Mana Barnootaa Haayiliigi

ሃይሊግ ትምህርት ቤት
Heilig School
0221124055 1045 Adama, Ethiopia E-mail: [email protected]

Grade__12_ Subject: Physics

Unit - 7
Electromagnetic induction and a.c circuits
7.1. Phenomena of electromagnetic induction
Magnetic flux ( )
Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic field lines that pass through given area and is given by

If B and A are parallel, the flux is max and is equal to

When a loop is moved parallel to a uniform magnetic field, there is no change in the number of field lines passing
through the loop and no induced current.

Its unit is Weber (Wb).  Consequently, B is named as magnetic flux density and
its unit is .
The magnetic field strength B is given by  It is also named as magnetic induction vector.

 The magnetic flux is maximum when the magnetic field line is perpendicular to the area or parallel to the normal ( ).
 The magnetic flux is minimum or zero when the magnetic field line is parallel to the area or perpendicular to the normal
( ).

Example:
1. A solenoid of 10cm diameter and 10cm long has 50 turns and carries a current of 8A. Calculate the flux
through the solenoid.
Solution

( )

( )
( )

1
 Induced electromotive force
If a magnetic field moves (changes) near a wire, the electron in the wire will feel a force which will tend to
make the conduction electrons move through the wire. This movement of conduction electrons is called
induced emf.
If the wire is part of a complete circuit, then the electrons will move, producing a current.
The magnitude of the induced emf depends on:
1. The strength of magnetic field ( stronger magnetic field means larger emf)
2. The speed at which you move the wire through the magnetic field (greater speed means greater emf)
3. If you coil the wire so that more wire is influenced by the magnetic field, you will induce a greater emf.

Flux linkage
The magnetic flux linkage is a measure of the flux in the whole solenoid.
The magnetic flux linkage is the sum of the magnetic flux through each turn of the coil.
It is the product of the magnetic flux and the number of turns in the coil.

where is the angle between the area of the flux and the magnetic field.
The magnetic flux linkage is also measured in Weber (Wb) as the number of turns is a dimensionless quantity.
Example
1. A wire is coiled into 25 circular coils with a radius of 3cm. it is then passes through a magnetic field of strength
10mT at an angle of 750. What is the flux linkage?
Solution

( ) ( )
( )( )
( )

Exercise
1. A student takes a wire and coils it into 50 circular coils with a radius of 3cm. He then passes it through a
magnetic field of strength 60mT at an angle of 600. What is the flux linkage?

2
 Law of electromagnetic induction
 Electromagnetic induction is when a current is induced due to a change in the magnetic flux
linkage.
 The current is generally induced in a wire by either moving the wire through a non-uniform magnetic
field or varying the magnetic field strength in time.
 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction state that:
The magnitude of an induced emf ( ) is proportional to the rate of change of flux.
Mathematically, we can write this as:

k is the constant of proportionality

 According to Faraday’s law the emf induced is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.
There are two common ways of inducing an emf:
1. Changing area over time
Consider this conducting rod, moving along a track made of 2 metal rails. The area of the loop is increasing;
therefore, the flux linkage is increasing. As it is rectangular, the area is increasing by .

This can be substituted into the equation for Faraday’s law and the emf can be calculated.

2. Changing flux density over time

Faraday’s law can be applied to calculate the emf to both examples.

An example of Faraday’s law

3
 Lenz’s law

Lenz’s law state that any induced current in a coil will result in a magnetic flux that is opposite to the
original changing flux.
The current that is induced in a coil (due to a magnetic flux change through the coil) will always be such that it
opposes the change that caused it.
This is the origin of the negative sign in Faradays Law.

For a coil with N turns this can be written as:

The negative sign indicates that the effect of is always to oppose the ΔΦ that produce it.
| |

The direction of an induced emf can be found

by using right hand rule as show in the
diagram.

