Physics Investigatory project

NAME :
REGISTER NUMBER :
GRADE : XII
SUBJECT & CODE : PHYSICS & 042

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 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Register No:
Subject : Physics (042)
This is to certify that the project was done by
for Physics in the year 2024-2025
Submitted for AISSC Examination on

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Principal

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to
everyone who helped make this investigatory project
possible. First and foremost, I would like to thank my Physics
teacher for guiding me throughout the entire process and
providing valuable feedback and support.
I would also like to thank my classmates who
helped with data collection and analysis, as well as my parents
for providing the necessary materials and encouragement.
Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the scientists and
researchers whose work served as inspiration and provided
the foundation for my project.
I would also like to thank my school, for
supporting my project and giving me the opportunity to
learn and grow.

Name :
Class :
Date :

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 Contents

S.N INDEX PAGE

O

1 Introduction 5

2 History 7

3 Experimental study of the 8

photoelectric effect

4 Uses and effects 10

5 Einstein's photoelectric equation 13

6 Laws of Photoelectric Emission 14

7 Applications of the photoelectric effect 15

8 Conclusion 20

9 Bibliography 21

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 1. INTRODUCTION
The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which
electrons are ejected from the surface of a metal when
light is incident on it. These ejected electrons are called
photoelectrons. It is important to note that the emission
of photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectrons is dependent on the frequency of the light
that is incident on the metal’s surface.
The process through which photoelectrons are ejected
from the surface of the metal due to the action of light is
commonly referred to as photoemission.
In a broader definition, the radiant energy may be
infrared, visible, or ultraviolet light, X-rays, or gamma
rays; the material may be a solid, liquid, or gas; and
the released particles may be ions (electrically charged
atoms or molecules) as well as electrons.
The phenomenon was fundamentally significant in the
development of modern physics because of the
puzzling questions it raised about the nature
of light —particle versus wavelike behaviour that was
finally resolved by Albert Einstein in 1905. The effect
remains important for research in areas from materials
science to astrophysics, as well as forming the basis for
a variety of useful devices.
Photoelectric effect is one of three possible interactions
of γ radiation with the electron shell. Out of these three
interactions has photon usually the lowest energy.
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It is a physical phenomenon, where electrons are ejected
from matter (usually metal) due to absorption of
electromagnetic radiation. Electrons emitted in this
manner are then called photo electrons. Their emission
is called photoelectric emission (photoemission).
The photoelectric effect occurs because the electrons at
the surface of the metal tend to absorb energy from the
incident light and use it to overcome the attractive forces
that bind them to the metallic nuclei. An illustration
detailing the emission of photoelectrons as a result of the
photoelectric effect is provided below;

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 2. HISTORY OF THE
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The photoelectric effect was discovered in 1887 by the

German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.
In connection with work on radio waves, Hertz observed
that, when ultraviolet light shines on two metal
electrodes with a voltage applied across them, the light
changes the voltage at which sparking takes place. This
relation between light and electricity (hence
photoelectric) was clarified in 1902 by another German
physicist, Philipp Lenard. He demonstrated that
electrically charged particles are liberated from a metal
surface when it is illuminated and that these particles
are identical to electrons, which had been discovered by
the British physicist Joseph John Thomson in 1897.
Further research showed that the photoelectric effect
represents an interaction between light and matter that
cannot be explained by classical physics, which describes
light as an electromagnetic wave. One inexplicable
observation was that the maximum kinetic energy of the
released electrons did not vary with the intensity of the light,
as expected according to the wave theory, but was
proportional instead to the frequency of the light. What the
light intensity did determine was the number of electrons
released from the metal (measured as an electric current).
Another puzzling observation was that there was virtually no
time lag between the arrival of radiation and the emission of
electrons.

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In 1922 the American physicist Arthur Compton
measured the change in wavelength of X-rays after
they interacted

with free electrons, and he showed that the change could

be calculated by treating X-rays as made of photons.

