Second Edition

2023

NEBOSH
International General Certificate
in Occupational Health and Safety
Unit IG2 - Risk Assessment
Second Edition 2023
by POSHE
No 29, 1st Floor, 1st Cross, Venkata Nagar,
Puducherry 605011

Notice

No responsibility is assumed by POSHE for any injury and/or damage to

individual or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise.
Or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in this material.

First Edition 2020

If there are any errors or omissions, POSHE would welcome you to notify us,
hence the corrections may be rectified in future editions of this course book.
 Element 5
Physical and Psychological Health

Learning Objectives
1. Describe the health effects associated with
exposure to noise and appropriate control
measures.

2. Describe the health effects associated with

exposure to vibration and appropriate control
measures.

3. Describe the health effects associated with

ionising and non-ionising radiation and
appropriate control measures.

4. Describe the causes of work-related mental ill-

health and how the condition can be
managed.

5. Describe the risk factors and appropriate

controls for violence at work.

6. Describe the effects of substance abuse on

health and safety at work and control
measures to reduce such risks.
 Contents

Noise
Introduction to Noise 5-1
Effects of Exposure to Noise 5-1
Noise Terminology 5-3
Assessment of Noise Exposure 5-4
Basic Noise Control Measures 5-7
Hearing Protection 5-9
5-11
Role of Health Surveillance

Vibration

Vibration Meaning 5-12

Effects of Exposure to Vibration 5-12
Assessment of Vibration Exposure 5-13
Vibration Exposure Standards 5-13
Basic Vibration Control Measures 5-14
Role of Health Surveillance 5-15

Radiation
Introduction to Radiation 5-16
Types of Radiation 5-16
Non-Ionising Radiation and Health Effects 5-16
Ionising Radiation and Health Effects 5-17
Radiation Protection Strategies 5-22
5-22
Role of Monitoring and Health Surveillance

Mental Ill-Health

The Prevalence of Mental Ill Health Within the Workplace 5-23

Common Types of Mental Ill Health 5-23
Work Related Mental Ill Health 5-25
Control Measures 5-26

Violence at Work

Violence Meaning & Types 5-28

Risk Factors 5-28
Control Measures 5-29
 Contents

Substance Abuse at Work

Types of Substances 5-31

Risks to Health and Safety from Substance Abuse at Work 5-31
Control Measures to Reduce Risks from Substance Abuse at Work 5-32
5.1 Noise

Introduction
Noise is referred as unpleasant or unwanted sound; sound becomes unwanted when it
interferes with our normal such as conversation or sleep.

Noise at work can cause hearing damage that is permanent and disabling. This can be hearing
loss that is gradual because of exposure to noise over time, but also damage caused by sudden,
extremely loud noises.

Exposure to Noise is measured in units of sound pressure levels called decibels, using an A-
weighted sound levels (dBA).

However, hearing loss happens not only at the workplace, even listening to loud music, live
concerts may cause hearing damage to both young and elderly people.

High level of noise refers to exposure to continuous noise (Time Weighted Average – over 8
hours/day) of more than 80 db(A) without precautions being taken.

The higher the noise level can result in more hearing damage, requires a high level of controls in
place.

Occupations at Risk
• Manufacturing – loud machinery, compressed air, etc.
• Construction / mining - the use of powered tools produced noise over 85db. e.g. Jack
hammers
• Entertainment / nightlife – DJs, bartender expose to high level of noise above 100db.
• Military – gun fires and explosion.

Physical Effects of Hearing Exposure to Noise

• Exposure to a high level of noise can lead to NIHL (Noise induced hearing loss).
• Loud sounds can cause the hair cells of the inner ear to collapse and flatten temporarily,
resulting in deafness, the hearing loss may be temporary or permanent, the temporary
hearing could cause tinnitus.
• Exposure to noise repeatedly over years can cause irreversible hearing damage.
• Inability to hear hazards moving vehicles, emergency alarms and sirens.
• Noise causes difficulty in listening to a conversation or instructions.

Psychological Effects of Noise

• Stress – caused by unpleasant/background noise.
• Human error – lower productivity caused by difficulty in concentrating because of
unpleasant/background noise.
• Hypertension – there are evidence that noise causes hypertension.

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Noise-induced hearing loss is one of the most prevalent recognised occupational diseases. While
hearing loss is most obviously a problem in industries such as manufacturing, construction,
agriculture., and in entertainment sector.

How Do We Hear?

We hear sound because of vibrations (sound waves) that reach our ears. We recognize those
vibrations as speech, music, or other sounds.

Outer Ear
The outer ear—the part of the ear you see—funnels sound waves into the ear canal. The sound
waves travel through the ear canal to reach the eardrum.

Middle Ear
The eardrum vibrates from the incoming sound waves and sends these vibrations to three tiny
bones in the middle ear. These bones amplify, or increase, the sound vibrations and send them
to the inner ear.

Inner Ear
The inner ear contains a snail-shaped structure filled with fluid called the cochlea. Sound
vibrations create waves in the cochlear fluids. As the waves peak, they cause tiny hair cells (types
of receptors that can detect sound) to bend, which converts the vibrations into electrical signals.

Auditory Nerve
The auditory nerve carries the electrical signals from the inner ear to the brain, which interprets
the signals as sound that you recognize and understand.

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Loud noise is particularly harmful to the inner ear (cochlea). A one-time exposure to extreme
loud sound or listening to loud sounds for a long time can cause hearing loss. Loud noise can
damage cells and membranes in the cochlea. Listening to loud noise for a long time can
overwork hair cells in the ear, which can cause these cells to die. The hearing loss progresses as
long as the exposure continues. Harmful effects might continue even after noise exposure has
stopped. Damage to the inner ear or auditory neural system is generally permanent.

Terminology
Sound Pressure – the atmospheric pressure of sound waves moving through air. The unit of the
sound pressure is Pascal (Pa)

Intensity – the measure of intensity, which relates to how much energy the pressure wave has.
Loudness of sound is measured in decibels(dB).

Frequency - Pitch relates to the frequency, or how many times a second the particles vibrate.
The distance between one wave and the next gives the wavelength. For sounds all travelling at
the same speed, high-frequency (high-pitched) sounds have waves very close together. A normal
human ear is able to hear sounds with frequencies from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

A Weighting - The most common weighting that is used in noise measurement is A-Weighting.
Like the human ear, this effectively cuts off the lower and higher frequencies that the average
person cannot hear. It is expressed in dBA or dB(A)

C weighting - The response of the human ear varies with the sound level. At higher levels, 100
dB and above, the ear's response is flatter, as shown in the C-Weighted Response to the right.

Although the A-Weighted response is used for most applications, C-Weighting is also available on
many sound levels meters. C Weighting is usually used for Peak measurements and in some
entertainment noise measurement, where the transmission of bass noise can be a problem. It is
expressed in dBC or dB(C).

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Assessment of Noise Exposure
The control of Noise at work Regulations 2005 requires the employer to carry out a suitable and
sufficient assessment of risk from noise to the health and safety of those employees, the
assessment should identify the measures to be taken to control noise at work.

In conducting the risk assessment, the employer shall assess the levels of noise to which workers
are exposed by means of—

(a)observation of specific working practices.

(b)reference to relevant information on the probable levels of noise corresponding to any

equipment used particular in the working conditions.

(c)if necessary, measurement of the level of noise to which his employees are likely to be
exposed.

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The noise level exposed by the employee may vary throughout the day because the employee
may be working with different machineries or in different locations at different times. While
assessing these factors should be considered.

The risk assessment should include consideration of

• level, type, and duration of exposure, including any exposure to peak sound pressure
• effects of exposure to noise on employees or groups of employees whose health is at
particular risk from such exposure.
• indirect effects on the health and safety of employees resulting from the interaction between
noise and audible warning signals.
• any information provided by the manufacturers of work equipment.
• availability of alternative equipment designed to reduce the emission of noise.
• any extension of exposure to noise at the workplace beyond normal working hours, including
exposure in rest facilities supervised by the employer.
• appropriate information obtained following health surveillance, including, where possible,
published information.
• availability of personal hearing protectors with adequate attenuation characteristics

Measuring Instrument

There are two different instruments to measure noise exposures:

• the sound level meter

• the dosimeter.

Sound Level Meter

A sound level meter is a device that measures the intensity of sound at a given moment. Since
sound level meters provide a measure of sound intensity at only one point in time, it is generally
necessary to take a number of measurements at different times during the day to estimate noise
exposure over a workday. If noise levels fluctuate, the amount of time noise remains at each of
the various measured levels must be determined.

To estimate employee noise exposures with a sound level

meter it is also generally necessary to take several
measurements at different locations within the workplace.
After appropriate sound level meter readings are
obtained, people sometimes draw "maps" of the sound
levels within different areas of the workplace. By using a
sound level "map" and information on employee locations
throughout the day, estimates of individual exposure
levels can be developed. This measurement method is
generally referred to as "area" noise monitoring.

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Dosimeter

A dosimeter is like a sound level meter except that it stores

sound level measurements and integrates these
measurements over time, providing an average noise
exposure reading for a given period of time, such as an 8-
hour workday. With a dosimeter, a microphone is attached to
the employee's clothing and the exposure measurement is
simply read at the end of the desired time period.

A reader may be used to read-out the dosimeter's

measurements. Since the dosimeter is worn by the employee,
it measures noise levels in those locations in which the
employee travels. A sound level meter can also be positioned
within the immediate vicinity of the exposed worker to obtain an individual exposure estimate.
Such procedures are generally referred to as "personal" noise monitoring.

Manufacturer's instructions, contained in dosimeter and sound level meter operating manuals,
should be followed for calibration and maintenance. To ensure accurate results, it is considered
good professional practice to calibrate instruments before and after each use.

Noise Exposure Standards

The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 recognise Noise exposure standards have been
set on the basis of damage done to the ear is dependent on the energy absorbed by the inner
ear. This is determined by the following factors

• Noise level (measured in dB(A))

• Duration of exposure (TWA)

When making measurements to estimate the noise exposure of a person at work, there is a need
to ascertain the equivalent continuous A-weighted sound pressure level (LAeq) that represents
the noise the person is exposed to during the working day. There is also a need to ascertain the
maximum C-weighted peak sound pressure level or levels to which the person is exposed. The
LAeq is combined with the duration of exposure during a working day to ascertain the daily
personal noise exposure, LEP,d.

Once this is estimated it should be compared with legal standard which are as follows:

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Exposure limit values and action values

Lower exposure action values

• a daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 80 dB (A-weighted).

• a peak sound pressure of 135 dB (C-weighted).

Upper exposure action values

• a daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 85 dB (A-weighted).

• a peak sound pressure of 137 dB (C-weighted).

Exposure limit values

• a daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 87 dB (A-weighted).

• a peak sound pressure of 140 dB (C-weighted).

If the worker is found to have exposed to these values, then the employer must take actions to
reduce exposure.

Where the exposure of an employee to noise varies markedly from day to day, an employer may
use weekly personal noise exposure in place of daily personal noise exposure for the purpose of
compliance with these regulations.

Basic Noise Control Measures

Noise can be controlled by the following ways:

• Source Eliminating or reducing noise at the source.

• Path - Barriers to transmit noise through air.
• Receiver – protecting the receiver.

Eliminating or Reducing Noise at Source

Implement low noise purchasing policy for machinery and equipment and replace the machinery
that causes noise with less noisy machinery.

Eliminate – removing noise from the source is not practically possible in many cases.

Substitute – change the noise source using alternate methods or machine (e.g. diesel operated
forklift replaced with battery operated to reduce noise.)

Modifying the process – changing the work processes can reduce noise level. E.g. replacing
pneumatic screw guns with manual process. Other methods can be replacing gear drives with
belt drives.

Maintenance - periodic maintenance and repair, such as repair of faulty bearings, broken gear
teeth, blunt cutting tools, and maintenance of belts and fans and other moving parts.

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Damping – machine rotational speeds do not coincide with resonance frequencies of the
supporting structure, and if they do, hence damping is done to change the stiffness or mass of
the supporting structure to change its resonance frequencies.

Silencing – machines fitted with silencer on the exhaust to take noise away from the work area.

Path to Interrupt Transmission

Insulation - constructing acoustic enclosures walls around the noise source. Noise can penetrate
through acoustic walls to the normal environment. For example, industrial diesel generators are
constructed with acoustic walls to prevent noise escaping out.

Isolation – noise is transmitted to the supporting structure through vibration, separating

machine from the supporting structure using elastomeric materials such as rubber are often
mounted over steel springs to reduce vibration.

Absorption – using sound absorbent materials to absorb sound before it reaches the receiver
using thick lining material like cork, hard rubber, plastic, or viscoelastic materials such as silicone
rubber.

Receiver Protection

Acoustic Haven – it is not practically possible to reduce noise

in an apparently noisy area. To reduce noise to the receiver the
best practice is to enclose personnel in a sound reducing
enclosure.

Hearing Protection - Receiver control in an industrial situation

is generally restricted to providing headsets and/or earplugs
for the exposed workers. This is a last resort control and
requires close supervision to ensure long term protection of workers' hearing.

Administrative controls

Admin controls includes changes in the workplace or schedule that reduce or eliminate the
worker exposure to noise.

Examples:

• Operate noisy machines during shifts when fewer people are exposed.
• Limit the amount of time a person spends at a noise source through job rotation.
• Provide quiet areas where workers can gain relief from hazardous noise sources.

The employer must also carry out regular health surveillance to ensure that the employees are
not affected by exposure to noise, also to make sure that the existing controls are effective.
Noise health surveillance done through audiometry test.

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Personal Hearing Protection

Personal hearing protection is needed to reduce the effects of noise exposure. The hearing
protection must be able to reduce the exposure to an acceptable standard set by the national
authorities. For instance, 85 db(A) TWA – 8 hours/day.

Hearing protection should be considered after all introducing all other means of controlling
noise.

The high noisy area must be defined as ‘mandatory hearing protection zones’. The workers must
be aware of the noise risks and available suitable controls to reduce exposure.

Earmuff – Headband Earmuff –Helmet mounted

Application and Limitation of Ear Defenders

Earmuffs Advantages Limitations

Fit around the ear and the designed so that one size fits Uncomfortable when worn
outer area most head sizes for long hours.

