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Science
Quarter 3 – Module 4: DNA
and RNA Structure,
Protein Synthesis and Mutation
Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is prepared so that you, our

dear learners, can continue your studies and learn while at home.
Activities, questions, directions, exercises, and discussions are carefully
stated for you to understand each lesson.

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you step-by- step as you discover and understand the lesson prepared for
you.

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completing the module or if you need to ask your facilitator or your
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of each module, you need to answer the post-test to self-check your
learning. Answer keys are provided for each activity and test. We trust
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are also provided to our facilitators and parents for strategies and
reminders on how they can best help you on your home-based learning.

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on any part of this SLM. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the
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If you have any questions in using this SLM or any difficulty in

answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult your
teacher or facilitator.

Thank you.
 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here
to help you master the role of DNA and RNA in the processes of protein
synthesis and mutation. The scope of this module permits it to be used
in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the
diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow
the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read
them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now
using.

The module is divided into three lessons, namely:

Lesson 1 – Structure and Function of DNA and
RNA Lesson 2 – Processes of Protein Synthesis
Lesson 3 - Mutation

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. compare and contrast DNA and RNA in terms of structure,
function, and location;
2. determine the complementary base pair of a given DNA strand;
3. name the different kinds of amino acids;
4. explain how protein is made using information from DNA (S10LT-IIId- 37);
5. identify the different genetic disorders; and
6. explain how mutations may cause changes in structure and
function of a protein (S10LT-IIIe-38).

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Lesson
Structure and Function of DNA
1 and RNA
Nucleic Acids are important macromolecules in the cell because
of their role in the transmission, storage, and expression of genetic
information. The two major types of nucleic acids are Deoxyribonucleic Acid
(DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA). They both differ in terms of the
composition, role, and location in the cell.

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 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is a double-stranded helix molecule.
The double helix consists of two complementary chains twisted together
around a common axis while Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is a single-stranded
molecule that is responsible for converting the information stored in
DNA to proteins. DNA and RNA differ in their chemistry and role in the
cell.

Adenin Thymin Adenin Uraci

Guanin Cytosin Guanin Cytosin

Nitrogenous Bases of DNA Nitrogenous Bases of RNA

DNA RNA

Figure 1: Structure of Nitrogenous bases

Study the table below to understand the differences between DNA and RNA.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid DNA Ribonucleic Acid RNA

 Deoxyribose – five-  Ribose – five-carbon sugar

carbon sugar  Phosphate group
 Phosphate group  Nitrogenous base pair
 Nitrogenous base pair o Purine bases
o Purine bases - Guanine (G)
Compositio - Guanine (G) - Adenine (A)
n - Adenine (A) o Pyrimidine bases
o Pyrimidine bases - Cytosine (C)
- Cytosine (C) - Uracil (U)
- Thymine (T)

Convert information
Function Stores genetic
stored in the DNA to
information form protein
DNA is found in the RNA is found in the
nucleus while a small cytoplasm.
Location in the amount of DNA is also
cell present in the
Mitochondria

Adenine (A) – Thymine (T) Adenine (A) – Uracil (U)

Base
Cytosine (C) – Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) – Guanine (G)
pairing

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 Figure 2: Chemical Structure of DNA

DNA and RNA are strings of nucleotides that are composed of a phosphate
group, deoxyribose sugar for DNA while ribose sugar for RNA and a nitrogenous base.
There are two kinds of nitrogen-containing bases – the Purines and Pyrimidines.
Purines (Adenine and Guanine) are both present in DNA and RNA and have a
two-ring structure. On the other hand, pyrimidines in DNA are Cytosine and
Thymine, in RNA are Cytosine and Uracil, and have only one ring. Nitrogen
bases are held together by hydrogen bonds.
The function of DNA is primarily for the storage of genetic
information while RNA converts information stored in the DNA to form
protein. The types of RNA involved in protein synthesis are the messenger
RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Messenger
RNA carries information from the DNA in the nucleus to the site of protein
synthesis while the Transfer RNA supplies the amino acids to the ribosome to
form proteins, and Ribosomal RNA binds tRNA and various molecules necessary
for protein synthesis.
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 Lesson

2 Protein Synthesis

Protein is the most important molecule in the cell. Enzymes,

antibodies, and some hormones are examples of proteins that play an
important role in living organisms. The production of proteins is called
protein synthesis which consists of two processes – transcription and
translation.
Now, let us discover how proteins are formed.

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 What is It

Proteins are large complex molecules that are essential for normal
functioning in the cell. Proteins are made up of smaller amino acids, which
are building blocks of proteins. Hundreds of amino acids are linked
together by peptide bonds forming a long chain of proteins. There are 20
amino acids that are classified based on their polarities and charge.
Each amino acid is also coded by DNA in a trinucleotide sequence or in
groups of three bases which is referred to as codon. Refer to the Genetic
Code Table below.