Example
1. A 50 turns rectangular coil has dimensions . If a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the plane
of the coil changes from , calculate the magnitude of the average emf induced in the
coil.
Solution
| |

( )
| |

2. A coil has an area of and has 450 turns. Calculate the induced emf in the coil when the flux density
through the coil changes at a rate of .

| |
( )( )
| |

4
 Mutual inductance
Mutual induction is the effect in which a changing current in one circuit induces an emf in another.

 The current-carrying primary coil is an electromagnet and creates a magnetic field in the surrounding region.
 If the two coils are close to each other, a significant fraction of this magnetic field penetrates the secondary coil
and produces a magnetic flux.
 The flux is changing since the current in the primary coil and its associated magnetic fields are changing.
 Because of the change in flux, an emf is induced in the secondary coil.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the average emf induced in the secondary coil is
proportional to the change in flux through it, which in turn is proportional to the magnetic field produced by the
changing current in the primary coil.

From Faraday’s law we know that

( ) ( )

where M is proportionality constant called mutual inductance.

 The unit of mutual inductance is and called Henry.

A transformer is a device functioned with the principle of mutual induction.

Example
1. Two coils, held in a fixed position have mutual inductance of . What is the peak voltage of in one
when the sinusoidal current is given by ( ) ( ) flows in the other?

( ( ))
( ). At t = 0, is maximum.
( ) ( )

5
 Self-inductance
 An emf can be induced in a current-carrying coil by a change in the magnetic field that the current itself
produces.
 The alternating current creates an alternating magnetic field that, in turn, creates a changing flux through the
coil. The change in flux induces an emf in the coil, in accord with Faraday’s law.
 The effect in which a changing current in a circuit induces an emf in the same circuit is referred to as self-
induction.

 The alternating current in the coil generates an alternating magnetic field that induces an emf in the coil.
 If is the magnetic flux that passes through one turn of the coil, then is the net flux through a coil of N
turns. Since is proportional to the magnetic field, and the magnetic field is proportional to the current I, it
follows that . By inserting a constant L, called the self-inductance, or simply the inductance, of the
coil, we can convert this proportionality into Equation:

Faraday’s law of induction now gives the average induced emf as

( ) ( )

| | | |
Example:
1. Find the induced voltage in an inductor of 60H when the current is changing at the rate of 0.5A/s.
Solution

2. An emf of 10V is induced in a coil when the current in it changes at the rate of 32A/s. Calculate the
inductance of the coil.
| | | |

( )

6
 The inductance of a solenoid
 Consider a coil of N turns and length l in a circuit as shown below.

 For a fixed area A, and a changing current I,

Faraday’s law becomes
 The emf produced by self-induction is given:

( )

 The magnetic field of a solenoid is given by:

( )
( )

Example:
1. A long solenoid of length and cross-sectional area contains 6500
turns per meter of length. Determine the emf induced in the solenoid when the current in the
solenoid changes from 0 to 1.5 A during the time interval from 0 to 0.20 s.
Solution

( )( ) ( )

( ) ( )( )( )

( )

7
 The energy stored in an inductor
 An inductor, like a capacitor, can store energy.
 This stored energy arises because a generator does work to establish a current in an inductor.
 Suppose an inductor is connected to a generator whose terminal voltage can be varied continuously from
zero to some final value.

 As the voltage is increased, the current I in the circuit rises continuously from zero to its final value.
 When electric current flow through the inductor there is an induced voltage given by:

 When the current is flowing through the inductor, there is energy stored in the magnetic field which gives
the symbol .
 It is potential energy PE stored by a magnetic field B.
 The instantaneous power that must be supplied to the inductor to initiate the current in the conductor is
given by:

( )
 We can find the energy stored when there is a final current I at time t by integrating the expression for power like
this.

∫ ∫ ( ) ∫

( )

where I represents the final current in the inductor.

Example
1. Find the energy stored in the inductor of inductance when a current of 2A flows through it.
Solution

( )( )

8
 Magnetic energy density
 Magnetic energy density is defined as:

 Consider an inductor of length l and area of cross section A as shown below.