Types: easily seen at a distance to Incompatible with other types

assist in the monitoring of
of PPE.
their use
Headband
Helmet mounted Effective may be reduced if it
may be worn with minor ear
doesn’t fit properly
infections
Earplugs Advantages Limitations
Inserted into the ear canals small and easily carried require good hygiene
practices
convenient to use with other
personal protection may irritate the ear canal
equipment (can be worn with
earmuffs) more difficult to see and
monitor usage
more comfortable for long
hours

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Selection
The employer must consider several factors while selecting personal hearing protection,
including:

• Suitable for the job.

• Hearing protections should provide adequate protection. Check
the manufacturer's literature.
• Compatible with other required personal protective equipment,
or communication devices.
• Comfortable enough to be accepted and worn.
• Appropriate for the temperature and humidity in the workplace.
• Able to provide adequate communication and audibility needs
(e.g., the ability to hear alarms or warning sounds).

Maintenance

The employer have a duty to maintain hearing protection so that it works effectively. Factors that
affect the level of protection, such as the headband tension and the condition of seals, should be
checked as part of your system of maintenance.

Employees have a duty to report any defects in hearing protection. This duty should be
explained to them, as well as how to identify defects, as part of their training.

The training must be focused on the following:

• Follow the manufacturer's instructions.

• Check hearing protection regularly for wear and tear.
• Replace ear cushions or plugs that are no longer pliable.
• Replace a unit when head bands are so stretched that they do not keep ear cushions snugly
against the head.
• Disassemble earmuffs to clean.
• Wash earmuffs with a mild liquid detergent in warm water, and then rinse in clear warm
water. Ensure that the sound-attenuating material inside the ear cushions does not get wet.
• Use a soft brush to remove skin oil and dirt that can harden ear cushions.
• Squeeze excess moisture from the plugs or cushions and then place them on a clean surface
to air dry. (Check the manufacturer's recommendations first to find out if the ear plugs are
washable.)

Attenuation

Information on the levels of noise reduction (attenuation) associated with ear protectors
provided by the manufacturer of the product. The type of information includes:

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1. HML (High, Medium, Low) values
2. SNR (Single number rating) values
3. Octave band mean attenuation and the standard deviation

In summary, personal protective equipment (hearing protection) should be the last choice
because:

• It is not effective if not worn correctly or is not maintained adequately

• It needs constant management attention to ensure its use.
• It may introduce secondary risks (failure to hear alarms, instructions, vehicles).

Health Surveillance

Appropriate health surveillance should be conducted for all workers whose noise exposures
reach a certain level prescribed by national laws and regulations or by national or internationally
recognized standards above which health surveillance should be carried out.

Workers’ health surveillance may include:

• Pre-employment or pre-assignment medical examination.

• To determine any contraindication to exposure to noise.
• detect any sensitivity to noise.
• To establish a baseline, record useful for later
medical surveillance.
• Periodical medical examinations at regular
intervals.
• To detect the first symptoms of occupational
disease.
• To detect the appearance of any unusual sensitivity
to noise and signs of stress due to noisy working
conditions.
• medical examinations prior to resumption of work
after a period of extended sickness or in case of
conditions as may be specified in national legislation or internationally recognized standards.
• medical examinations performed on cessation of employment to provide a general picture of
the eventual effects of exposure to noise
• supplementary and special medical examinations when an abnormality is found, and it
requires further investigation

The results of the medical examinations and of supplementary examinations and tests, such as
audiometric testing, of everyone should be recorded in a confidential medical file. The worker
should be informed of these results and their significance accordingly.

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 Vibration 5.2

Vibration

Vibration is a mechanical oscillation of an object, occur about an equilibrium point. Vibration

enters the body while using powered tools e.g. jackhammer

The common health effects associated with vibration includes:

• Hand Arm Vibration

• Whole Body Vibration

Hand Arm Vibration

Hand-arm vibration is vibration transmitted into

workers’ hands and arms. This can come from use of
hand-held power tools (such as grinders or road
breakers), hand-guided equipment (such as powered
lawnmowers or pedestrian controlled floor saws) or by
holding materials being worked by hand-fed machines
(such as pedestal grinders or forge hammers).

Regular and frequent exposure to hand-arm vibration

can lead to

• hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS); and

• carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS).

Symptoms and Effects of HAVS

Vibration white finger (VWF) – shuts down the supply of blood to the fingers, finger turn
blanching and becoming red with painful on recovery, reducing ability to work in cold or damp
conditions.

Muscle weakening - loss of strength in the hands which might affect manual dexterity.

Symptoms of both may come and go, but with continued exposure to vibration they may
become prolonged or permanent and cause pain, distress, and sleep disturbance. This can
happen after only a few months of exposure, but in most cases, it will happen over a few years.

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Whole body vibration
Whole-body vibration (WBV) is transmitted through the seat while driving
vehicles as part of their job e.g. dumper truck driver or feet and legs e.g.
aircraft cabin crew.
Frequent jolts and jarring can cause health risk including back pain.

The significant health effects include

• Back pain
• damage to soft tissues in the interverbal discs.
• Vertigo

Assessment of Vibration Exposure

A complete assessment of exposure to vibration requires the measurement of vibration

acceleration in meters per second squared (m/s2). Vibration exposure direction is also important
and is measured in defined directions. Vibration frequencies and duration of exposure are also
determined. How hard a person grips a tool affects the amount of vibrational energy entering
the hands; therefore, hand-grip force is another important factor in the exposure assessment.

The amount of exposure is determined by measuring acceleration in the units of m/s2.

Acceleration is often used as a measure of vibration exposure for the following reasons:

• Several types of instruments are available for measuring acceleration, the rate of change of
velocity in speed or direction per unit time (e.g., per second).
• Measuring acceleration can also give information about velocity and amplitude of vibration.
• The degree of harm is related to the magnitude of acceleration.

Health research data tells us that the degree of harm is related to the magnitude of acceleration.

Vibration Exposure Standards

Exposure limit values and action values

For hand-arm vibration

• daily exposure limit value is 5 m/s2 A(8).

• daily exposure action value is 2.5 m/s2 A(8).

For whole body vibration

• daily exposure limit value is 1.15 m/s2 A(8).

• daily exposure action value is 0.5 m/s2 A(8).

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Basic Vibration Control Measures
• Eliminate or reduce vibration at source
• Interrupt the pathway from source to the receiver
• Limit duration of exposure.

Eliminate or Reduce Vibration at Source

Elimination – Removing the sources of vibration though

automated system to avoid the need to use the equipment.

Substitute – change the vibration source using alternate methods or tools that produces less
vibration, using battery operated drilling machine rather than power operated. However, more
force required with longer usage).

Change work techniques - Change the work methods so that vibrating tools may not be
required.

• Flame cutting instead of percussive metalworking tools.

• Welding instead of riveting.

Maintenance

• Replacement of worn parts and correction of unbalanced equipment can reduce

vibration levels.
• Anti-vibration devices need to be maintained.
• Sharpened tools will reduce the duration of the job and therefore the exposure time.

Interrupt pathway to the receiver

Isolation

Isolation is the reduction of vibration passing from the vibrating machine, tool, or component to
the operator’s hands. This can be achieved by the use of rubber bushes, sleeves and anti-
vibration mounts.

Limit the Duration of Exposure

Limit Exposure - limitation of the duration and magnitude of exposure to vibration by calculating
exposure action value and limit value.

Job Rotation – exposure is shared among several workers so that no one achieves the exposure
action or limit value. Workers provided with appropriate work schedules with adequate rest
periods.

Anti-Vibration Tools

Tools can be designed or mounted in ways that help reduce the vibration level. For example,
using anti-vibration chain saws reduces acceleration levels by a factor of about 10. These types

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of chain saws must be well maintained. Maintenance must include periodic replacement of
shock absorbers. Some pneumatic tool companies manufacture anti-vibration tools such as anti-
vibration pneumatic chipping hammers, pavement breakers and vibration-damped pneumatic
riveting guns

Gloves

Gloves can play an important role in reducing the risks from hand-arm vibration. In cold
conditions gloves will keep the hands warm, helping to maintain good circulation to the fingers.
Gloves may also be necessary, or advisable, for physical protection of the hands. If you wish to
supply gloves to your workers, you will need to ensure that they are appropriate for the tools
and the task so that the wearer finds them comfortable and is able to manipulate the tools and
controls properly without increasing grip or force.

Various gloves with special soft linings intended to provide vibration isolation are commercially
available. These gloves can often reduce high-frequency vibration but have little effect at mid
and low frequencies which are those most likely to damage blood flow in the hand. Anti-
vibration gloves should be assumed not to reduce vibration exposure unless you have test data
that shows otherwise for the combination of glove and tool used. Manufacturers continue to
conduct research to develop better performing materials to reduce vibration at the hazardous
frequencies.

Health Surveillance
The employer must conduct health surveillance for all your employees who, despite your action
to control the risk, are likely to be regularly exposed above the exposure action value or are
considered to be at risk for any other reason.

The purpose of health surveillance is to:

• identify anyone exposed or about to be exposed vibration who may be at particular risk, for
example people with blood circulatory diseases such as Raynaud’s Disease
• identify any vibration-related disease at an early stage in employees regularly exposed to
vibration
• help you prevent disease progression and eventual disability
• help people stay in work
• check the effectiveness of your vibration control measures

Health surveillance outcomes must be notified to the concerned employee, the records must be
kept as part of the regulatory requirements. Review and update risk assessment.

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5.3 Radiation

What is Radiation?
Radiation is energy that is transmitted, emitted, or absorbed in the form of particles or
waves. The effect of radiation on our bodies is variable and the ability of this energy to ionise
body tissue is represented from the vast electromagnetic spectrum as “ionising” and “non-
ionising radiation”.

Types of Radiation and Health Effects:

Non-ionising Radiation

Has low energy that is not capable of ionising other atoms.

Ionising Radiation

The radiation has sufficient energy to ionise other atoms.

Non-Ionising Radiation – Types

Ultraviolet (UV) – emitted from sun, arc welding with high frequency electromagnetic radiation.

Visible light – can be seen by human eyes.

Infrared (IR) – low frequency radiation emitted from furnace, heat lamps.

Microwaves – emitted by microwave generator usually has a low frequency electromagnetic

radiation.

Radiowaves – emitted by antenna with low frequency electromagnetic radiation.

Health Effects

Health effects of non-ionising radiation is depending on the type of radiation exposed to.

Ultraviolet (UV) – Skin reddening and burns from exposure to sun; inflammation to the eyes
causing temporary blindness from welding arcs, excessive exposure may cause skin cancer.

Visible light - Excessive visible radiation can damage the eyes and skin.

IR – skin and eyes absorb infrared radiation as heat. Excessive exposure can cause cataracts and
pain.

Microwaves and Radiowaves - Microwave radiation (MW) is absorbed near the skin, while
Radiofrequency (RF) radiation may be absorbed throughout the body. At high enough intensities
both will damage tissue through heating.

Lasers - emit optical (UV, visible light, IR) radiations and are primarily an eye and skin hazard.
However human eye is more vulnerable to injury than skin.

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Typical Occupational Sources of Non-Ionising Radiation:

UV – welding arcs and sunlight.

IR –furnaces and glass manufacture.
Visible light – Laser cutting machine and laser pointer.
Microwaves – microwave oven used in a food industry and telecommunications equipment (e.g.
mobile phone antenna).
Radiowaves – radar antenna.

Controlling Non-Ionising Radiation

The control measures may vary depending on the type of radiation exposed.

UV – the source must be enclosed, use coverall the protect the skin from exposure, use goggles
or welding shields to protect yes from UV rays.

IR- the source must be enclosed, use coverall to protect the skin from exposure, wear gauntlets
and use googles to protect eyes.

Microwaves and Radiowaves – these radiations are absorbed by skin as well as internally into the
body, the control measures are as follows:

Enclosing the source reasonably practicable, the microwave oven used in the food industry is
designed to prevent radiation escaping from the box.

Safe Distance greater the distance from the source the lessor the dose exposed.

Isolating use interlocks systems to isolate power supply when there is a need to access to
beyond guards, the interlock system disconnect the power and prevents generating radiation.

Lasers – Direct exposure on the eye by a beam of laser light should always be avoided with any
laser, no matter how low the power; the control measure for lasers significantly depend on the
class of lasers used. Lower class avoid shining into the eyes directly, for high-class lasers use
goggles, shielding to prevent radiation escaping out of the machines.

Ionising Radiation

Types of Ionising Radiation

Alpha particles (α)

Positively charged particles consisting of two protons and two neutrons emitted from the
nucleus of some radioactive atoms. Examples uranium, thorium, and radium.

Alpha particles have a very limited ability to penetrate other materials. In other words, these
particles of ionizing radiation can be blocked by a sheet of paper, skin, or even a few inches of
air. alpha particles are potentially dangerous if they are inhaled or swallowed.

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Beta Particles

Beta particles, which are similar to electrons, are emitted from naturally occurring materials
(such as strontium-90). Such beta emitters are used in medical applications, such as treating eye
disease.

Beta particles are lighter than alpha particles, and they generally have a greater ability to
penetrate other materials. As they can travel a few feet in the air, and can penetrate skin. A thin
sheet of metal or plastic or a block of wood can stop beta particles.

Gamma Rays and X-Rays

Gamma rays and x-rays consist of high-energy waves that can travel great distances at the speed
of light and generally have a great ability to penetrate other materials. Gamma rays (such as
from cobalt-60) are often used in medical applications to treat cancer and sterilize medical
instruments. Similarly, x-rays are typically used to provide static images of body parts (such as
teeth and bones), and are also used in industry to find defects in welds.

Neutrons

Neutrons are high-speed nuclear particles that have an exceptional ability to penetrate other
materials. Neutrons can travel great distances in air and require very thick hydrogen-containing
materials (such as concrete or water) to block them.

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Health Effects

Ionising radiation health effects are based on the exposure and dose received by a person.

Acute Effects

• Itchiness
• Erythema
• Hair loss
• Damage to cells
• Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) – damage to bone marrow, nervous systems.

Chronic Effects

• Cancer (e.g. leukaemia or solid tumours)

• Genetic mutations
• Brain damage to foetus

Exposure to high or low dosage will have chronic effect, the larger the dose exposed, the greater
the risk of harm.

Typical Sources of Ionising Radiation

• Alpha Particles – smoke detectors

• Beta particles – thickness gauges
• X-rays – radiology (Medical X-ray and CT Scans)
• Gamma Rays - industrial operations (e.g., radiography equipment for testing materials or
products).
• Neutrons - nuclear power plants (reactors) and nuclear weapon production facilities.