Genetic Code Table

SECOND LETTER
A U C G
AAA Lysine AUA Isoleucine ACA GAA Arginine A
AAU Asparagine AUU Isoleucine ACU GAU U
AAC AUC ACC Serine
A Asparagine Isoleucine Threonine GAC C
AAG Lysine AUG Start ACG GAG Arginine G
codon;
Methionin
e
UAA Stop codon UUA Leucine UCA UGA Stop codon A
UAU Tyrosine UUU Phenylalanine UCU UGU U

THIRD LETTER
U Serine Cysteine
FIRST LETTER

UAC Tyrosine UUC Phenylalanine UCC UGC C

UAG Stop codon UUG Leucine UCG UGG Tryptophan G
CAA Glutamine CUA CCA CGA A
CAU Histidine CUU CCU CGU U
C CAC Histidine CUC Leucine CCC Proline CGC Arginine C
CAG Glutamine CUG CCG CGG G
GAA Glutami GUA GCA GGA A
c acid
GAU Asparti GUU GCU GGU U
c acid
G GAC Aspartic GUC Valine GCC Alanine GGC Glycine C
acid
GAG Glutami GUG GCG GGG G
c acid

The process of making proteins is known as protein synthesis

which involves transcription and translation. These two processes are
summed up by the central dogma of molecular biology. The central dogma
is the process by which the instructions in DNA are converted into a
functional product.

DNA RNA Protein

Figure 3: Central Dogma

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 Steps in Protein Synthesis

1. Transcription
This process involves the transfer of genetic information in
DNA to mRNA which happens inside the nucleus. This takes place
in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination.
a. Initiation is the beginning of transcription whereas the enzyme
RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the promoter.
After this, the DNA unwinds so that the enzyme can read the
bases of the DNA strand.
b. Elongation refers to the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA.
c. Termination is the ending of transcription and the mRNA detaches
to the DNA.

Figure 4: Transcription stage

Processing of mRNA

After the termination stage, the new mRNA is not yet ready for
translation, it must undergo more processes before it leaves the
nucleus. These processes are the following:
 Splicing refers to the removal of introns in the mRNA. Introns are the
noncoding regions while the coding regions are called exons.
 Editing is the modification or change of some of the nucleotides in mRNA.
 Polyadenylation adds a tail to the mRNA. The tail consists of a string of
adenine bases. It signals the end of mRNA. It is also involved in
exporting mRNA from the nucleus, and it protects mRNA from
enzymes that might break it down.

2. Translation
It is the process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read to
make a protein. After mRNA leaves the nucleus, it moves to a
ribosome, which consists of rRNA and proteins. The ribosome reads
the sequence of codons in mRNA, and molecules of tRNA bring
amino acids to the ribosome in the correct sequence.
In order to start the translation process, the following molecules
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are required: mRNA template, ribosomes, tRNA, and various enzymatic factors.

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 Figure 5:

Amino
Acid

Figure 6: tRNA (Transfer RNA)

Just like the transcription, this process takes place in three steps:
initiation, elongation, and termination.
a. Initiation happens when transitional complex forms and tRNA brings
the first amino acid (Methionine) in polypeptide chain to bind to
start codon on mRNA.
b. Elongationoccurs when tRNAs bring amino acids one by one to
add to the polypeptide chain.
c. Termination happens when a stop codon in the mRNA (UAA, UAG, or UGA)
enters the A

In the initiationstage, the

tRNA carrying amino
acid methionine with
anticodon AUG binds to
the start codon on mRNA.
This event occurs on the
P-site of the ribosomes.

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 Another tRNA recognizes the
next codon and carries the
second amino acid then
moves to the A- site.The
methionine on the P- site is
then joined to the amino acid
on the A-site by a peptide

Next, the tRNA that

carried the methionine is
released at the E-site. A
tRNA carrying the third
amino acid moves to the
A-site where the
anticodon on tRNA
matches the codon on

The ribosome shifts down by a

distance of one codon. As the
shift occurs, the two amino acids
on the tRNA on the P-site are
transferred to the new amino
acid and the second tRNA is
released from the E-site.
Polypeptide chain elongation is
terminated when a stop codon

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 Mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA. Mutations may
affect only one gene, or they may affect whole chromosomes.

When the code in a gene is changed, a different message may

result. Any change in the sequence of nitrogenous bases in the DNA, any
mistake in the transcription of genetic information from DNA to RNA, or
pairing of the codon and anticodon, may cause changes in the kind,
sequence, and the number of amino acids of proteins synthesized by
cells. Changes in the protein structure or level of expression may lead to
changes in cellular properties and behavior, as a result, the organism is
affected.