Fig: History of Photoelectric

Compton received the 1927 Nobel Prize for Physics for

this work. In 1931 the British mathematician Ralph
Howard Fowler extended the understanding of
photoelectric emission by establishing the relationship
between photoelectric current and temperature in
metals. Further efforts showed that electromagnetic
radiation could also emit electrons in insulators, which
do not conduct electricity, and in semiconductors, a
variety of insulators that conduct electricity only under
certain circumstances.
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 3. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

✓ The given experiment is used to study the

photoelectric effect experimentally. In an evacuated
glass tube, two zinc plates, C and D, are enclosed.
Plates C acts as an anode, and D acts as a

photosensitive plate.
✓ Two plates are connected to battery B and ammeter
A. If the radiation is incident on plate D through a
quartz window, W electrons are ejected out of the
plate, and current flows in the circuit. This is known
as photo current. Plate C can be maintained at
desired potential (+ve or – ve) with respect to plate
D.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

• The threshold frequency varies with the material, it

is different for different materials.

• The photoelectric current is directly proportional to

the light intensity.
• The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly
proportional to the light frequency.
• The stopping potential is directly proportional to the
frequency, and the process is instantaneous.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE PHOTOELECTRIC

EFFECT

With the help of this apparatus, we will now study the

dependence of the photoelectric effect on the following
factors:
The intensity of incident radiation.
A potential difference between the metal plate and
collector.
Frequency of incident radiation.

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 4. USES AND EFFECTS

Photomultipliers

These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a

coated photocathode inside the envelope.

The photocathode contains combinations of materials

such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially
selected to provide a low work function, so when
illuminated even by very low levels of light, the
photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a
series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials,
these electrons are accelerated and substantially
increased in number through secondary emission to
provide a readily detectable output current.
Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low
levels of light must be detected.

Image sensors

Video camera tubes in the

early days of television used
the photoelectric effect,
for example, Philo Farnsworth's
"Image Dissector" used a screen
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charged by
The photoelectric effect to transform an
optical image into electronic signal.

Spacecraft
The photoelectric effect will cause spacecraft exposed to
sunlight to develop a positive charge. This can be a
major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft are in
shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a
negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance
can discharge through delicate electrical components.
The static charge created by the photoelectric effect is
self-limiting because a higher-charged object doesn't
give up its electrons as easily as a lower-charged object
does.

Electron Affinity
Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal or
semiconductor material such as gallium arsenide in an
image intensifier tube cause the ejection of
photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are
accelerated by an
electrostatic field where they strike a phosphor-coated
screen, converting the electrons back into photons.
Intensification of the signal is achieved either through
the acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the
number of electrons through secondary emissions, such
as with a micro- channel plate.
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Sometimes a combination of both methods is used.
Additional kinetic energy is required to move an
electron out of the conduction band and into the
vacuum level.

This is known as the electron affinity of the

photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission
other than the forbidden band, explained by the band
gap model.

Some materials such as gallium arsenide have an

effective electron affinity that is below the level of the
conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move
to the conduction band all have sufficient energy to be
emitted from the material, so the film that absorbs
photons can be quite thick.

These materials are known as negative electron affinity

materials.

Electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal when

its exposed to light. This is called photoelectric effect.
Each metal has a certain threshold frequency of light
when an electron is emitted. Above this frequency, the
electron is emitted and the extra energy is transferred to
the electron.

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 5. EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC
EQUATION
According to Einstein’s theory of the photoelectric
effect, when a photon collides inelastically with
electrons, the photon is absorbed completely or partially
by the electrons. So, if an electron in a metal absorbs a
photon of energy, it uses the energy in the following
ways.
Some energy Φ0 is used in making the surface electron
free from the metal. It is known as the work function of
the material. Rest energy will appear as kinetic energy
(K) of the emitted photoelectrons.
Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation Explains the
Following Concepts:
• The frequency of the incident light is directly
proportional to the kinetic energy of the electrons,
and the wavelengths of incident light are inversely
proportional to the kinetic energy of the electrons.
• If γ = γth or λ =λth then vmax = 0
• γ < γth or λ > λth: There will be no emission of
photoelectrons.
• The intensity of the radiation or incident light refers
to the number of photons in the light beam. The
intensity of the radiation is increased, and the rate
of emission increases, but there will be no change
in the kinetic energy of electrons.
With an increasing number of emitted electrons,
the value of the photoelectric current increases.

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 6. LAWS OF THE
PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION
On the basis of the experimental results on the
photoelectric effect, Lenard and Millikan gave the
following laws of photoelectric emission:

➢ For a given photosensitive material and

frequency of the incident radiation, (Above
the threshold frequency), the photoelectric
current is directly proportional to the intensity
of light. The saturation current is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation.
➢ For a given photosensitive material, there
exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency
below which no photoelectrons are emitted,
howsoever high is the intensity of incident
radiation. This frequency is called threshold
frequency.
➢ Above the threshold frequency, the
stopping potential or equivalently the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
is directly proportional to the frequency of the
incident radiation but is independent of its
intensity.
➢ Photoelectric emission is an
instantaneous process. The time lag between
the incidence of light radiation and the
emission of photoelectrons is very small, even
less than 10^-10 s.