Basic Means of Controlling Exposure to Ionising Radiation

The following principles guide you how to protect yourself from exposing to radiation sources:

Time, distance, and shielding measures minimize your exposure to radiation in much the same
way as they would to protect you against overexposure to the sun (as illustrated in the figure
below):

• Time: Limiting or minimizing the exposure time reduces the dose from the radiation source.
• Distance: Intensity and dose of radiation decreases dramatically as you increase your
distance from the source.
• Shielding: Barriers of lead, concrete, or water provide protection from penetrating radiation
such as gamma rays and neutrons. This is why certain radioactive materials are stored under
water or in concrete or lead-lined rooms, and why dentists place a lead blanket on patients
receiving x-rays of their teeth.

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Similarly, special plastic shields stop beta particles, and air stops alpha particles. Therefore,
inserting the proper shield between you and a radiation source will greatly reduce or eliminate
the dose you receive.

Dose Limits

Dose limits are set to protect workers and members of the public from the effects of ionising
radiation. They are set at a level that balances the risk from exposure with the benefits of using
ionising radiation. The fundamental requirement is for employers to reduce all exposure to
ionising radiations to as low a level as possible and this should be below the dose limits.

International commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has set dose limits for ionising
radiation exposure. Which is also available in UK, Ionising Radiation Regulations 2017:

Dose limits are expressed in millisievert

• Occupational Exposure - 20 mSv in a calendar year

• Members of public shall not exceed 1mSv in a calendar year.

The regulation requires a competent person to carry out risk assessment, hence the employer
should appoint a competent Radiation Protection Advisor (RPA) and Radiation Protection
Supervisors (RPSs).

Radon Gas and Health Risks

Radon (chemical symbol Rn) is an odourless, colourless, radioactive gas. It comes from the
natural decay of uranium and radium found in nearly all rocks and soils. Radon can move up
from the ground into buildings through openings in floors or walls that are in contact with the
ground.

Radon can accumulate in buildings and, over time, can pose a serious health hazard. These solid
decay products, which may attach to atmospheric dust and water droplets, can then be breathed
in and become lodged in the lungs and airways. Some of these decay products emit particularly
hazardous radiation called alpha particles, which cause significant damage to the sensitive cells
in the lung

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Radon Sources

Any building can have high levels of radon, including new and old homes, well-sealed and
draftee homes, office buildings and schools, and homes with or without basements. Testing is
the only way to know if your home has elevated radon levels.

Radon gas can get into buildings through:

• Cracks in solid floors and walls

• Construction joints – tunnel works
• Gaps in suspended floors
• Gaps around service pipes
• Cavities inside walls
• Water supplies

Control Measures

Appoint RPA to carry out risk assessment.

Radon surveys should be conducted in any workplace to determine the acceptable level or
require any action.

Occupied areas with levels above 300 Bq/m3(becquerels per cubic meter), the employer may
need to immediately take steps to manage occupational exposures.

Installation of radon proof barrier/membrane for new building

For old building improve ventilation in the occupied area, seal large gaps in floors

A radon sump with an electric pump draw air from the cavity and dissipates radon gas outside
the building.

Personal Protective Equipment

Lead aprons can reduce worker radiation dose.

Role of Monitoring

Employers to monitor radiation exposure,

including by measuring radiation levels in the work
environment and tracking the radiation doses that
workers receive.

The monitoring can be done through using a

personal dosimeter typically a badge type. These
dosimeters are worn for a specified period
monthly or quarterly and then sent to laboratory
for analysing.

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Health Surveillance

Health surveillance to the workers exposed to radiation must be carried out by the employer.
The main purpose of health surveillance is to detection and early prevention and treatment of
any adverse effects caused by exposure.

Circumstances which may require a health surveillance to be carried out are:

• Pre-assessment of the health status of the worker before starting work with radiation.
• Periodic review (e.g. quarterly) to ensure that there is no health impact to the workers while
working with radiation.
• When set dose limit is exceeded by the worker.
• After recognising classified worker.

The following examination may be carried during health surveillance:

Skin checks – to identify potential eczema or psoriasis, this should be examined periodically

• Respiratory checks – fitness to wear respiratory protection devices, examinations should

involve checks of the integrity of lung function.
• Exposure records – to check employee’s exposure records to determine if dose limits have
been exceeded.
• Reference to sickness records – examination of the employee’s general health history.

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5.4 Mental Ill-health

The Prevalence of Mental Ill Health Within the Workplace

According to HSE UK, Statistics in Great Britain,2019 Work-related stress, depression or anxiety is
defined as a harmful reaction people have to undue pressures and demands placed on them at
work.

The total number of cases of work-related stress, depression, or anxiety in 2018/19 was 602,000,
a prevalence rate of 1,800 per 100,000 workers.

The number of new cases was 246,000, an incidence rate of 740 per 100,000 workers. The total
number of working days lost due to this condition in 2018/19 was 12.8 million days. This equated
to an average of 21.2 days lost per case.

n 2018/19 stress, depression or anxiety accounted for 44% of all work-related ill health cases and
54% of all working days lost due to ill health.

Common Types of Mental Ill Health

Anxiety and Depression

Definition – Anxiety

Anxiety is a feeling of unease, worry or fear. Everyone feels anxious at some point in their life,
but for some people it may be an ongoing problem.

Symptoms of Anxiety

Anxiety can have both psychological and physical symptoms.

Psychological symptoms can include:

• feeling worried or uneasy a lot of the time

• having difficulty sleeping, which makes you feel tired
• not being able to concentrate
• being irritable
• being extra alert
• feeling on edge or not being able to relax
• needing frequent reassurance from other people
• feeling tearful

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Physical symptoms can include:

• a pounding heartbeat
• breathing faster
• palpitations (an irregular heartbeat)
• feeling sick
• chest pains
• headaches
• sweating
• loss of appetite
• feeling faint
• needing the toilet more frequently
• "butterflies" in your tummy

A little anxiety is fine, however, long-term anxiety may cause more serious health problems, such
as high blood pressure (hypertension)

Anxiety can also be a symptom of another condition, such as panic disorder (when you have
panic attacks) or post-traumatic stress disorder, which is caused by frightening or distressing
events.

Definition – Depression

Depression is feeling sad or unhappy. Depression can make workers to feel persistently sad and
down for weeks or months at a time.

Symptoms of Depression

Symptoms of depression can be very different from person to person.

Psychological depression symptoms include:

• continuous sadness or low mood

• losing motivation
• feeling guilty
• feeling anxious
• feeling irritable
• finding it hard to make decisions
• feeling intolerant of other people
• feeling helpless or hopeless
• low self-esteem
• feeling worried
• thinking about suicide or self-harm

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Physical symptoms include:

• speaking or moving slower than usual

• aches and pains that can't be explained
• losing, or sometimes gaining, appetite or weight
• disturbed sleep (having trouble falling asleep, for example, or waking up very early)
• loss of energy.

Work-Related Stress

Definition – Stress

Stress is the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand
placed on them.

Stress is not an illness, but rather a ‘state of mind’. If stress becomes excessive and prolonged, it
can lead to physical and mental health problems.

Pressure is an inherent part of work, whether it is a deadline that must not be missed, or a rate
of output that must be maintained.

Pressure does not necessarily lead to stress as each individual has a different level of pressure
that they can cope with. However, if a person finds that they are unable to cope with the
pressure they are experiencing they will start to feel the physical and mental effects.

Work-related stress is a major cause of occupational ill health which can cause severe physical
and psychological conditions among workers. It can also lead to poor productivity and human
error, increased sickness absence, increases in accidents, high staff turnover and poor
performance in your organisation.

Causes of Stress

• Demands – for example: excessive work demands in terms of workload (too much / little),
speed of work and deadlines, long working hours, changing shift patterns, inherently difficult
jobs, inherently emotional jobs, individuals’ skills not matched to job demands.

• Control – for example: lack of control over work, what work is to be done, how work is to be
done, the pace of work, priorities, lack of initiative.

• Support – for example: lack of support in terms of information, instruction and training to do
the work, lack of information in terms of support available, having no-one to turn to for
support.

• Relationships – for example: poor workplace relationships / conflict, and in particular

bullying and harassment, lack of policies and procedures to deal with these problems.

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• Role – for example: lack of clarity about an individuals’ role, what responsibilities and
authority they have, and how they fit into the larger organisational structure, no clear job
descriptions or systems to enable employees to raise concerns about their role and
responsibilities.

• Change – for example: the threat of change and the change process itself, lack of
consultation, communication, and support during periods of change.

Dealing with Home-Related Stress

People do bring home-related stress into the workplace. Although you are not legally responsible
for stress that originates in the home, well-managed organisations will have arrangements that
allow them to address it. This might include such things as access to counselling services,
adaptations to the work or changes to working hours.

Managers often say it is difficult to identify what stress is caused by problems at home and what
is caused by work. Using the Management Standards can help to tease this out.

Control Measures

It is always not reasonably practicable to remove pressure from the work activities, prevention
strategies are focused on the management standards which is based on the six causes of stress:

Demands

Issues like workload, work patterns, and the work environment.

The organisation provides employees with adequate and achievable demands in relation to the
agreed hours of work.

Control

How much say the person has in the way they do their work?

Employees indicate that they are able to have a say about the way they do their work.

Support

The encouragement, sponsorship and resources provided by the organisation, line management
and colleagues.

Relationships

Promoting positive working to avoid conflict and dealing with unacceptable behaviour.

Role

Whether people understand their role within the organisation and whether the organisation
ensures that the person does not have conflicting roles.

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Change

How organisational change (large or small) is managed and communicated in the organisation.

People with mental ill-health can continue to work effectively.

Organizations have a responsibility to support individuals with mental disorders in either

continuing or returning to work. Research shows that unemployment, particularly long-term
unemployment, can have a detrimental impact on mental health. Many of the initiatives outlined
above may help individuals with mental disorders. In particular, flexible hours, job-redesign,
addressing negative workplace dynamics, and supportive and confidential communication with
management can help people with mental disorders continue to or return to work. Access to
evidence-based treatments has been shown to be beneficial for depression and other mental
disorders. Because of the stigma associated with mental disorders, employers need to ensure
that individuals feel supported and able to ask for support in continuing with or returning to
work and are provided with the necessary resources to do their job.

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 Violence at Work 5.5

Definition

Any incident in which a person is abused,

threatened or assaulted in circumstances relating
to their work.

Workers may be verbally abused, threatened

(verbally and by physical gesture) and even assaulted
as they carry out their normal work.

This includes:

• verbal abuse - shouting, swearing or insults, sexual harassment or other unwanted

advances/behaviour, and racial abuse.
• threats and intimidation - from customers/patrons.
• physical violence - physical attacks including a slap, kicking, spitting or shoving as well as
more extreme violence.

Certain occupations and types of work are associated with an increased risk of violence. In some
cases there may also be the risk of violence between employees in the same workplace.

The following factors are common to those occupations and situations:

• Cash handling – any work involves handling of money or valuables puts workers at risk of
violence associated with robbery.
• Lone working – work that puts involves worker to work alone in urban areas, or puts them in
contact with members of the public at remote or private locations.
• Representing authority – work which requires the worker represents authority, such as
police, traffic wardens, etc.
• Wearing a uniform – uniforms are often seen as a symbol of authority, but even where they
are not workers may still be singled out for abuse.
• Dealing with people under stress – when people are under stress they are less capable of
handling their emotions and can lose control.
• Dealing with people under the influence – of drugs and alcohol, or with mental-health
problems, when normal inhibitions on behavior have been affected.
• Censuring or saying no – workers who have to give warnings, penalties, fines, or who have to
refuse a service, or say no (e.g. bar staff).

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Control Measures
To manage workplace violence effectively, the employer must develop a Policy to manage work
related violence which can be zero tolerance that workplace is violence is unacceptable. Discuss
with your workers and develop strategies to deal with workplace violence.

The control measures may vary based on the situation, however developing safe system of work
to deal to deal with

• Irritated customers / clients

• Lone working
Effective communication and sharing right information
about delay helps to reduce the frustration of the
customers. For e.g. airlines makes announcements to
its passengers about the delay of its flight due to
technical snag.

Safe system of work includes:

• Logging in employee visits

• Vetting clients before visit
• Not carrying cash or valuables during visits
• Do not go alone in high risk areas.
• No home visits after dark.
• System to contact base or report any incident. (phone calls / walkie talkie).
Training is a key factor to reduce the risk of work-related violence. Training will prevent, as well
as to deal with any potentially violent situations.

A Specialized training may be required, e.g. for door supervisors, people who sell alcohol or to
raise awareness about robberies.

The way your premises are designed in terms of layout, security provision and the general
environment can increase the risk of violence and crime happening to your staff.

The environment should be adequately lit with good visibility, apart from which the environment
should also have:

• Surveillance CCTV cameras.

• Security alarm systems.
• Barriers and screens.
• Fingerprint / ID card access controls systems.
There needs to be system of recording and reporting any threats raised to the workers. The
reporting can be done to the police if necessary. Employers must support employees who had
physical and emotional effect followed by the violent incident.

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Support to the Victims

If there is a violent incident involving your workforce,

you will need to respond quickly to avoid any long-
term distress to employees. It is essential to plan how
you are going to provide them with support before
any incidents. You may want to consider the following:

• debriefing - victims will need to talk through their

experience as soon as possible after the event.
Remember that verbal abuse can be just as
upsetting as a physical attack.
• time off work - individuals will react differently and may need differing amounts of time to
recover. In some circumstances they might need specialist counselling.
• legal help - in serious cases legal help may be appropriate.
• other employees - may need guidance and/or training to help them to react appropriately.

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5.6 Substance Abuse at Work

Types of Substances

Category Examples Examples of General Effects

Alcohol beer, wine, spirits impaired judgement, slowed reflexes, impaired

motor function, sleepiness or drowsiness,
coma, overdose may be fatal

Cannabis marijuana, hashish distorted sense of time, impaired memory,

impaired coordination

Depressants sleeping medicines, inattention, slowed reflexes, depression,

sedatives, some impaired balance, drowsiness, coma, overdose
tranquilizers may be fatal

Hallucinogens LSD (lysergic acid inattention, sensory illusions, hallucinations,

diethylamide), PCP disorientation, psychosis
(phencyclidine), mescaline

Inhalants hydrocarbons, solvents, intoxication similar to alcohol, dizziness,

gasoline headache

Nicotine cigarettes, chewing tobacco, initial stimulant, later depressant effects

snuff

Opiates morphine, heroin, codeine, loss of interest, "nodding", overdose may be

some prescription pain fatal. If used by injection, the sharing of
medications needles may spread Hepatitis B, or C and
HIV/AIDS.

