study was totally ity among Chinese university students (Chi et al., 2020). In
anonymous and voluntary. The intervention group consisted of this study, the Cronbach’s α of the scale was .91 in the
28 students who were recruited from the course given by the pre-test and .92 in the post-test.
first author of this study (response rate 93.33%), who is a psycho-
logical therapist from the school counseling center. A link to the
SFBT-Based Positive Psychology Intervention
online survey was distributed by the first author to the students in
the WeChat group of the course. Their average age was 20.15 Following previous literature on people’s post-traumatic
years old (SD = 1.59), with eight males and 20 females. growth during the pandemic (e.g., Jian et al., 2023; Tang
Among them, 11 students were from science, technology, engi- et al., 2022), we selected four positive psychology interven-
neering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines and 17 students tion components: self-concept, interpersonal communication,
were from humanities and social sciences disciplines. emotion regulation, and stress coping. We also integrated the
The active control group consisted of 25 students who experiences of the pandemic into the interventions.
were recruited from another psychological health course, Furthermore, we applied SFBT techniques in the intervention
given by another psychological therapist from the school to guide participants in positive self-reflection and solution
counseling center. The response rate was 83.33%. The same construction. The intervention was implemented by the first
link to the online survey was distributed by the lecturer to author of the article, who was a registered school psycholog-
the students. Their average age was 19.36 years (SD = ical counselor with 90 h training of SFBT. The intervention
0.76), with the group comprising eight males and 17 was also supervised by the corresponding author, who was
females. Among this group, nine students were from STEM a registered social worker with 200 h training of in SFBT,
disciplines and 16 were from humanities and social sciences and translated the book Interviewing for Solutions by De
disciplines. Jong and Berg (2013) into Chinese. The intervention materi-
To ensure comparability between the intervention and the als can be found in the Supplementary Materials. The pro-
control group, we recruited students from similar STEM dis- cesses are as follows:
ciplines (27 participants) and humanities and social sciences
disciplines (30 participants) via the counselors of the targeting Week 1. The intervention theme for this week was positive
majors to formulate the control group. The same link to the self-concept. The therapist started with an introduction to
online survey was distributed by the counselors to the stu- the course and the techniques associated with SFBT. Next,
dents. The control group had 62 completed responses in the the students were divided into groups (6–8 individuals
pre-test and 57 responses in the post-test, with 57 matched each) to perform the “Twenty Me” activity. They had 10
Wang et al. 5

Figure 1. Participant flow chart based on the quasi-experimental design.

min to write down 20 descriptions of themselves, and then Week 4. The intervention theme for the week was active
analyze their strengths, particularly those having positive stress coping. The therapist first helped students relax
effects during the pandemic, and the qualities they need to through a breathing meditation exercise and then guided
further develop when facing adversities in the future. them to reflect on their sources of stress and frustration.
Next, the students were divided into groups to play the
“Nail Game” (i.e., placing 12 nails on one vertical nail
Week 2. The intervention theme for this week focused on without external force). The goal of the activity was to
positive interpersonal communication. The therapist taught let the students accomplish something that seemed impos-
the students the compliment techniques used in SFBT, and sible, and further change their thoughts about the associ-
let them practice these techniques in small groups. Next, the ated stress and difficulties. Finally, the therapist used the
students were divided into groups for an activity called miracle question (“If a miracle happened tonight and all
“Strength Bombing.” In this activity, they took turns praising your problems suddenly disappeared, what would be dif-
their group members using phrases like “I appreciate you…,” ferent for you?”) to help students envision a positive
“I like you…,” and “I think you….” Furthermore, each group future.
discussed the critical role of interpersonal relationships during
the pandemic. They also shared heartwarming stories of
mutual assistance during the time. Analytical Strategies
There were no missing data among the intervention, the
active control, and the control groups. First, we conducted
Week 3. The intervention theme for this week was positive descriptive statistics on the pre- and post-test data
emotion regulation. The therapist began with a positive of the three groups, including means and SDs of the
opening, discussing the role of emotions and introducing scales. We also calculated Pearson’s correlations of post-
the positive views of emotions in SFBT. Students were traumatic growth and psychological resilience to examine
divided into groups to discuss what they did to help them- their distinctiveness. Next, we performed a 3 × 2
selves when feeling depressed during the pandemic, in repeated-measures ANOVA to test the main effects of
order to find positive exceptions. Then they performed an group, time, and their interaction. We also conducted
activity called “Different Attitudes in Problem Solving” to post hoc testing using one-way ANOVA and paired-
learn about the solution-focused questioning and thinking sample t-test to further explore our research hypotheses.
techniques that encourage people to use a solution-focused SPSS 18.0 was used to do the statistics. The effect sizes
orientation when dealing with emotional distress. and confidence intervals of ANOVA were calculated by
6 Research on Social Work Practice 0(0)