 The energy per unit volume, or energy density is

( )
 The term is the volume inside the solenoid
where the magnetic field exists.
Example

1. Find the energy density for an inductor with an air core with a magnetic field of 0.5T. The permeability
of free space is .
Solution

( )
( )
Eddy current
 Eddy current is an electric current induced by an alternating magnetic field.

7.2 Direct current (d.c) and alternating current (a.c)

Direct current (d.c)
 Direct current has a constant value. It is the type of current that is obtained from cells.
 If you were to look at direct current on an oscilloscope screen it would take the form of a straight horizontal
line.
Alternating current (a.c)
 Alternative current is constantly varying. It the type of current that is transmitted from power stations to
consumers.
 If you were to look at alternating current on an oscilloscope screen it would take the form of a sinusoidal
waveform.

9
 Electric generators
An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical.
It consists of a loop of wire rotated by some external means in a magnetic field as shown below.

As the coil rotates the magnetic flux linking its coil is changed and results in a potential difference between
its terminals.
If we assume the loop has N turns the flux ( )
( )
linkage is given as

( ( ))
According to Faraday’s law the emf induced
is given by: [ ( )]
( )

For a small change of time

Example
1. An AC generator consists of 8 turns of wire, each of area A=0.09m2, and the total resistance of the wire is
12 Ω. The loop rotates in a 0.50T magnetic field at a constant frequency of 60Hz. Find the maximum
induced emf.
Solution

( )( )( )( )( )
2
2. The coil in an electric generator has 50 turns and an area of 2m . It is described that the maximum emf of
the coil be 120V when it rotates at the rate of 60 cycles per second. Find the strength of the magnetic field
required for this generator.
Solution

( )( )( )( )

10
 Transformers
A transformer is a static device (machine), which converts electrical energy from one ac voltage level to
another.
Transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another, usually with a change
of voltage.
It is used to step-up or step-down the voltage.
Figure below shows the construction of a simple transformer.

The primary coil of turns of wire is wound around an iron core. The secondary coil of turns is wound on the
opposite side of the core. (Many different configurations are possible, with different shapes of core and with the coils
wound separately, or one on top of the other.)
The p.d across the primary coil causes an alternating current to flow. This produces an alternating magnetic
field in the soft iron core.
The secondary coil is thus in a changing magnetic field, and an alternating current is induced in it. There is thus an
alternating emf across the secondary coil.
 The emf induced the secondary coil is proportional to the primary voltage andon the ratio of turns
of the secondary coil to turns on the primary coil .

 Based on the number of turns of coil, we can classify transformer into two. These are:
A. Step-down transformer
 If the number of turns in the primary coil is greater than the number of turns in thesecondary coil
the transformer is called step down transformer.

 The output voltage of the transformer is less than the input voltage of the transformeris called step
down transformer.

B. Step- up transformer
 If the number of turns in the primary coil is less than the number of turns in thesecondary coil
the transformer is called step down transformer.
11
  The output voltage of the transformer is greater than the input voltage of thetransformer is
called step down transformer.

 A step-up transformer is a type of transformer that converts the low voltage (LV) and high current
from the primary side of the transformer to the high voltage (HV) and low current value on the
secondary side of the transformer. The reverse of this is known as a step-down transformer.
The ideal transformer equation

Example

1. A radio requires a 6.0 V supply but has to be operated from a 240 V mains supply. It is fitted with a transformer to reduce the mains
voltage. Calculate the turn’s ratio for this transformer. If the primary coil has 5000 turns, how many turns must the secondary have?

Solution

Exercise

1. A step-up transformer has a turns ratio of 10: 1. When an alternating p.d. of 20 V is connected across the primary coil, a current of 50
mA flows in it.
A. Calculate the values of the p.d. across the secondary coil and the current flowing in it, assuming no power is lost in the
transformer.
B. In practice the secondary p.d. is found to be 180 V and the secondary current is 4.5 mA.
C. What percentage of the power is wasted in the transformer?
2. Table below shows information about three transformers. Copy and complete the table. (Assume no power is lost in the
transformers.)