Stimulants cocaine, amphetamines elevated mood, overactivity, tension/anxiety,

rapid heartbeat, constriction of blood vessels

Risks to Health and Safety from Substance Abuse at Work

Alcohol is a stimulant drug that acts as a central

nervous system depressant, impairing senses,
and judgement. It is widely used and abused at
various occasions.

Drug is broad term applicable for both

prescribed as non-prescribed drug (such as
painkillers) and controlled drugs (illegal drug
such as marijuana).

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The effects of alcohol and drug abuse at work are as follows:

• Slurred speech
• Memory loss
• Mood swings
• Loss of consciousness
• Absenteeism
• Late attendance
• Loss of production
• Workplace violence and harassment
• Poor decision making
• Theft
• Dishonesty
• Having trouble with co-workers

Drug abuse is costs to the employer, can be measured through absenteeism, injuries, fatalities,
production loss, insurance claims.

Drug or alcohol misuse could have a serious outcome, for example:

• using machinery
• using electrical equipment or ladders
• driving or operating heavy lifting equipment

Control Measures to Reduce Risks from Substance Abuse at Work

The employer has to collect information about the substance abuse problem from the
workplace, company accident, ill-health history may show a clear pattern of drug and alcohol
abuse.

Employers and employees can collaborate to design policies which outline what is an acceptable
code of behaviour and what is not. The policy may include:
• Rules and restriction to have access to alcohol in the workplace or during working hours.
• Ban workers under the influence of alcohol.
• Screening and testing for drugs and alcohol, this can be done randomly or upon reporting to
the work. For example, aircraft pilots and crew members are checked for alcohol and drug
screen when they report to the shift on daily basis.
• Rehabilitation and treatment arrangements for the workers to tackle the problem of abuse.
• Taking disciplinary actions against employer who refuse to get screened and tested.
• Increase awareness by to the workers, supervisors and managers through training also give
instruction to them.
• Drug and alcohol testing, the employer must take consent form the employee for practical
and legal reasons. Ensure that the sample collected are kept safely without being
contaminated or tampered. The employer also must make sure that the testing procedures
and analysis are accurate.

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References

https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hearing_loss/how_does_loud_noise_cause_hearing_loss.html
https://oshwiki.eu/wiki/Noise
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg362.pdf
ILO Ambient Factors in the workplace
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/prevention/ppe/ear_prot.html
https://www.who.int/occupational_health/publications/noise10.pdf
The Control of Vibration at Work Regulations 2005
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pUbns/priced/hsg170.pdf
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg175.pdf
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg242.pdf
https://www.fosterohs.com/Control%20the%20risks%20of%20hand-
arm%20vibration,%20Advice%20for%20employers%20-%20HSE%202005.pdf
https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-effects/radiation-basics.html
https://www.hse.gov.uk/radiation/ionising/radon.htm#whatisradon
The Ionising Radiations Regulations 2017
https://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/causdis/stress.pdf
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/wbk01.pdf
https://www.who.int/mental_health/in_the_workplace/en/
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pUbns/indg69.pdf
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/psychosocial/substance.html
https://www.hse.gov.uk/alcoholdrugs/index.htm

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 Element 6
Musculoskeletal Health
7

Learning Objectives
1. Describe the risk factors that may give rise to
work-related upper limb disorders and
appropriate control measures.

2. Describe the hazards and control measures

which should be considered when assessing
risks from manual handling activities.

3. Describe the hazards and controls associated

with load-handling equipment and the
requirement for lifting operations
 Contents

Work-Related Upper Limb Disorder

Musculoskeletal Disorder and Work-Related Upper Limb Disorders 6-1
Musculoskeletal Disorder Risk Factors 6-2
Managing the Risk of Musculoskeletal Disorders 6-3
A Typical Example: Display Screen Equipment 6-3

Manual Handling

Common Types of Manual Handling Injury 6-7

Good Handling Technique 6-9
Controlling Manual Handling Risk 6-12

Load-Handling Equipment
Hazards and Controls for Common Types of Load-Handling Equipment 6-16
Powered Load-Handling Equipment 6-17
Requirement for Safe Lifting Operations 6-24
Periodic Inspection and Examination of Lifting Equipment 6-25
6.1 Work-Related Upper Limb Disorder

Musculoskeletal Disorders and Work-Related Upper Limb

Disorders
Musculoskeletal disorders MSDs are injuries or pain in the human musculoskeletal system,
including ligaments, joints, muscles, tendons, nerves, neck and back. They are caused by sudden
exertion of loads over a period, repeated actions, exposure to repeated force, vibration, or
awkward posture.

The following musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) can be associated with incorrect or poor manual
handling techniques:
• Back injuries

• Work related upper limb disorder

Back injuries

Back injuries may occur as a result of repeated lifting, or as

the result of a single lift. Stoop lifting can increase stress on
the back by up to six times. The task may involve worker to
stand or sit for longer period sustaining with back pain, disc
injury is a contributory factor of absenteeism.

Work-related upper limb disorders (WRULDs)

WRULD is the term used to describe any injury affecting the

arms, hands and shoulders caused by repetitive motion, over-exertion, vibratory motion and/or
stress. WRULDs take many forms, depending on the cause of the disorder. For example, carpal
tunnel syndrome is a WRULD caused by pressure on the nerves in the wrist, which can be caused
by intricate, repetitive manual handling activities.

High Risk Activities / Repetitive Physical Activities

Workers who repeatedly uses their hands, arms and back are potential to suffer musculoskeletal
disorder. For instance:

• Display Screen Equipment use.

• Assembly line workers
• Cleaning and domestic staff
• Construction workers (brick laying)
• Hairdressers
• Meat and poultry processors
• Pottery workers
• Supermarket checkout activity
• Textile workers.

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The Factors Giving Rise to Ill-Health Conditions

Risk factors can be thought of as task, environment, or worker-related within an ergonomic

approach.

The WRULD Risk factors are

• Task
• Environmental
• Equipment

Task

Repetition – the need to do repetitive movements to be performed for prolonged period while
carrying out the task.

Force

Use of physical force can be applied to the muscles, tendons, nerves and joints by handling
heavy objects while performing tasks. vibrating tools or equipment: as operators need to use
increased grip force in working with vibrating equipment.

Posture

Using a party of the body beyond its neutral position, e.g. repairing equipment or accessing
objects from a rack their shoulders are far from the neutral position.

Twisting

Twisting hands or wrist when performing a task e.g. twisting wrist when using spanners to
remove a screw.

Rest

The worker undertaking the task without having sufficient rest period, e.g. workers in a packing
section cannot stop the work for rest, even they are fatigue due to continuous work schedule.

Equipment Factors

Equipment design – the size and shape of the equipment, workers have no choice to select the
type of tool or equipment provided. Equipment or tool may produce noise, vibration.
Equipment adjustability – an option for the user to adjust the equipment to suit their personal
needs. (adjusting machinery control panel to their seating level).

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Environmental factors

Lighting – lighting is so important when performing a task, dim light, shadow, glare may cause
worker to adopt a bent neck or poor postures to concentrate on the work.

Cold – exposure to cold temperature can result in reduced dexterity and sensation.

Vibration – exposure to vibration while using handheld tools increase the risk of WRULD can
cause vibration white finger, carpal tunnel syndrome and painful joints.

Ergonomic - risk may present if any of the above factor is indeed essential when performing the
task.

Managing the Risk of Musculoskeletal Disorder

Matching the Workplace to the Individual Needs

Definition - Ergonomic
Ergonomic is a science-based discipline concerned with the interactions between workers, the
equipment, and the environment in which the task is performed.

Applying ergonomics can reduce risk associated with MSDs, the workplace must match the
individual needs.

Applying ergonomics to the workplace can:

• reduce the potential for accidents

• reduce the potential for injury and ill health
• improve performance and productivity

Ergonomics can also reduce the potential for ill health at work, such as aches, pains and damage
to the wrists, shoulders and back, noise-induced hearing loss and work-related asthma.

Consider the layout of controls and equipment – they should be positioned in relation to how
they are used. Place those used most often where they are easy to reach without the need to
stoop, stretch or hunch.

If ergonomic principles not followed in the organisation it can lead to serious consequences to
the workers and whole organisation.

Display Screen Equipment

DSE are devices or equipment that have an alphanumeric or graphic display screen and includes
display screens, laptops, touch screens and other similar devices.

Risks Associated with the use of DSE

WRULD – prolonged DSE operation including the use of keyboard and mouse.

Back pain – prolonged DSE operation in a static posture, e.g. sitting for long hours.

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Eye Strain – caused due to viewing DSE for a long period, factors such as poor lighting, blurred
image also cause visual fatigue.

Fatigue and mental stress - DSE involves repetitive and monotonous movement, leading to
frequent use of muscles causes fatigue and increases mental stress.

Control Measures
The employer needs to assess the risks associated with using DSE equipment and any special
needs of individual staff.

• Encourage users to report any symptoms.

• Provide workstation that meets the minimum standards (ergonomic comfort).
• DSE work must be planned, the schedule may include short breaks, job rotation to reduce
prolonged work.
• Carry out regular health surveillance, this may include eye test, providing middle distance
spectacles for DSE users.
• Provide information, training to the users regarding the hazards and health risks associated
with the use of DSE ad safe working practices.
Display Screen Equipment (DSE) Regulations 1992 has provided minimum standard to protect
workers from health risks associated with DSE.

Workstation minimum standards with ergonomic comfort, use of DSE are explained in the
following picture.

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 DSE Work Station

1. Adjustable angle to seat back.

2. Lumbar support
3. Adjustable seat height
4. No excess pressure on thighs and back of knees
5. Foot support
6. Legroom with adequate clearance for postural change.
7. Forearms at horizontal position while using keyboard.
8. Minimal extension and movement of wrists on all the sides.
9. Screen height and angle to allow comfortable head position.
10. Space in front of the keyboard to rest hands/wrists while typing is in pause.

Additional points to consider:

• Adequate lighting without glare or reflections.

• Window covering if needed to minimise glare.
• Distract noise.
• Sufficient desk space with document holders.

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Laptops
people are using portable DSE as part of their work. The design of portable DSE can include
features (such as smaller keyboards or a lack of keyboard/screen separation) which may make it
more difficult to achieve a comfortable working
posture.

The following may be considered when using

portable DSE:

• Frequent breaks or changes of activity

• Regular eye and eyesight test.
• Train users on good ergonomic postures.
• Provide docking station equipment wherever
possible and encourage to use them.

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 Manual Handling 6.2

Definition
Manual Handling
Manual handling means lifting, pushing, pulling, carrying or moving loads using bodily force.

Manual and repetitive physical activities take place in almost all the workplaces, they are
performed on day to day activities, however these repetitive physical activities possess a risk of
injuries.

It doesn’t require the worker has to manual handling activity, even without carrying loads the
worker may get injured through using his body force as this can result in WRULD – Work Related
Upper Limb Disorder. For example, twisting the body in a conveyor to pick finished products
then arranging it into the box for dispatch.

Back injuries

Back injuries may occur as a result of repeated lifting, or as the result of a single lift. Stoop lifting
can increase stress on the back by up to six times.

Intervertebral Disc Damage

Discs rarely get damaged by a single action, but usually through cumulative abuse. Research
shows that repeated stresses caused by twisting and stooping actions can cause microscopic
tears in the fibres of the disc wall, which may lead to a weakness and eventually the
development of a bulging of the disc. This distortion is commonly termed a ‘slipped disc’.
Damage to a disc or to the spine can lead to sciatica.

Hernias

Heavy lifting can lead to a hernia, whereby a tear in a wall of muscle can lead to part of the
intestines protrude from the rupture, similar to an inner tube protruding through a hole in an
old tyre. The condition can be extremely painful and will eventually require surgery to repair the
tear in the cavity wall.

Work-Related Upper Limb Disorders

(WRULDs)

WRULD affect the soft connecting tissues,

muscles and nerves of the hand, wrist, arm and
shoulder. The hazard is created by prolonged
repetition, often in a forceful and awkward
manner.

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The effects are

• Inflammation of the tendon, muscle tendon junction or tendon sheath (tenosynovitis).

• Inflammation of the tissue of the hand (or elbow, or even knee), caused by constant
bruising or friction.
• Compression of the peripheral nerves serving the upper limb (Carpal Tunnel Syndrome).
• Temporary fatigue, stiffness, or soreness of the muscles.

Sprains

A ligament can be damaged if stretched too far. A twisted ankle often results in torn ligaments
whereas a stopped back posture results in stretched ligaments which weaken it and cause pain.

Crushed Limbs

These can be caused by falling loads, or by hands or feet becoming trapped by loads.

Cuts and Abrasions

These can be caused by rough, sharp or jagged edges, splinters or projections on materials.

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Good Handling Technique
There is no single correct way to lift and there are many different approaches when
carrying out manual handling. The employer must train their workers on safe
manual handling techniques particular to the operations carried out.

The manual handling techniques, suitable for use in training people in safe manual
handling.

1. Assess the load carefully.

2. The feet should be apart with one leg in front of the other (alongside the load if it
is on the ground) to increase the stability of the worker’s posture.
3. Bend the knees, keep the back up right to maintain natural spine curve.
4. Secure the load with firm grip, if possible, handles can be attached to secure a
good grip.
5. Use thigh muscles to lift the load.
6. Keep the load close to the body, hug the load as close as possible to the body.
This may be better than gripping it tightly only with the hands.
7. Avoid twisting the back or leaning sideways,
8. Keep head up, once the load is held securely.
9. Move smoothly, do not jerk.
10.Put down, then adjust. If precise positioning of the load is necessary, put it down
first, then slide it into the desired position.

Manual handling risk assessment to help you decide what you need to do to manage
the risks associated with manual handling.

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The risk assessment must focus on the four factors

L
LOAD
if the load is: OAD
• Heavy
• Bulky
• Difficult to manage
• Difficult to grasp (e.g. metals wet materials)
• Containing contents which are likely to move about whilst being carried
• Unstable (e.g. liquids, live animals)
• Hot, sharp or may cause any other injuries

INDIVIDUAL
If the individual carrying out the activity is:
I NDIVIDUAL

• Required to have unusual strength.

• Required to be tall.
• New or expectant mother.
• Pre-existing health condition if any.
• Required to have specific training.
• Required to be given information with complex details.