Most mutations are harmful. Some mutations in a body cell are

known to cause cancer, while mutations in sex cells can cause birth
defects. A severe mutation may lead to cell death and may not affect the
body. Sometimes mutations may be useful for the species. For example,
a mutation in blood proteins prevents viruses or parasites to thrive in
host organisms.

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4
 Read the two sentences below (each word contains three letters
just like CODON, the sequence of three nucleotides that combine to form
a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule).

THE DOG BIT THE CAT THE DOG BIT THE CAR

What happens when a single letter in the first sentence is

changed? Did you see that changing a single letter also changes the
meaning of the sentence? A change in the nitrogenous base in a protein
may yield a different amino acid and a corresponding change in the
protein structure and function, that alter the set of codon will cause
mutation or alteration which in effect might cause changes in the
appearance of an organism.

What will happen if a single base is deleted from a DNA strand?

You learned that an mRNA corresponds to a DNA sequence translated by
ribosomes into proteins. If the new sequence with a deleted base was
transcribed, then every codon after the deleted base would be different.
Deletion or insertion of a base may change the reading frame of the
codon leading to a frameshift mutation. Read again the two sentences
below.

THE DOG BIT THE CAT.

THE DOB ITT HEC AT.

What was deleted? Would the result be the same if there would be
an addition of a single base?

Mutations in chromosomes may occur in a variety of ways. Sometimes parts of

chromosomes are broken off and lost during mitosis or meios

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 What is It

Mutations can occur in two different types of cells: reproductive

cells and body/somatic cells. Only mutations in sex cells pass on to
offspring. Mutations affect the reproductive cells of an organism by
changing the sequence of nucleotides within a gene in a sperm or an egg
cell. If these cells are fertilized, then the mutated gene becomes a part
of the genetic makeup of the organism. If the mutation is severe, the
resulting protein may be nonfunctional, and the embryo may not
develop. There are two types of mutations that can occur in gamete
cells:

• Gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence

that makes up a gene.
• Chromosomal mutation occurs at the chromosome level resulting in
gene deletion, duplication, or rearrangement that may occur during the
cell cycle and meiosis. It may be caused by parts of chromosomes
breaking off or rejoining incorrectly.
Any change or mistake in the sequence of DNA, a mutation arises.
Mutations can lead to gene malfunction by changes in sequences that
are protein-coding or important for information processing. These
changes in the genes can occur for a variety of reasons. Mutation may
be induced by factors called mutagens.Mutagens are common in the
form of toxic chemicals and harmful radiation. Sometimes, mistakes
occur in DNA replication, mitosis, and meiosis. All of these can alter the
DNA sequence and length.
Many diseases are caused by the effects of inherited genes. In
most cases, there is only a small difference between DNA sequences in
the defective gene and a normal one. This difference is enough to cause
serious and often fatal diseases. These disease-causing genes are the
result of a mutation. They may be passed from one generation to the
next if present in gametes.
Figure 1 shows changes in the sequences of bases in normal
hemoglobin and the ones affected by the mutation. A recessive gene
causes sickle-cell anemia, where most of the red blood cells stiffen and
become sickle shape in affected people. These diseased cells carry less
oxygen than normal cells. People affected by the disease
eventually die.

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 Figure 1. Hemoglobin Gene
Mutation Source: education-
portal.com

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 Abnormalities in chromosomal structure may occur during
meiosis. The normal process of crossing-over and recombination may be
affected, such that chromosomes break and reunite the wrong
segments. If there is a loss or gain of chromosomal material, there can
be significant clinical consequences.
Changes that affect the structure of chromosomes can cause
problems with the growth, development, and function of the body’s
systems. These changes can affect many genes along the chromosome
and disrupt the proteins made from these genes. Structural changes can
occur during the formation of the egg or sperm cells in fetal
development, or any cell after birth. Pieces of DNA can be rearranged
within one chromosome or transferred between two or more
chromosomes.
The effects of structural changes depend on their size and
location, and whether any genetic material is gained or lost. Some
changes cause medical problems, while others may not affect a person’s
health. The gain or loss of chromosome material can lead to a variety of
genetic disorders. Below are examples of humans with a genetic
disorder.

a) “Cri du chat” is caused by the

deletion of part of the short arm
of chromosome
5. “Cri du chat” is French, and the
condition is so named because
affected babies make high-pitched
cries that sound like a cat.
Affected individuals have wide-set
eyes, a small head and jaw, are
Source: moderate to severely mentally
player.mashpedia.com retarded, and very short.
Figure 2. Cri du chat

b) Down’ssyndrome is usually caused

by an extra copy of
chromosome
21(trisomy 21). Characteristics
include decreased muscle tone,
stockier build, asymmetrical
skull, slanting eyes, and mild to
moderate mental retardation.
Source: www.healthtap.com
Figure 3. Down’s Syndrome