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 7. APPLICATIONS OF THE
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Automatic Doors
Many elevators and garage door systems use
a beam of light and a photoelectric device known as a
photocell as a safety feature. As long as the beam of
light strikes the photocell, the photoelectric effect
generates enough ejected electrons to produce a
detectable electric current. (Walker, 988) When the
light beam is blocked (by a person) the electric current
is interrupted and the doors are signaled to open.

Solar Energy Panels

Photocells are also the basic unit in solar energy panels that
convert some of the energy in sunlight into electrical
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energy. These panels can operate billboards and safety lights
in remote areas far from power lines
Large solar panels (240 ft.) will power the International
Space Station.
Night Vision Device
The Photoelectric effect has
numerous applications, for example, night vision
devices take advantage of the effect.
Photons entering the device strike a plate which causes
electrons to be emitted, these pass through a disk
consisting of millions of channels, and the current
through these is amplified and directed towards a
fluorescent screen which glows when electrons hit it. In
these devices,

an optical image incident on a semitransparent

photocathode is used to transform the light image into
an “electron image.”

Photocell
The design of a photocell makes use of photo-
emission from a metal surface for measuring the
intensity of light. The photoelectrons emitted from the
cathode of the photocell are drawn to the collector by an
electric field.

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 For example, a person approaching a doorway
may interrupt a light beam that is incident upon a
photocell. The abrupt change in photocurrent may be
used to start a motor that opens the door or rings an
alarm. Light meters in cameras work on this principle.

Complexion meter
By measuring the intensity of reflected
light by a photocell, one can compare the skin
complexion of different persons. White skin will reflect
more light than dark skin and thus a larger current in the
meter.

Illumination meter
Since the current produced in the photocell is
proportional to the intensity of light falling on it, it is
used in the camera as an exposome to adjust the
aperture according to the intensity of light. In general, it
can be used to compare illuminating power of two
sources.

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Burglar Alarm
The alarm consists of a photoelectric cell connected to a
closed electrical circuit and an infrared source of light. The
light from the infrared source is continuously incident on
the photoelectric cell, maintaining
a constant current in the circuit.
The device is kept concealed
near the place to be protected.

If a burglar intercepts the

invisible infrared rays, the
photoelectric current stops.

This automatically operates a relay, which sends an electric

current to another circuit connected to a bell. The bell starts
ringing and the alarm is raised.

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Ray Photo electron Spectroscopy (XPS)

This technique uses X-rays to irradiate a surface and

measure the kinetic energies of the emitted electrons.
Important aspects of the chemistry of a surface can be
obtained, such as elemental composition, chemical
composition, the empirical formula of compounds, and
chemical state.
✓ Used to generate electricity in solar panels. These
panels contain metal combinations that allow
electricity generation from a wide range of
wavelengths.
✓ Motion and Position Sensors: In this case, a
photoelectric material is placed in front of a UV or
IR LED. When an object is placed in between the
Light-emitting diode (LED) and sensor, light is cut
off, and the electronic circuit registers a change in
potential difference.
✓ Lighting sensors, such as the ones used in
smartphones, enable automatic adjustment of
screen brightness according to the lighting. This is
because the amount of current generated via the
photoelectric effect is dependent on the intensity of
light hitting the sensor.

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 8. CONCLUSION

As we appreciated the simplicity and elegance of

Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect, we
came to know about the particle behavior of light. He
introduced revolutionary ideas which were contrary
to the scientific opinion of the time. The photon
hypothesis disturbed the scientific community much
more than the seventeenth century Newton -
Huygens heated debate on the corpuscular and the
wave nature of light. But the new theory gave a better
description of the physical nature than the
comfortable old classical ideas.
Hence, the world came to know about the dual nature
of light. That is a monochromatic beam of light of
frequency, hence possessing wave attributes,
manifests in some experiments as though it is a
stream of quanta called photons.

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 10. BIBLIOGRAPHIES

➢ Class 12 NCERT textbook part – II

➢ www.byjus.com
➢ www.toppr.com
➢ www.vedantu.com

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