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TASK
• If the task involves
• Holding the load away from the trunk
• Moving the load, a considerable distance
• Introducing unsatisfactory body movements such as stooping, reaching
T ASK
twisting or stretching upwards
• Excessive lifting distances
• Excessive pushing or pulling
• A risk of sudden movement
• Frequent or prolonged physical effort
• The person undertaking the task having insufficient rest periods; and
• A rate of work imposed by a process in the Workplace.

ENVIRONMENT
If the environment has:

• Space constraints preventing good posture

E NVIRONMENT

• Floors which are uneven, slippery or unstable

• Changes in levels due to steps or ramps
• Working surfaces at different heights
• Extremely hot or cold working environmental conditions
• Chance of strong wind gusts
• Poor lighting conditions
• Poor ventilation conditions

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Avoiding or Minimising the Risk of Manual Handling
The employer must take reasonably practicable measures to reduce the risk of injury associated
with manual handing. The manual handling risk must be assessed, and suitable controls must be
introduced to reduce the risk to an acceptable standard.

The hierarchy of control measures for manual handling:

The Manual Handling Regulations set out a clear hierarchy of measures you must follow to
prevent and manage the risks from hazardous manual handling:

• avoid hazardous manual handling operations, ‘so far as reasonably practicable’

• assess the risk of injury to workers from any hazardous manual handling that can’t be
avoided
• reduce the risk of injury to workers from hazardous manual handling to as low as reasonably
practicable.

Avoid Manual Handling Operations

Eliminate – where every possible the manual handling operation must be eliminated by
automation or mechanisation for example use of conveyor system, electric-powered pallet truck,
overhead cranes etc., will prevent workers from using their body force to push or pull the load.

Assess the Risk

Carry out a manual handling risk assessment when the risk cannot be avoided. Involve workers
in this process and consider the factors such as LOAD, INDIVIDUAL, TASK, and ENVIRONMENT.

Reduce the Risk

Use manual handling aids such as hoists, trolleys, barrel lifts, gin wheels, sack trucks,
wheelbarrow which requires physical force to lift, push or pull.

Manual handling aids does not eliminate the manual handling risk, however it makes the task
easier.

Split the load or make it smaller or lighter which is easy to carry. If the load cannot split, then
consider team handling or use mechanical handling equipment.

Consider the same factors which is identified above while carrying out manual handling
assessment – The Load, individual, task and environment.

Load

Controlling the load helps to reduce the risk.

The shape of the load determines how it is going to be lifted or moved. Some loads are large in
shape, some are heavy, and others require an awkward posture to hold due to the weight being
unevenly distributed.

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Loads may be liquids which are in constant
movement while being lifted. Large loads affect the
vision causing obstruction while moving. This
makes the chances of slipping or tripping. Some
loads by their nature are sharp, hot, or slippery
which makes handling difficult.

The general principles of controlling the risk

presented by the load are to make the load:

• lighter or less bulky

• easier to grasp
• more stable
• evenly stacked

If the load comes in from elsewhere, ensure the supplier to provide handles or make it as
smaller packages.

Individual

General health, age, sex, height and build all make a difference to manual handling capability.
People generally are stronger in their early 20s; strength slowly declines until the mid-40s when
it declines more rapidly. Individual capability needs to be constantly monitored through
supervision Employees must inform managers or
supervisors if their ability to lift or move loads changes
even on a temporary basis to enable changes and
adaptations to be made.

The general principles of controlling the risk by managing

individual capability:

• Individual capability must always be given priority

• Employees must be given full details on the tasks they
will be expected to undertake

• Where higher risks of manual handling injuries are identified specific training must be given
• Procedures to protect new or expectant mothers must be in place
• Employees must be given information on the tasks they are likely to face in the workplace
• Policy and procedures must be adjusted to address temporary capability issues
• Work clothing and personal protective equipment (PPE), when worn must be suitable for
manual handling activities.

Task

The task needs to be assessed to determine the most suitable control measures to be
introduced. The best way of controlling the risk presented task is by automating the system.
However, this may be a costly solution and may not fit in with the workplace.

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Lifting aids take the stress and physical effort away from the individual. Work routines and
activities may be changed or amended to reduce the instances where high-risk activities are
carried out.

The general principles of reducing the risk by controlling the task:

• Use appropriate equipment designed to assist with lifting/handling

• Make amendments to the workplace layout to reduce high-risk movements such as twisting
and stooping
• Improve efficiency in the workplace b/ introducing changes to layout and processes.
• Avoid lifting from floor level
• Avoid lifting above shoulder height
• Vary Work routines
• Reduce the activities which require repetitive handling; and
• Push rather than pull.

Automation and mechanisation will considerably reduce the risk of injury, but it must be
remembered that introducing equipment will introduce new hazards into the workplace which
may require a risk assessment

Examples of equipment to reduce manual handling risks would include wheeled buckets
cleaning troll leys and conveyor systems.

Bodily force is still used when using mechanical equipment, but

the energy expended is more efficiently used, which is why it is an
essential control method.

Mechanical lifting equipment designed to reduce the risk from

manual handling include:

• pallet trucks

• hoists

• cranes

• Passenger carrying lifts

• Forklift trucks.

Environment

A safe working environment is critical in providing safe manual handling Changes of levels
present a risk and low work surfaces or restricted headroom will cause people to adopt a
stooping stance and the problems it brings. Fixtures and fittings as well as furniture may, cause
people to have to twist excessively to move about the workplace, and constricted corridors, poor
storage areas and narrow gangways will hinder the movement and manoeuvring of bulk y loads.

The general principles of controlling the risks presented by the work environment:

• Make the workplace obstruction-free to allow a full range of movement

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• Ensure flooring is suitable and does not cause slips or trip
• I improve environmental conditions such as lighting heat and ventilation
• Redesign work processes and procedures to a void steps or steep ramps
• Ensure staff maintain correct posture by redesigning the workplace if necessary.

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6.3 Load Handling Equipment

Hazards and Controls for Common Types of Load-Handling

Equipment
The common types of load-handling aids and
equipment are sack truck and trolley, pallet truck and
people handling aids – people handling hoists for
example static hoists / bathroom hoists.

Hazards associated with the manual handling aids

• Using these aids is still associated with manual

handling risk which may be lifting, pushing, pulling
the load.
• Unsecured loads may fall causing a crush injury.
• Loss of control when used on steep access ramps.
• Blocking traffic routes when poorly parked.
• Colliding with other equipment or people work in and around the area.
• Trapped feet from the equipment wheels.

Control Measures
• Must be used by trained and competent workers only.
• Follow manufacturer’s instructions
• Avoid using on steep surfaces or uneven ground.
• Do not overload beyond safe working limits.
• Secure the loads during movement
• Use fitted brakes or chokes to avoid unintentional movement.
• Do not obstruct walkways, emergency routes, park in designated parking areas.
• Operate at safe speed to avoid collision between other equipment or fixed structure.
• Provide PPE to the workers, his-vis jackets, safety shoes to prevent crush injuries.

Patient Hoists
Hoists provide a mechanical means by which a less able person can be moved or transferred
from one place or position to another. This may be operated manually or using battery. The act
of moving the hoist involves risk from uneven surface or mats, carpets could put strain on the
patient and there is a risk of harm.

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• Must be restricted to trained user.
• The chosen hoist must be able to lift the patient, hence the working load must be clearly
displayed.
• The braked must be effective when used, emergency stop button in working order, battery
operated hoists must be charge and installed correctly.
• The slings must be checked and free from any damages.
• Inspected every six months and maintained in good condition.
• Care should be taken while charging battery.

Slide Sheets
Slide sheets are designed for simple and smooth transfers, allowing users to be transferred
gently and easily from a bed or trolley. The slide sheet is place beneath the patient and they are
gently slide on to the other bed or trolley, this prevents the need to physically lift the patient. It
must be done by the trained workers.

Wheelchair
Is a commonly used handling aid, to promote mobility for people who have difficulty in walking.
They can be manually pushed or powered. Care should be taken when moving in and around.

Powered Load-Handling Equipment

Forklift Trucks
There are many different types of forklift trucks used in the industries for carrying loads. The use
of forklift involves common range of hazards and control measures.

Forklift Hazards

Overturning

There are two main ways in which a forklift may turnover:

• Lateral instability: loaded forklift tips over whilst driving across a slope.

• Longitudinal instability: a forklift truck is moving up or down a slope.

Overturning is caused by the centre of gravity of the forklift moving outside of its wheelbase as
shown in the following diagrams of loaded forklifts.

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Falling of Load

Dur to unsafe stacking there is a possibility of load falling on to pedestrian or a supervisor who
monitors the lifting operation.

Striking Pedestrian

Workers may enter in to forklift movement area, or at crossing points there is possibility of
forklift colliding with pedestrian causing serious injury.

Trapped by Mast / Overhead Guard

Workers may get trapped between the mast and overhead guard

Fall from Height

Fall from height when the workers being raised on the forks of trucks and pallets which is not
adequately protected against from height.

Different types of powered forklift trucks used and their hazards

Diesel Powered trucks

• Internal combustion engines cause carbon monoxide poisoning.

• Fire hazard from bulk storage
• Spills may cause slippery surface; large quantity can cause environmental pollution.
• Contact with skin can cause dermatitis.
• High level of noise causes hearing damage.

Battery Powered trucks

• Explosion – hydrogen gas emitted from batteries during

charging, which makes a flammable atmosphere, when
there is source of ignition it creates explosion.
• Corrosive – batteries contain sulphuric acid which
corrodes on the skin

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• Manual handling – batteries are heavy, while changing batteries there is a risk of manual
handling.
• Electric Hazard – arc, sparks, or explosion due to short circuit of terminals, has potential to
cause electrocution during charging.

Liquified Petroleum Gas

• Carbon monoxide poising - incomplete combustion from

internal engines.
• Fire and explosion - if cylinders not fitter properly it may
lead leak LPG, also from bulk storage.
• Manual handling – LPG cylinders are heavy, while changing
cylinders there is a risk of manual handling.

Additional Hazard Associated with Forklift

• Over speeding of forklift.

• Excessive breaking.
• Reversing forklift can collide with pallets or racks.
• Insufficient lighting and signs.
• Poor visibility – sharp bends, concealed entrances and exits, blind spots.
• Lack of crossing points.
• Lack of segregation of forklift and pedestrians.

General Precautions for Safe Use of Forklift Trucks

• The operator should be competent to operate a forklift

• The operator must carry out a pre-user check prior to shift start, this can be done with a help
of checklist.
• Regular maintenance in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
• The load must be secured to avoid tipping.
• Do not exceed safe working limits.
• Do not raise people on forks, ensure a working platform is attached to the forks’
• Maintain speed limits set by the employer.
• Never operate with forks in raised position.
• Do not overload which can obstruct operations vision.
• Do not operate on uneven surface or on potholes.
• Indoor operation must have a good level of lighting.

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Control Measures for Powered Forklift Trucks
Diesel powered trucks

• Operated in a well-ventilated area.

• Storage limited to minimum quantity.
• Keep suitable fire extinguishers in the storage area.
• Turnoff engine before re-fuelling.
• Spill procedures must be developed, Spills must be cleaned immediately.
• Use PPE, gloves, goggles while handling diesel.

Battery powered trucks

• Charge batteries in a well-ventilated area to dissipate heat.

• When charging batteries, keep the battery vent caps in place to prevent electrolyte spray.
• wear safety glasses and a face shield for protection against electrolyte splash or spray.
• charging station must be equipped with a hoist to avoid manual handling risk.
• No smoking or performing activities which may produce source of ignition.
• Use suitable PPE insulated gloves, shoes to avoid electrocution.

Liquified Petroleum Gas

• Operated in well-ventilated area.

• Check for any leaks prior to start operation.
• LPG cylinders become cold during operation, use gloves while changing cylinders.
• Suitable fire extinguisher must be fitted to the forklift.
• Use hoists to lift cylinders to avoid manual handling risk.
• Provide well-ventilated storage facility for LPG cylinders.

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Pre-use Inspection
The forklift must be checked for defects before start of every shift to ensure it is good condition
and safe to operate. The pre-use inspection may include:

Tyres check all for wear or damage, and pressure

Fluids check oil, hydraulics, battery, fuel, and coolant
Seating check the condition and adjustment
Warning devices check lights, horns, reversing beeper and flashing light

Capacity check that the load capacity data plate is fitted, legible and correct
Mast check for signs of wear to the lift chains and guides
Hydraulic cylinders check for any leaks
and hoses
Seat belt make sure it is in good working order
Guarding check that all guards are in place.
Controls check that all pedals and controls operate correctly
Brakes check that all (including parking brake) operate correctly

Lifts and Hoists

Lifts and hoists are used for carrying people and goods between different levels. They are used
in high rise building, found temporarily on construction sites, even mobile devices are used to lift
people or material.

The hazards associated with lifts and hoists are:

• Overturn or collapse
• Strike people beneath the cage or platform.
• May fail to stop in safe position e.g. top or landing level
• People may come into contact with fixed or moving objects, e.g. landing level structures.
• Platform/cage may fall to the ground from failure of supporting ropes.
• Fall of objects, including people due to unprotected edge.
• Overload can cause structural collapse; the lift may fall from
high level.
• People may get trapped or entangled from the moving
parts.

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Precautions and Procedures
Lifts and hoists must be professionally designed, installed, and maintained to reduce risk. The
precautions include:

• operated only by trained and competent people

• operated from one position only, e.g. ground level clear visibility of landing levels.
• lifts/hoists must be properly constructed of sound materials
• properly marked as to use either for equipment and materials only, or for passengers in
addition to goods.
• Never allow passengers to ride on a goods only hoist
• safe working loads must be cleared marked.
• erected only by trained and experienced people following the manufacturer’s instructions
• lifts/hoists must be properly secured to the supporting structure
• thoroughly examined and tested.
• enclose the lifts / hoists and provide gates at all landings and at ground level.

Conveyors
Conveyors are different types such as belts, screw, and rollers to move loads or materials and
are often used in manufacturing, food, airports and distribution line.