Stata 18. Those of the paired-sample t-test were calculated resilience. In contrast, both the active control group and the
by JASP (jasp-stats.org). control group showed little change, such as that in psycholog-
ical resilience among the control group.

Results
Descriptive Statistics Hypotheses Testing
We first calculated the correlations of the pre- and post-tests of Hypothesis 1 stated that SFBT-based positive psychology
post-traumatic growth and psychological resilience among all intervention can improve university students’ post-traumatic
the participants (n = 110) to examine the distinctiveness of growth. The results of the 3 × 2 repeated-measures ANOVA
the self-rated measures. The Pearson’s correlation coefficients indicated that there was a significant main effect of group on
are shown in Table 2. In accordance with previous literature post-traumatic growth with a small effect size, F(2, 107) =
(e.g., Hyun et al., 2021), post-traumatic growth and psycholog- 3.17, p < .05, η2 = .05, 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.00,
ical resilience were moderately correlated in pre- and post-tests 0.11]. Accordingly, there were mean differences in post-
(e.g., r = .50 for pre-tests of both variables). But there were traumatic growth among the intervention, active control, and
higher correlations between the same variables (i.e., r = .68 control groups. But the main effect of time was not significant,
for pre- and post-tests of post-traumatic growth, and r = .73 F(1, 107) = 2.04, p = .16, η2 = .00, 95% CI [0.00, 0.03], sug-
for pre- and post-tests of psychological resilience), suggesting gesting that the overall mean difference of the pre- and post-
the distinctiveness of the two variables. data (three groups as a whole) were not significant, which
Table 3 presents the means and SDs of the pre- and post- may be possibly due to the insignificant results of the two
tests of post-traumatic growth and psychological resilience control groups. Neither was the interaction between group
among the intervention, active control, and control groups. and time significant, F(2, 107) = 1.53, p = .22, η2 = .00, 95%
The degree of post-traumatic growth among the students CI [0.00, 0.03]. Post hoc test based on one-way ANOVA
was small to moderate, a little higher than that during the pan- showed that before the intervention, there was no significant
demic (Van der Hallen & Godor, 2022). Their psychological difference in post-traumatic growth among the three groups,
resilience was lower than that in previous studies of university F(2, 109) = 1.29, p = .28, η2 = .02, 95% CI [0.00, 0.09], but
students (Chi et al., 2020). The intervention group showed after the intervention, there were significant differences with
increases in both post-traumatic growth and psychological a median effect size, F(2, 109) = 4.54, p < .05, η2 = .08, 95%
CI [0.00, 0.18]. Based on Tukey’s Honestly Significant
Difference (HSD) test, post-traumatic growth in the interven-
Table 2. Pearson’s Correlations of the Pre- and Post-Tests
tion group (M = 72.71, SD = 12.20) was significantly higher
Post-Traumatic Growth and Psychological Resilience (n = 110).
than that in the active control group (M = 62.40, SD = 18.24,
1 2 3 p < .05) and the control group (M = 63.30, SD = 14.19, p <
.05) after the intervention. Furthermore, based on the paired-
1. Post-traumatic growth (pre-test) —
sample t-test, only the intervention group had a significant
2. Post-traumatic growth (post-test) .68** —
3. Psychological resilience (pre-test) .50** .36** —
increase in post-traumatic growth with a medium effect size
4. Psychological resilience (post-test) .38** .51** .73** (t = −3.38, p < .01, Cohen’s d = 0.64, 95% CI [0.23, 1.04]),
while the other two groups did not show significant differences.
**p < .01. Overall, the SFBT-based positive psychology intervention had