12
 Root mean square (rms) value in a.c circuits
In an a.c circuit, both the voltage and current are varying continuously, their average value are zero.
The most useful type of average or mean is the root mean square (rms).
Root mean square (rms) is the value for current or voltage that would be equivalent to the effective stead value.
In an a.c source the current and the voltage at any time are given by
( )
( )
where and are peak (maximum) value of current and voltage respectively.
 Now, if we consider < >, the average (mean) value of
, we find that its value is half the peak value (because
the graph is symmetrical):

 The current I vary sinusoidally, and during half of

each cycle it is negative. √
 However, is always positive (because the square of a
negative number is positive).
 Notice that varies up and down, and that it has twice
the frequency of the current.
 In the same manner, the root mean square value of the voltage is

 The half cycle average current is given by

Where the constant is the average value of or .

Example
1. The voltage output of an AC source is given by the expression ( ) . Find the rms current in the circuit
when this source is connected to a resistor.
Solution

√
( )
√

Exercise
2. A given circuit operates with an rms voltage of 220V. What is the maximum or peak voltage in this
circuit?
13
 Resistivity circuits and alternating current
Consider a resistor in an a.c circuit.
The voltage and current versus time diagram, which
is the phasor diagram show that the voltage and the
current are in phase.
When the voltage reaches its maximum value at the
same moment the current also reaches its maximum
value.
When the voltage decreases, the current also
decreases

Capacitive circuits and alternating current

 Consider a capacitor in an a.c circuit.
 The generator supplies an rms voltage given by

is called capacitive reactance

 Capacitive reactance is the opposition of the capacitor to flow the current through it.
 It is found experimentally to be inversely proportional to both frequency and the capacitance.

Example
1. Find the capacitive reactance of a capacitor in a 60 Hz circuit.

( )( ) ( )( )( )

14
 Inductive circuits and alternating current
 Consider an inductor in an a.c circuit.

 The generator supplies an rms voltage given by

is called inductive reactance.

 Inductive reactance is the resistance of the inductor to the flow of current through it.
 Inductive reactance is found experimentally to be directly proportional to the frequency and inductance.

Example
1. A 21mH inductor is connected to an a.c generator with an rms voltage of 24V and frequency of 60 Hz.
What is the rms current in the inductor?
Solution

( )( )

Resistor and inductor in an a.c circuit

 Consider a circuit containing an inductor and a resistor in an a.c circuit.

 In this case the total opposition to the flow of current is the combination of the resistance from the resistor
and the reactance from inductor. This opposition is called impedance.

15
 Impedance (Z) is the total opposition to the flow of the current in an a.c circuit when there is a
resistor, capacitor or inductor combination

 The total impedance in the resistor and inductor

circuit in the form of complex number is given
by

The magnitude is given by:

√
The phase difference is
( )
We can draw a phasor diagram for the circuit shown below

For the value of impedance we can apply Ohm’s law as:

Resistor and capacitor in an a.c circuit

 Consider the circuit shown below. The phase angle is given by
( )

The impedance Z is given by:

√

√ ( )

16
 Inductor and capacitor in an a.c circuit
 Consider circuit shown below

Since and are in opposite directions the

impedance of this circuit is given by:
√

Combining resistor, capacitor and inductor

 Consider the RLC circuit shown below. √ ( )
For RLC circuit

√ ( )
√ ( )
 The phase angle between the current and the
voltage across an RLC circuit is angle which is
 Since and point in opposite direction they
given by:
give a resultant of Since which is
perpendicular to and may be combine with it
to give the total voltage .
( )

( )

, ,

17
 Average power in a.c circuit
 On the average only resistance consume power.

( )

If no resistance is present ,
 Real power: It is power transferred when the load is purely resistive.
 Apparent power: It is the vector sum of real and reactive power.
 Ideal power: It is a power where apparent power and true power are equal.

18