The hazards associated with conveyors include:

Drawing-in occurs where clothing or limbs drawn in-running nip points

Cuts and abrasion when contact with moving parts.
Entanglement loose clothing, hair or jewellery being entangled with rotating
rollers and drive mechanism
Falling of objects from overhead conveyors, e.g. coal mines
Noise from rotating rollers and motors
Manual handling manual Loading and unloading

Conveyor belt used in packing section

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Precautions and Procedures
• Warning alarms – light and sound to alert people nearby that the conveyor is about to start
moving.
• Fixed guards to prevent entanglement from the rotating parts – drive mechanism.
• Overhead conveyor must be enclosed fully to prevent objects falling.
• Emergency stop buttons available at convenient locations or supplemented by pulling a wire
or called as grab wire, provided along the full length.
• Do not ride on conveyor at any time.
• Do not overload conveyor outside its design limits.
• Avoid loose clothing, fingers, hair, or other body parts away from the conveyor during
movement.
• Operator must be a trained person.
• Regular maintenance carried out competent person.
• Establish a system for reporting defects.

Cranes
Cranes can lift an astounding load, basically used to
shift loads from one place to another.

Types of Crane

• Crawler Crane with fixed boom

• Rough Terrain
• Tower Crane
• Telescopic & mobile crane
• Floating crane
• Bridge and gantry crane
• Overhead crane
Hazards Associated with Crane:

• Toppling or collapsing of crane

• Striking against fixed structure or.
• Falling of load
• People in and around may get strike due to mobile crane swing movement.
• Contact with overhead powerlines.
• Colliding with other cranes or moving vehicles.

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Factors that might lead to a mobile crane to collapse include:

• Exceeding the operating capacity or

operating radii.
• Operating on uneven ground condition.
• Fail to extend the outriggers.
• Operating in adverse weather condition
such as rain or high wind.
• Structural failure due to wear and tear or
load bearing parts being damaged.

Precautions and Procedures

General requirements for Cranes

• Lifting operation must be carefully planned and supervised by competent person.

• Ground condition must be capable of bearing the load.
• Site crane on even and rigid ground level.
• Outriggers must be fully extended.
• Select the crane which is suitable for the task – capable of bearing the load capacity.
• Lifting equipment should have adequate strength and stability for load.
• SWL – safe working load must be clearly marked on the crane and on accessories.
• People are not allowed to lift without authorisation.

Requirements for Safe lifting Operations

Planning and Preparation

• First step is to identify the risks involved by carrying out a risk assessment, draw up plan to
eliminate the or control the identified risks.
• check that the crane and any lifting accessories have a current thorough examination report.
• The crane operator must be trained and competent person.
• Select the crane suitable for the job, it will need to be able to lift the heaviest load at the
required radius.
• making sure a rated capacity indicator (automatic safe load indicator) is fitted
is in good working condition.
• selecting the most suitable lifting accessories (eg chains, slings, wire rope, hooks, spreader
beams etc) and method of slinging (choker sling, double wrap, cradle sling etc) relative to the
weight, shape, centre of gravity, lifting points and load stability.

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Carrying out the lift
• Followed by planning lifting operations are carried out under supervision of a competent
person who controls operator, slinger and signaller.
• Crane must be sited on a firm level ground away from structures or overhead power lines.
• Use tag lines to guide loads, eg in windy conditions or on large loads
• Proper planning of load routes to avoid loads being lifted over people.

Accessories

Lifting accessories includes slings, hooks, chain,

shackles, eyebolts, lifting beams and cradles. Since
these accessories are used in different environment,
they need to be protected from physical damage,
failure of lifting accessories could lead to fatal
accidents.

These lifting accessories attached and used correctly.

Accessories must be correctly attached and safely to

load by a competent person.

Lifting accessories should be maintained in good condition.

Lifting accessories are subject to checks – pre-user checks and statutory thorough examination
and certified by an authorised person.

Periodic Inspection and Examination of Lifting Equipment

• Lifting equipment must be thoroughly examined prior to first use.
• Followed by any assembly or change in the
location to ensure that it has been correctly
installed and safe to start operation.
• Followed by an event that causes a deterioration
of its strength or stability.
• A thorough examination must be done by a
competent person.

Frequency of thorough examination are as follows:

6 months – lifting equipment used to lift persons

and lifting accessories.

12 months – lifting equipment used to carry load or other lifting equipment.

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References

https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg90.pdf
http://www.oshc.org.hk/oshc_data/files/HotTopic/CB211E.pdf
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/l26.pdf
https://osha.europa.eu/en/themes/musculoskeletal-disorders
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/hsg60.pdf
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/l23.pdf
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/l117.pdf
https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/pm28.pdf
Health and safety in Construction HSG150
https://osha.europa.eu/en/legislation/directives/3

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 Element 7
Chemical and Biological Agents

Learning Objectives
1. Describe the forms of, the classification of and
the health risks from exposure to hazardous
substances.

2. Describe what should be considered when

undertaking an assessment of the health risks
from substances commonly encountered in
the workplace.

3. Describe the use and limitations of

occupational exposure limits including the
purpose of long-term and short-term
exposure limits

4. Describe control measures that should be

used to reduce the risk of ill health from
exposure to hazardous substances.

5. Describe the hazards, risks and controls

associated with specific agents.
 Contents

Forms of, Classification of and Health Risks from Hazardous Substances

Introduction to Health Risks from Hazardous Substances 7-1
Forms of Chemical Agents 7-1
Forms of Biological Agents 7-2
Acute and Chronic Health Effects 7-3
Classification of Chemical Hazardous to Health 7-3

Assessment of Health Risks

Routs of Entry 7-6

Defence Mechanism 7-12
Assessment of Health Risks 7-15
Product Information 7-15
Hazardous Substance Monitoring 7-18

Occupational Exposure Limits

Occupational Exposure Limits 7-25

Control Measures
The Need to Prevent or Control Exposure 7-29
Principles of Good Practice 7-30
The Practical Control of Exposure 7-31
Further Control of Carcinogens, Mutagens and Asthmagens 7-46

Specific Agents
Asbestos 7-48
Blood Borne Viruses 7-51
Carbon Monoxide 7-52
Cement 7-53
Legionella Bacteria 7-54
Leptospira Bacteria 7-55
Silica 7-56
Wood Dust 7-57
7.1 Forms of, Classification of and Health Risks from Hazardous Substances

Introduction to Health Risks from Hazardous Substances

Exposure to chemical and biological health hazards can cause an immediate health risk (e.g.
asphyxiation from carbon monoxide (CO) gas) or even physical injury (e.g. corrosive skin burn
from sulphuric acid). Less obviously, exposure can also have long-term health effects, which may
build gradually over time (e.g. lead poisoning) and, in some instances, will not be apparent until
years after the exposure that caused them (e.g. lung cancer caused by asbestos). The forms and
classification of chemicals and biological agents that cause these short-term and long-term health
effects are detailed in this section.

Forms of Chemical Agents

Chemical

Variety of chemicals is used in the workplace, as you are aware it possesses many health hazards
the humans. E.g. Floor cleaning liquid. We also need to consider the work or work processes that
generate chemical agents; floor polishing activity creates silica dust. The same chemical may be
found in different form as well as vary from hazard based on its physical form.

A granite stone is less hazardous than the granite dust generated during polish.

Solids

Dust consists of fine particles of solid matters generated during work e.g. handling cement in a
construction work; dust can get in to air and settle on the surfaces.

Fibres

Fibre is a natural or synthetic substance, often used in the manufacture of other materials. E.g.
Natural Fibre – Asbestos, Wood fibre, and man-made nylon, polyester fibres. Exposure to both
natural and man-made fibres is harmful.

Fumes

Fumes are very fine solid particles present in the form of gas. Fumes are formed when metal is
heated above its boiling point and its vapour condenses into fine particles. For e.g. welding fumes
contains particles of electrode and the metal being welded. These fumes are highly toxic when
inhaled.

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Gases

A gas is a state of matter which will expand to occupy the space in which it is enclosed. Gases are
produced during chemical process involving combustion or due to reaction of chemical substances.
E.g. Chlorine, methane, carbon monoxide.

Mists

Mists are tiny liquid droplets, becomes airborne during mechanical force e.g. spray paint.

Vapours

Vapours can be condensed to a liquid by increasing its pressure without reducing its temperature.
E.g. Vapour given off by petrol when the container lid is opened.

Liquids

Liquids retain constant volume but don’t have a fixed shape. Liquid substances remain liquid at
normal temperature and pressure. There many chemicals used in the workplace are harmful are
present in the form of liquid. E.g. Acids, corrosives or organic solvents.

Forms of Biological Agents

Biological

Biological hazards results in ill health from exposure to harmful micro-organisms, as this can enter
the body through various routes resulting in infection, acute or chronic diseases. The biological
agents in the form of Bacterial, Virus and Fungi.

Bacteria

Bacteria are single celled organisms. E.g. Leptospira, spread through urine of infected animals,
which can get into water or soil, as this can get contacted with humans when exposed to
contaminated water or soil, then the bacteria enters into the body through mouth, cut skin.

Virus

An infectious agent, that can multiply on living cells. E.g. Hepatitis B when exposed to contaminated
blood or through body fluids.

Fungi

Fungi is a micro-organism which reproduces by producing spores which may travel in the air or
through water. Fungi are decomposers in the eco systems. E.g. yeast, mushroom and moulds.

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Acute and Chronic Health Effects
Two different types of effect can occur when a person is exposed to a hazardous substance:

• Acute effects – the effects are short-term. They usually appear immediately or within a
relatively short time after exposure, that is, within a few minutes. Acute effects often occur as a
result of exposure to high levels of the substance, sometimes over very short periods of time. For
example, exposure to high concentrations of chlorine gas causes immediate irritation to the
respiratory system.

Acute effects will often disappear once exposure has stopped. However some substances, such as
cyanide, have such a pronounced acute effect that exposure is likely to be fatal.

• Chronic effects – the effects are long-term. Sometimes, the effects will persist for months or
years; in some cases, they will last a lifetime. Chronic effects usually occur as a result of exposure
to lower levels of the substance over long periods of time, are normally gradual and are often
progressive and irreversible. For example, respiratory sensitisation to flour dust can occur as a
result of repeated exposure to flour dust over several years. Once a worker is sensitised, their
reaction to flour dust may last the rest of their life. Some chronic health effects only become
apparent years after exposure, for example asbestosis occurs 10–20 years after multiple
exposures to asbestos.

Note that many hazardous substances can have both acute and chronic effects. For example,
exposure to high concentrations of industrial cleaning solvent can have a narcotic effect (acute),
and daily exposure to much lower levels can cause liver damage if it continues for many years
(chronic). Alcohol is another toxic substance that has both acute and chronic health effects.

Specific examples of chemical and biological agents hazardous to health and outlines of their
health effects can be found in the section on specific agents later in this element.

Classification of Hazardous Substance to Health

Chemicals can be broadly classified according to three types of danger:

• Physico-chemical – such as highly flammable, explosive or oxidising.

• Health – such as toxic or carcinogenic.
• Environmental – such as harmful to aquatic life.

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Forms and Classifications of Hazardous Substances

SYMBOL HAZARD PRECAUTIONS

Explosive; fire, blast or projection hazard Keep away from

heat/sparks/open
May mass explode in fire.
flames/hot surfaces. – No
Example: Fireworks, ammunition smoking.

May cause fire or explosion, Oxidiser. Keep container tightly

closed, Keep away from
Example: sodium hypochlorite
heat/ sparks/ open
(bleach), Organic peroxides flames/ no smoking.

Highly or extremely flammable gas, aerosol, Keep container tightly

liquid and vapour. closed, use tools which
doesn’t produce spark.
Example: Nail Polish, Thinner, Lamp Oil
Do not heat, keep away
from heat sources.

Corrosive to metals, Keep in original

Causes severe skin burns and eye damage. container, wash hands
thoroughly after
Example: Acetic Acids,
handling. Wear Protective
Ammoniac, hydrochloric acid clothing, face shields,
gloves.

Causes harm or kill if swallowed, inhaled or in Do not eat, drink or

contact with skin. smoke when using this
product. Use Protective
Example: Pesticide, biocide, methanol
clothing, avoid skin and
eye contact.

Toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects. Avoid release to the
environment
Example: Pesticides, biocides, petrol,
Collect spillage.
turpentine

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 May cause allergy or asthma symptoms or Read Safety precautions
breathing difficulties if inhaled, may cause before use. Use
genetic defects. respiratory protective
equipment.
Example: Turpentine, petrol, lamp oil

May causes respiratory irritation, harmful if Avoid skin and eye

swallowed, may cause skin irritation or allergic contact.
skin reaction.

Example: washing detergent, cleaning fluids,

silicone, varnish.

Gas under pressure, may explode if heated. Protect from Sunlight,

Contains refrigerated gas; may cause cryogenic wear cold insulating
burns or injury gloves, wear face shields

Example: LPG, Butane

The purpose of hazard communication is to ensure that the hazards of all chemicals produced are
classified as dangerous. The classification can be identified with the help of labelling available on the
product, packaging materials and MSDS in the form of pictograms.

Pictorial are graphic images used to identify the hazardous product, what type of hazard is present
in it.

A non-binding international agreement from United Nations called ‘Globally Harmonised System of
Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), is being globally accepted and recognized in national
legislation of the countries that adopts GHS.

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 Assessment of Health Risks 7.2

Routes of entry of Hazardous Substances into the Body

Inhalation

Breathing in hazardous substances is the common route of entry via nose or mouth. The inhaled
hazardous substances are either exhaled out or settled in the respiratory tracts, it can cause direct
contact with tissues or diffused in the blood through lung blood interface.

Hazardous substances in the form of dust, mists, vapour etc. can enter deep into the lung when they
physical form is very fine.

Ingestion

Hazardous substances enter into the mouth and are swallowed usually doesn’t harm
gastrointestinal tract, unless if they are corrosive or irritant. Substances are ingested at workplace
due to lack of hygiene. Eating or drinking without washing hands can cause contaminations from
hands to be swallowed.

Absorption

Skin contact or eyes, Substance contact on the skin can cause local effects such as redness of skin or
dermatitis, severe effects including skin corrosion, entering blood streams causing liver damage etc.
E.g. Toluene.

Injection

Substances may enter the body if the

skin is punctured by contaminated sharp
objects. The substance is then circulated
in to the blood streams and damaging
target organs.

The biological agents can also be

injected into the body using needles. E.g.
Hepatitis B Virus.
Routes of Entry of chemicals into the Body
These represent the four main routes of
entry, though there are others, such as through the lining of the eye (which has a very rich
blood supply) and by aspiration (inhaling a liquid into the lungs).

Inhalable and Respirable Dust

Dust can be inhaled through the nose and mouth, but not all dust will travel down deep into the
lungs. Dust is made up of small particles of various diameters. Large dust particles are filtered out

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by the lungs’ defense mechanisms before they can travel down into the lungs; smaller particles are
not trapped by these defences and will travel deep into the lungs.