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 c) Edwards’ syndrome is the second
most common trisomy after
Down’s syndrome. It is a trisomy of
chromosome
18. Symptoms include mental and
motor retardation and numerous
congenital anomalies causing
serious health problems. About
99% die in infancy. However,
those who live past their first
birthday, usually are quite healthy
thereafter. They have a
characteristic hand appearance
Source: healthtap.com with clenched hands and
Figure 4. Edwards’
Syndrome
overlapping fingers.

d) Klinefelter’s syndrome (XXY) is

described when men are usually
sterile and tend to have longer
arms and legs and to be taller
than their peers. They are often
shy and quiet and have a higher
incidence of speech delay.

Source:
http://chengmoh.blogspot.
com/2012/08/genetic-
diseases.html
Figure 5. Klinefelter’s Syndrome
e) Turner’ssyndrome (X instead of XX
or XY) is described when female
sexual characteristics are present
but underdeveloped. They often
have a short stature, low hairline,
abnormal eye features, and bone
development, and a “caved-in”
appearance to the chest

Source:
http://chengmoh.blogspot.
com/2012/08/genetic-
diseases.html Figure 6. Turner’s
Syndrome
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Sources:http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutationsanddisorders/structuralchangeshttp://
www.usd.edu
/med/som/genetics/curriculum/1ECHROM3.htm

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Human Karyotyping

Occasionally, chromosomal material is lost or rearranged during the

formation of gametes or cell division of the early embryo. Such
changes, primarily the result of nondisjunction or translocation, are so
severe that the pregnancy ends in miscarriage, meaning loss of an
embryo or fetus before the 20th week of pregnancy or fertilization does
not occur at all. It is estimated that one in 156 live births has some kind
of chromosomal abnormality.

Some of the abnormalities

associated with chromosome
structure and number can be
detected by a test called a karyotype.
A karyotype is an image of the full
set of chromosomes of an individual
that displays the normal number,
size, and shape. Karyotypes may
reveal the gender of a fetus or test
for certain defects through
examination of cells from uterine
fluid, a procedure called
amniocentesis, or through a sampling
of placental membranes as shown in
Figure 7.
.

Figure 7 Amniocentesis

To produce a karyotype, chromosomes commonly derived from

actively dividing white blood cells are stainedand
photographed. The homologous pairs
of chromosomes are identified and
arranged in order, by size, except for
the sex chromosomes which appear
last as shown in Figure 8. These
tests are typically done on a blood
sample, although any body cell could
be used. The cell must be
undergoing mitosis, preferably in
metaphase, so that the chromosomes
are replicated, condensed, and
visible under a microscope.
Source: www.austincc.edu
Figure 8. Karyotype of Human Male and Female
Genetic Engineering

Understanding the gene has led to the remarkable development of

methods for changing a cell’s DNA. Modern biotechnology called genetic
engineering produces transgenic or genetically modified (GM) crops or
organisms. Scientists have developed methods to move genes from one
species into another. When DNA from two different species are joined
together, it is called recombinant DNA.
This process uses restriction enzymes to cleave one organism’s
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DNA into fragments and other enzymes to splice the DNA fragment into
a plasmid or viral DNA. Transgenic organisms are able to manufacture
genetic products foreign to them using recombinant DNA. Genetic
engineering has already been applied to bacteria, plants, and animals.
These organisms are engineered to be of use to humans. Figure 9 shows
the method for producing recombinant DNA.
tration of the Steps in
Genetic Engineering

Today, molecular biologists are

finding applications for recombinant
DNA technology: from medical
applications, including gene therapy and
vaccines; DNA fingerprinting used to
identify persons responsible for crimes
and provide evidence for the identity of
S
o
dead persons; to the creation of
u genetically modified crops that are
r resistant to pesticides, or that make
c
e extra vitamins and minerals; to bacteria
that can clean oil spills. While the
w
w
applications of recombinant DNA
w technology are numerous, its limitations
. are its potential effects on our
r
e ecosystem.
s
e Now that you have learned that
a protein is made using the information
r
c
from DNA and how mutations may cause
h changes in the structure and function of
g a protein, it would be worth finding out
a
t how a deeper understanding of
e molecular genetics may affect your life.
.
n What do you think are the significant
e contributions of this knowledge to
t human society? You may share your
F
i
thoughts and ideas virtually with your
g classmates.
u
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e

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Copy of the Learner