Table 3. The Means and SDs of the Pre- and Post-Tests Post-Traumatic Growth and Psychological Resilience among the Intervention (n = 28), Active
Control (n = 25), and Control Groups (n = 57)

Pre-test Post-test
Variable Group M SD M SD t
Post-traumatic growth Intervention group 67.86 14.27 72.71 12.20 -3.38**
Active control group 62.76 15.52 62.40 18.24 0.13
Control group 62.58 14.85 63.30 14.19 -0.43
F 1.29 4.54*
Psychological resilience Intervention group 25.64 6.75 27.89 5.02 -2.62*
Active control group 26.92 6.46 26.56 6.96 0.53
Control group 23.47 6.59 23.49 6.31 -0.03
F 2.66 5.45**

Note. *p < 0.05. **p < 0.01.

Wang et al. 7

a significant effect on enhancing post-traumatic growth in the growth in the future. The students can also learn compliment
intervention group, while there was no significant change techniques to gain a sense of gratitude toward others and facil-
among students who only took a regular psychological health itate their interpersonal relationships, which can become crit-
course or who did not take the course at all. Therefore, ical resources for coping with future adversities (e.g.,
Hypothesis 1 was supported. Collazo-Castineira et al., 2022; Hyun et al., 2021).
Hypothesis 2 states that SFBT-based positive psychology SFBT-based positive psychology intervention can also
intervention can improve university students’ psychological enhance the psychological resilience of university students
resilience after the pandemic. The results of the 3 × 2 repeated after the pandemic. First, positive psychology interventions
measure ANOVA showed that the main effect of the group was involve the cultivation of positive traits and abilities such as opti-
significant with a median effect size, F(2, 107) = 4.19, p < .05, mism, positive emotion regulation, and stress coping, which are
η2 = .06, 95% CI [0.01, 0.13]. Accordingly, there were mean critical psychological resources for dealing with adversities (Yu
differences in psychological resilience among the intervention, et al., 2011). Second, techniques based on SFBT, such as excep-
active control, and control groups. The main effect of time was tion questions and miracle questions (Bavelas et al., 2013), can
not significant, F(1, 107) = 1.69, p = .20, η2 = .00, 95% CI help develop a positive thinking style among university students,
[0.00, 0.03], suggesting that the overall pre- and post-data on enhance their problem-solving skills, and eventually improve
psychological resilience did not have significant mean differ- their psychological resilience.
ence, which may be possibly due to the insignificant results In addition, we also find that compared to the regular psy-
of the control groups. Neither was the interaction of group chological health course, SFBT-based positive psychology
and time significant, F(2, 107) = 2.55, p = .08, η2 = .01, 95% intervention is more effective in promoting university stu-
CI [0.00, 0.04]. Post hoc testing revealed that there was no sig- dents’ post-traumatic growth and psychological resilience.
nificant difference in psychological resilience among the three This may be because the regular course only focused on
groups before the intervention, F(2, 109) = 2.67, p = .07, η2 = solving psychological problems, and neglected the positive
.05, 95% CI [0.00, 0.13], but there were significant differences growth that can be achieved via facing challenges, which is
after the intervention with a median effect size, F(2, 109) = an important perspective in positive psychology (Seligman
5.45, p < .01, η2 = .09, 95% CI [0.01, 0.20]. Based on et al., 2005). Furthermore, SFBT-based interventions involved
Tukey’s HSD test, it was found that the intervention group more therapist–student interactions as a means of change
(M = 27.89, SD = 5.02) had significantly higher psychological (Bavelas et al., 2013). Compared to traditional teaching-based
resilience than the control group (M = 23.49, SD = 6.31) after lectures, the interactions may enhance students’ degrees of
the intervention (p < .01), but there was no significant differ- engagement, and facilitate their positive thinking and changes.
ence between the intervention group and the active control This study makes three contributions to knowledge in the
group (M = 26.56, SD = 6.96, p = .71). Furthermore, based field. First, we provide new evidence of intervention for
on the paired-sample t-test, only the intervention group improving university students’ post-traumatic growth and