These two types of dust are called:

• Inhalable dust – particles of all sizes that can be inhaled into the nose and mouth.
• Respirable dust – particles less than 7 microns (7/1,000 mm) in diameter that can travel deep into
the lungs on inhaled breath.

The Human Body

Physiology & Anatomy

Physiology is the study of the function of the body, whereas anatomy is the study of the
structure of the body.

The body consists of millions of cells, which form ‘tissues’, e.g. muscular tissue and nervous
tissue, and organs, e.g. the heart, brain and kidneys.

Nerve cells have long fibres, which are capable of carrying electrical impulses; some cells in
the stomach wall produce hydrochloric acid to digest food and cells in the glands produce
chemicals, which influence other cells, such as the thyroid gland that produces adrenalin.

The work of each cell is controlled. If something affects the control of a cell, it may grow
rapidly or react in an unusual way. This sort of cell behaviour occurs in cancer when a group
of cells grow abnormally and invade adjacent tissues.

There are five main functional systems within the human body and each of these systems
comprises one or more organs. If one organ of the body is not functioning correctly then
others may also be affected and affect the health of the individual as a whole. The five
systems are the: respiratory system; digestive system; cardiovascular system; urinary
system; and skin.

The Respiratory System

The respiratory system consists of the respiratory tract

(nose, mouth, larynx, trachea and bronchi), and lungs
(bronchioles and alveoli).

The lungs are expanded by means of the diaphragm and

draw in air that reaches the tiny air sacs (alveoli). The wall
of the alveoli is so thin that air passes through it and
enters the fine blood vessels surrounding the alveoli. The Respiratory System.

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The blood absorbs oxygen from the air and gives up the waste product (carbon dioxide) into the
alveoli, from where it is exhaled as the lungs contract. This process is termed the gaseous exchange.
The oxygen-enriched blood is returned to the heart from where it is pumped around the body.

The Digestive System

The digestive tract is made up of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, large and small intestine,
colon and rectum.

Food and water pass into the stomach for digestion. They then pass to the small intestine
where nutrients and energy from the food are absorbed into the blood stream and distributed
around the body. Almost all absorption into the body takes place in the small intestine.

Undigested matter and water pass to the large intestine where most of the water is
absorbed into the bloodstream. Waste material finally passes to the rectum and is expelled
from the body.

The Digestive System.

The Cardiovascular System

The heart pumps blood, which consists of plasma, red, and white blood cells, around the body.
The plasma assists in the clotting and scar forming (fibrosis) processes. The red blood cells

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contain hemoglobin, which delivers oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the body. The
white blood cells are of several kinds and form part of the body’s defence mechanism against
bacteria and viruses. The yellow fluid (pus) which can form pimples or is seen around a
splinter or cut, consists of many dead cells and is the remains of an attack by the white blood
cells on an invading organism.

The bloodstream also transports harmful chemical and biological agents.

The Cardiovascular System.

The Urinary System

The urinary system extracts waste products from the blood stream. The principal organs of
this system are the liver, the kidneys and the bladder. Of these the liver and the kidneys are
the most important.

The main function of the liver is to neutralise toxic substances and regulate body
temperature. The liver will try to convert these substances into a less harmful substance, this
process can result in damage to the liver, but it has a great deal of spare capacity.

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Sometimes the liver alters a substance to something that will affect another organ, e.g. beta-
naphthylamine (a toxic substance in rubber fumes) is converted by the liver into a substance
that can cause cancer of the bladder. The liver also maintains the blood in a clean and efficient
state.

The main function of the kidneys is to regulate the quantity of water in the body.

They also maintain a constant balancing of the various salts and electrolytes essential for the
health of the body and filter out those that are either harmful or non-essential.

Unwanted water and dissolved substances are passed to the bladder and then leave the body.

Urinary System

The Skin

The skin is the largest organ of the body and its function is to provide a barrier to protect the
body against the environment and to exert a degree of body temperature control.
There are two main layers of the skin, the dermis, and the epidermis.

Dermis

The dermis contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, sensory nerve endings, sweat glands and
ducts, hair roots and follicles and sebaceous glands, which secrete an oily substance, called

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sebum. Sebum helps in maintaining hair condition but also waterproofs the skin and prevents
it from cracking. Sebum also acts as a bactericidal and fungicidal agent.

Epidermis

Contains no blood vessels or nerve endings and its outer surface is essentially dead cells,
which are constantly being rubbed off and replaced.

The epidermis plays an important role in protecting the organs of the body including the
dermis. The epidermis allows liquids (sweat) to pass outwards through sweat glands in order
to cool the body. The inner layers of the epidermis also generate melanin, a pigment that is
darkened by sunlight, providing some protection from ultraviolet light.

Target Organs
A target organ is part of the body, e.g. lungs, brain, kidneys, liver, skin, which sustains an
adverse effect when it is exposed to, or is contaminated by, a particular harmful agent.
Harmful agents include:

chemical agents, e.g. dusts, fumes, gases, mists, vapours and liquids; and
biological agents, e.g. fungi, bacteria and viruses.

Harmful agents can cause both local and systemic effects

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Local effects occur when the site of the damage is at the point of contact with the substance,
e.g. a corrosive burn on the skin.

Systemic effects occur when the site of damage is at a point other than the point of contact,
such as a target organ, e.g. the effect of inhaled lead fumes on the brain.

The Body Defence Mechanisms

The various functional systems have as their main function the maintenance of a healthy
body. The systems are constantly regulating conditions inside the body to balance the
activities of the person with the environmental conditions outside the body.

The response of the body to a variety of environmental conditions, sometimes called

‘environmental stresses’, will range from the harmless, such as sweating or coughing, to a
variety of diseases.

The body has two main categories of defence mechanism to combat attack by biological agents
and chemicals. Very broadly, these are:

Cellular defence (‘internal’ defence) – allows cells to fight bacteria and other toxins that have
entered mostly from blood, respiratory and ingestion routes.

Superficial defence (‘external’ defence) – protects against toxins that enter through the skin
and against the collection of contaminants that enter via the nose and throat by trapping them
in hairs and mucus.

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Superficial Mechanisms

Table 1: Defence mechanism of various body parts.

BODY PART DEFENCES

Respiratory Defences • The hair & wetness of the nose which takes air in upwards
direction.
• The change of direction of the Larynx., Results in dust
above micros deposited in nasal cavity.
• Sneezing & Coughing to remove inhaled & harmful
substance.
• Centrifugal motion of respiratory track. Its design gives
turbulence motion. Which tend throw dust (5 to 10 micron)
outward.
• Tiny hair in the track carry any particles back up to the
larynx. Particles are either spat out or swallowed.
• White blood cells in alveoli attract foreign body by
ingesting them or surrounding them.
• Fibrosis – although scarring of the lungs will inhibit their
capacity.
• Dust particles 0.5 to 7 micros & fiber less than 5 micron
suspended in the air & exhale from lungs. Some will remain
& attached to the lungs & cause chronic disease.
• Substance enter the blood stream from respiratory system
will eventually reach the liver. Liver can deal with many toxic
substances.

Ingestion Defences • A harmful ingested substance has to survive the acid in the
stomach & the various enzyme and bacteria with in
digestive track. Some harmful substance cause immediate
reaction causes the defence mechanism of vomiting and
diarrhea.
Skin Defences • Epidermis provides protection on outer layer & dermis
control member of defence.
• Sebum secretions provide protection against water, weak
acid & alkalis. Prevent from skin drying.
• Melanin protection against Ultra Violet light.
• Blister, rashes & inflammation – Reaction to damage or
attack & result from increase flow of blood.

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 Other Defences • Team & blinking of eyes, pain, hormones. (Adrenalin
released. When body stressed).

Cellular Mechanisms
The Cells of the body possess their own defence systems.

Table 2: Defence mechanisms of cells.

Scavenging action A type of white blood cell called macrophages attack invading
particles in order to destroy them and remove them from the body.
This process is known as phagocytosis.
Secretion of defensive Is done by some specialised cells.
substances
Adrenaline is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands during
high stress or exciting situations. This powerful hormone is part of
the human body's acute stress response system, also called the
"fight or flight" response. It works by stimulating the heart rate,
contracting blood vessels, and dilating air passages, all of which
work to increase blood flow to the muscles and oxygen to the lungs.

Histamine is a chemical in the body that is released when the body

is exposed to an allergen. Allergens may include airborne allergens
(such as pollen and dust mites), certain foods (such as peanuts and
shellfish) or insect venom. Histamine is released in an effort to
protect the body from an allergen; however, sometimes an
overload of histamine can result in life- threatening symptoms.

Prevention of excessive Reduced circulation through blood clotting and coagulation

blood loss prevents excessive bleeding and slows or prevents the entry of
bacteria.

Heparin is an anticoagulant (blood thinner) that prevents the

formation of blood clots and is produced naturally in the lungs
and liver.

Repair of damaged Is a necessary defence mechanism which includes removal of dead

tissues cells, increased availability of defender cells and replacement of
tissue strength, for example, scar tissue caused by silica.

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 The lymphatic system Acts as a 'form of drainage system' throughout the body for the
removal of foreign bodies. Lymphatic glands or nodes at specific
points in the system act as selective filters preventing infection from
entering the blood system. In many cases a localised
inflammation occurs in the node at this time.

Assessment of Health Risks

Where workers might potentially be exposed to hazardous substances through the course of their
work, it will be necessary to assess that potential to ensure that harm does not occur. In Great
Britain, this is a requirement of the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002
(COSHH). These regulations reflect EU directive requirements.

The steps to carrying out a hazardous substance risk assessment are:

1. Identify the hazardous substances present and the people who might potentially be exposed.
2. Gather information about the substances.
3. Evaluate the health risk.
4. Identify any controls needed and implement them.
5. Record the assessment and action taken.
6. Review.

When identifying the hazardous substances present in the workplace, remember that they can be
created by work processes. For example, welding metal creates a metal fume; mixing bleach and
acid together can create chlorine gas. These hazardous substances (the metal fume and the
chlorine gas) do not come pre-packaged and labelled, but are created by the work process.

Sources of Information
Information about the nature of a hazardous substance can be obtained from many different
sources. Three of the most commonly used sources are the:

• Product label.
• Relevant guidance notes that contain information about Occupational Exposure Limits (OELs).
• Safety data sheet for the substance.

Product Label

According to (Classification, Labelling and packaging) CLP Article 17, a substance and mixture
classified as hazardous must bear a label including the following elements:

• Name, address and telephone number of the supplier(s).

•The nominal quantity of the substance or mixture in the package where this is being made
available to the general public, unless this quantity is specified elsewhere on the package.

• Product identifiers.

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• Hazard pictograms, where applicable.
• The relevant signal word, where applicable..
• Hazard statements, where applicable.
• Appropriate precautionary statements where applicable.
• A section for supplemental information, where applicable.

Example of Hazardous Chemical Label

Health and Safety Executive Guidance Note EH40

OELs are legal limits on the airborne concentrations of substances that workers can be exposed
to. In the UK, these OELs are called Workplace Exposure Limits (WELs) and they are published
by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) in Guidance Note EH40. This document can, therefore,
be a useful source of reference when undertaking a hazardous substance risk assessment.
WELs will be explained fully in the next section of this element.

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 LTEL (8-Hour TWA STEL (15-Minute Reference
Substance Formula CAS Number
Reference Period) Period)

ppm mg/m3 ppm mg/m3

Hydrogen
H2S 7783-06-04 5 7 10 14
Sulphide

Safety Data Sheet (SDS)

Hazard communication legislation requires suppliers of hazardous substances to provide

safety data sheets. The basic design and section headings for this document generally follow
a globally used standard (based on an ANSI/ISO standard). The detailed content can vary
significantly over the world; this is not surprising since the classification systems also vary
throughout the world. Safety Data Sheets are intended to provide users with sufficient
information about the hazards of the chemicals for them to take appropriate steps to ensure
health and safety in the workplace in relation to all aspects of their use, including their
transport and disposal.

Safety data sheets must contain the following information in 16 sections:

1. Identification of the substance or preparation and supplier – its commercial name,

identical to that on the label. The supplier – name, address and emergency contact
phone numbers.
2. Composition and information on ingredients – chemical names.
3. Hazard identification – a summary of the most important features, including likely
adverse human health effects and symptoms.

4. First aid measures – separated for the various risks, and specific, practical and easily
understood.
5. Fire-fighting measures – emphasizing any special requirements.
6. Accidental release measures – covering safety, environmental protection and clean- up.
7. Handling and storage – recommendations for best practice, including any special
storage conditions or incompatible materials.
8. Exposure controls and personal protection – any specific recommendations, such as
particular ventilation systems and PPE.

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9. Physical and chemical properties – physical, stability and solubility properties.
10. Stability and reactivity – conditions and materials to avoid.
11. Toxicological information – acute and chronic effects, routes of exposure and
symptoms.
12. Ecological information – environmental fate of the chemical and its effects, which could
include patterns of degradation and effects on aquatic, soil and terrestrial organisms,
etc.
13. Disposal considerations – advice on specific dangers and legislation.
14. Transport information – special precautions.
15. Regulatory Information – overall classification of the product and any specific legislation
that may be applicable.
16. Other information – any additional relevant information not captured in preceding
sections (e.g. explanation of abbreviations used, product disclaimers).

Use and Limitations of Information in Assessing Risks to Health

Product labels, safety data sheets and the WELs provide detailed information about the
hazards and risks associated with a wide variety of hazardous substances. They ensure that
users are well briefed on the properties of materials used in the workplace and such essential
requirements as exposure limits, toxicological effects, first aid and safety precautions such as
any personal protective equipment necessary. This is an essential first step towards putting
in place effective control measures necessary to prevent harm.

However, it is important to remember that this information is not all that is required to
establish effective controls. The basis of determining control measures is the risk assessment.
Whilst information from the sources discussed here feeds into a risk assessment, it is only one
part of it. It must be complemented by further information about the nature of the work and
working practices before any evaluation is made about the risks to health posed by substances
used at work.

Remember that product labels, safety data sheets and WELs are general statements of the
hazards. They do not allow for the localised conditions in which the substances are to be used
which affect the risk.