showed a significant increase in psychological resilience with psychological resilience. Previous research has focused pri-
a medium effect size (t = −2.62, p < .05, Cohen’s d = 0.49, marily on interventions for psycho-social problems among
95% CI [0.10, 0.88]), while the other two groups did not university students (e.g., Krifa et al., 2022). Conversely, pos-
show significant changes. Overall, the SFBT-based positive itive psychology interventions focus on people’s positive
psychology intervention had a significant effect on improving emotions, traits, and abilities, which are also critical compo-
the psychological resilience in the intervention group, while nents of people’s health and well-being (Carr et al., 2023;
students who only took regular psychological health courses Seligman et al., 2005). Second, although there have been
or did not take the course at all did not show significant numerous interventions of positive psychology and SFBT
changes. Accordingly, Hypothesis 2 was supported. (e.g., Auyeung & Mo, 2019; Li & Liu, 2021), we find their
effects on post-traumatic growth among university students
by integrating the pandemic experiences. Finally, we also
Discussion and Applications to Practice found that SFBT-based positive psychology interventions
The results indicate that SFBT-based positive psychology can help enhance university students’ psychological resil-
intervention had a positive effect on the post-traumatic ience after the pandemic.
growth of university students after the pandemic. Positive Regarding practical implications, first, school or youth
psychology intervention included positive self-concept and social workers should focus not only on the psycho-social
communication in interpersonal relationships, which are problems of university students due to the pandemic but
important components of post-traumatic growth (Tedeschi also pay attention to students’ post-traumatic growth and
& Calhoun, 2004), and positively related to people’s post- the development of their psychological resilience. The pan-
traumatic growth during the pandemic (Hyun et al., 2021; demic, as a trauma event, afforded an opportunity for students
Jian et al., 2023). Compliment techniques in SFBT (Bavelas to grow positively. Second, social workers can facilitate stu-
et al., 2013) can guide university students to engage in posi- dents’ positive growth through positive psychology interven-
tive thinking about themselves and lead to positive personal tions. According to our findings, the components of the
8 Research on Social Work Practice 0(0)

intervention may include positive self-concept, interpersonal Declaration of Conflicting Interests

relationships, emotion regulation, and stress coping. Third, The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
social workers can incorporate SFBT techniques in positive to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
psychology interventions, such as compliments, exception
questions, and miracle questions (Bavelas et al., 2013). By
Funding
engaging in developmental dialogues with students, social
workers can guide them to reflect positively on their experi- The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for
ences during the pandemic, discover their strengths, and the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study
establish a positive vision of future. was supported by the National Philosophy and Social Sciences
The study is not without limitations. First, the study is based Research Fund of China: The Experiences and Coping Strategies
on a quasi-experimental design, which has relatively lower of Vicarious Trauma for Social Workers in China [No. 20BSH160].
internal validity compared to a randomized controlled trial.
We also applied a convenience sampling, and did not include ORCID iD
students who were not capable of returning to the university Li Shen https://orcid.org/0009-0004-2377-5391
due to their psycho-social problems after the pandemic,
which may affect the generalizability of the findings. Second, Supplemental Material
we did not conduct a follow-up survey after the intervention.
The long-term effects of the intervention on university stu- Supplemental material for this article is available online.
dents’ post-traumatic growth and resilience need to be further
investigated. Thirdly, positive psychology intervention and References
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