Role and Limitations of Hazardous Substance Monitoring

Role and Hazardous Substance Monitoring

The role of hazardous substance monitoring is to determine the level of likely exposure of
workers to substances in order to establish the likely effects on the worker. Hazardous
substance monitoring can help to identify and assessealth risks in the workplace. It can be

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used to determine compliance with National or other worker exposure limits and determine
what controls are required to remain within the limits. Monitoring can establish if current
controls are adequate to limit exposure and assist in choosing appropriate personal protective
equipment (PPE). Monitoring can provide information on patterns of exposure and levels of
risk that managers can use and provide to workers. It can also indicate the need for health
surveillance of groups and individual workers.

Limitations of Hazardous Substance Monitoring

As described previously, the health effects of exposure to toxic substances can be acute or
chronic. It is therefore necessary to use appropriate methods of measurement to distinguish
these effects. It is also important to understand the limitation of any hazardous substance
monitoring method used, for example, the risk of cross contamination of similar substances
being measured and the fact that general workplace monitoring may not represent specific
worker exposure.

Hazardous substance monitoring of the presence of a chemical in the air may not represent
the worker’s complete exposure, for example there may be additional exposure to the
chemical by skin contact or orally through poor hygiene arrangements.

One of the main limitations of hazardous substance monitoring is the competence of the
person conducting the monitoring. It is reliant on them conducting monitoring at the time
that represents real exposure of workers and using methods that will give reliable
measurements.

When carrying out monitoring related to dusts it is important to discern the amount of dust
that can penetrate the airway and cause harm. If the person conducting the monitoring does
not understand the difference between 'total inhalable dust' and 'respirable dust' there is a
risk that unsuitable measurements may be taken.

Total inhalable dust' is the amount of airborne material that enters the nose and mouth
during breathing and is available for deposition in the body. 'Respirable dust' is the amount
of airborne material that penetrates to the gas exchange region of the lung.

General Approach to Hazardous Substance Monitoring

When embarking upon a monitoring campaign to assess the risk to which an individual may
be exposed, it is necessary to ask several questions.

What to sample?
This involves a review of the materials, processes and operating procedures being used
within a process, coupled with discussions with management and health and safety
personnel. A brief 'walkthrough' survey can also be useful as a guide to the extent of

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monitoring that may be necessary. Health and safety data sheets are also of use. When the
background work has been completed it can then be decided what is to be measured.

On whom?
This depends on the size and diversity of the group that the survey relates to. From the group
of workers being surveyed the sample to be monitored should be selected; this must be
representative of the group and the work undertaken. Selecting the individual with the
highest exposure can be a reasonable starting point. If the group is large then random
sampling may have to be employed, but care has to be exercised with this approach. The
group should also be aware of the reason for sampling.

How long should the sample be for?

There are many considerations when answering this question: what are the control limits; is
the hazard acute or chronic; what is our limit of detection; or simply what resources are
available?

How is monitoring done?

The particular sampling strategy, based on the hazard presented, is outlined in the following
table.

Table 3: The sampling strategy, based on the hazards.

MEASUREMENTS TO SUITABLE TYPES OF MEASUREMENT

DETERMINE
Chronic hazard Continuous personal dose measurement.
Continuous measurements of average background levels.
Short-term readings of containment levels at selected
positions and times.
Acute hazard Continuous personal monitoring with rapid response.
Continuous background monitoring with rapid response.
Short-term readings of background contaminant levels at
selected positions and times.
Environmental control Continuous background monitoring.
status Short-term readings of background contaminant levels at
selected positions and times.
Whether area is safe to Direct reading instruments.
Enter

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Basic Monitoring Equipment

Survey Techniques for Health Risks

The measurement of hazardous substance concentrations in the atmosphere will be required
when there are likely to be serious risks to health in the event of a failure or deterioration of
control measures. Therefore, measurement would be necessary if there were uncertainty
that workplace exposure limits had not been exceeded or that particular control measures
were not working properly. Survey techniques include:

• an initial appraisal, e.g. information gathering and observation;

• a basic survey, e.g. qualitative or quantitative indication (short-term ‘grab’ sampling); and
• a full survey, e.g. detailed quantitative long-term sampling.

Initial Appraisal
At first an initial appraisal of the hazards and risks needs to be undertaken, taking into account
all of the relevant factors such as:

• substances used, including physical forms and properties;

• processes involved, including points of release;
• persons who could be affected;
• work practices, including means by which substances could be released;
• whether RPE or other forms of PPE is worn and its effectiveness or ergonomic concerns;
and relevant Occupational Exposure Limits.

From this information and some qualitative observations, a decision can then be made
regarding the need for measuring (monitoring).

Basic Survey
Qualitative observations may be made to give an indication of whether there are grounds to
require quantitative measurement, e.g. using smoke tubes or dust observation lamps.

The smoke tube will give an indication of the direction and relative speed of air movements.
It is often used to observe the effectiveness of a ventilation system.

The dust lamp will allow dusts, which are normally invisible to the naked eye, to be observed
in a manner similar to a beam of sunlight in a darkened room.

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Neither device can estimate the concentration of the dust cloud but may indicate that air monitoring
is required.

Tyndall Beam Apparatus.

A quantitative indication of a gas or vapour can be achieved using a stain tube detector (grab
sampler). A sample of air is drawn over crystals in a calibrated tube via a hand pump. The
gas or vapour needs to be identified before this method is used as the specific tube for the
substance should be obtained.

The presence of a hazardous substance causes the crystals to change colour. The tube is
calibrated so that the extent of the crystal colour change along the tube indicates the
concentration in parts per million (ppm) of the hazardous substance in the air sample.

There are over 200 tubes available, e.g. oxygen, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, H2S,
acetone, etc.

An extension tube is available to permit sampling in a confined space without the tester
having to enter the space.

Stain Detector Tube.

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 Table 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Grab Sampling.

Advantages of Grab Sampling Disadvantages of Grab Sampling

• low cost; • inaccurate;
• takes little time; • results depend upon positioning of the
• immediate result; tube;
• operators need little experience; • only a ‘snap shot’ is taken during a
• gives indication during emergency small amount of time;
spillages, etc.; and • the pump may be inefficient or
• good for ‘coarse’ indication of inaccurate in each sample;
measurement. • chemical use only (no dusts); and
• substance specific – the substance
sampled must be known.

Full Survey

Where accurate measurements are required the long-term sampling,

method is used.

Long-term does not necessarily refer to a long time period, it could be

based on a few minutes, or several days of sampling.

Unlike grab sampling, which just measures an instantaneous

concentration, long-term sampling enables a ‘Time Weighted Average’
(TWA) concentration to be determined, which allows for comparison
against an occupational exposure limit and appropriate judgements to
Personal Monitors
be made whether control is achieved.

‘Direct reading and indirect reading’ are the two principal methods of long-term sampling.

Direct Reading Instruments

These are very technical instruments, e.g. portable infra-red gas analyser used to test for
gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, chlorine, which
are usually operated by specialists. They are very accurate and provide a quick reading. Some
of these instruments will provide a print out of the various levels during the sampling period
as well as converting the reading to the Time Weighted Average (TWA).

Permanent direct reading static sampling equipment is used in some industries. This is more
properly defined as ‘Monitoring Equipment’, which will normally give an alarm if certain levels
of oxygen or a toxic gas are encountered and does not provide any facility for a direct reading

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of concentration in air; these are also used for monitoring during work rather than evaluation
of levels.

There is a range of direct reading instruments available to indicate the levels of flammable
gas or vapour in air, sometimes termed ‘Explosive-meters’. These will either be set for the
specific Upper Flammable Limit or Upper Explosive Level (UFL / UEL) and Lower Flammable
Level or Lower Explosive Level (LFL / LEL) of the particular gas or vapour, e.g. methane.
Commonly direct reading instruments used in industry include ‘three in one’ or ‘four in one’
multi-gas instruments, which continually measure oxygen level, flammable gas and one or
two toxic gases such as carbon monoxide and / or hydrogen sulphide. This type of
instrumentation can be used to monitor atmospheres for work within confined spaces.

Indirect Reading Instruments

These provide methods of sampling the atmosphere, which is then analysed in a laboratory to
determine the amount of material collected. They have the advantage that the results are accurate
and give a TWA, however it takes time to obtain a result. Various forms of equipment are used
depending on the material being sampled:

Passive samplers. These are usually in the form of a badge or tube samplers, onto which the
contaminant diffuses. The monitoring time is noted and the badge is then sent to an approved
laboratory for analysis where a calculation is made to produce a TWA for comparison with the
appropriate LTEL / STEL. The advantage of this method is that no pump is required and the sampler
can be left for several days or weeks if necessary

Active samplers. A pre-set volume of sample air is continuously drawn through a collection
medium or filter housed in a sampling head connected to a pump via tubing. The monitoring time is
noted and the filter is sent to an approved laboratory for analysis where a calculation is made to
produce a TWA for comparison with the appropriate LTEL/ STEL. It is more accurate than a stain
tube detector and can be used for both gases and dusts.

The sampling can be either:

personal sampling. These may be passive or active samplers:

• For passive sampling the badge or tube sampler is placed in the worker’s breathing
zone; and
• For active sampling the sampling head is placed in the worker’s breathing zone with
the pump strapped to the worker’s waist; or
static sampling. These may be passive or active samplers. They are placed at static points,
usually operator stations, and are used for environmental sampling.

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Advantages of long-term samplers:

• Will monitor the workplace over a long period of time.

• Will accurately identify 8-hour time weighted average.

Disadvantages of long-term samplers:

• Will not generally identify a specific type of contaminant.

• Will not identify multiple exposure i.e. more than one contaminant.
• Does not identify personal exposure.
• Unless very sophisticated, will not read peaks and troughs.

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7.3 Occupational Exposure Limit

Introduction
In general, the occupational exposure limit (OEL) represents the maximum airborne concentration
of a toxic substance to which a worker can be exposed over a period of time without suffering any
harmful consequences.

Purpose of Occupational Exposure Limits

Occupational exposure limits (OELs) provide the basis for controlling airborne contamination
of the working environment. They define standards for air quality in terms of the amount of
a particular substance which is acceptable in the atmosphere. The air quality standard is
usually a time weighted average value rather than a single measurement. It may be an
obvious point but the standards also relate to personal exposure, or that to which a worker
is actually exposed.

Long Term and Short-Term Limits

The effects due to exposure to hazardous substances depend on the nature of the substance
and the length of the exposure; some effects require prolonged or accumulated exposure
whilst other effects become apparent very quickly. WELs are therefore usually stated as:

• Long Term Exposure Limit – the level of airborne contaminant allowable over an eight-
hour period, used for substances producing chronic effects.
• Short Term Exposure Limit (15 minutes) – the level of airborne contaminant allowable over
a 15-minute period, used for substances producing acute effects.

The concentration levels are expressed as time-weighted averages (TWA). This means that
measurements are taken over the period in question and the airborne concentrations are
then averaged out.

The concept of a TWA allows concentration levels to exceed the limit, provided that there are
equivalent exposures below it to compensate. There are often no stated levels of the extent
to which the limits may be exceeded, but the general rule is that in exposures of one-and-a-
half times above the limit requires urgent improvement in control strategies.

Measuring Exposure in Units

The two main units used for measuring airborne concentrations are:

• Parts per million (ppm).

• Milligrams per cubic metre of air (mg/m3, or mg m-3).

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The gaseous state (vapours and gases) is measured in ppm and refers to the number of parts
of vapour or gas of a substance in a million parts of air by volume, measured at a standard
temperature and pressure (usually 25°C and 760 mm Hg, respectively). Particulate matter in
dusts, fumes, etc. is measured in mg/m3, which refers to the milligrams of the substance per
cubic metre of air.
One further unit of measurement is used in relation to fibres (such as asbestos).
Concentrations of fibres are expressed in:

• Fibres per millilitre of air (fibres ml-1).

Why Time-Weighted Averages Are Used

A worker can be exposed to different levels of inhalation of a hazardous substance throughout
the working day.

At some times, they may be exposed to high levels of contaminant; at other times, the
exposure level may be low. In many cases, it will not be practical to measure an individual's
exposure for all of the working period.

A time-weighted average is equal to the sum of the part of each time period, which is
multiplied by the exposure level of the contaminant in that time period. It is then divided by
the hours in the working day (usually eight hours) and the level indicated as a time-weighted
average (as seen above). That is, the average of all the total exposures in the working day.
This can be significant where the concentration of the chemical changes through the day, or
the time exposure varies.

ACGIH defines three categories of threshold limit values:

Threshold Limit Value – Time-Weighted Average (TLV-TWA): The concentration of a hazardous

substance in the air averaged over an 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek to which it is
believed that workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day, for a working lifetime without
adverse effects.

Threshold Limit Value – Short-term exposure (TLV-STEL): A 15-minute time weighted average
exposure that should not be exceeded at any time during a workday, even if the overall 8-hour TLV-
TWA is below the TLV-TWA. Workers should not be exposed more than four times per day to
concentrations between TLV-TWA and TLV-STEL. There should be at least a 60-minute interval
between exposures. The short-term exposure threshold has been adopted to account for the acute
effects of substances that have primarily chronic affects.

Threshold Limit Value – Ceiling (TLV-C): This is the concentration that should not be exceeded
during any part of the working exposure. Peak exposures should be always controlled. For

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substances that do not have TLV-TWA or TLV-C established, the maximum admissible peak
concentrations must not exceed:

• Three-times the value of the TLV-TWA for no more than 15 minutes, no more than four times per
workday. Exposures must be at least 1 hour apart during the workday.
• Five times the TLV-TWA under any circumstances.

Limitations of Exposure Limits

It is important to remember that WELs have their limitations:

• WELs are designed only to control the absorption of harmful substances into the body following
inhalation. They are not concerned with absorption following ingestion or through contact with
the skin or eyes. So, for example, the concentration of organic solvent in a person’s body may be
at damagingly high levels, even though the WEL has not been exceeded, because most of the
solvent may have been entering through the skin by direct contact with the liquid solvent rather
than by inhalation of solvent vapour.

• They take no account of individual personal susceptibility. This is particularly important in the
case of substances that produce an allergic response; once a person has become sensitised, the
exposure limit designed to suit the average person has no further validity.

• They do not take into account the synergistic (or combined) effects of mixtures of substances
(e.g. the use of multiple substances). Some chemicals are harmful individually but much more
harmful in combination. One example is asbestos and cigarette smoke – both can cause lung
cancer, but the lung cancer risk of an asbestos worker who smokes is multiplied many times
(it isn’t simply doubly dangerous).

• They may become invalid if the normal environmental conditions are changed (e.g. changes in
temperature, humidity or pressure may increase the harmful potential of a substance).

• Some limits do not consider all the possible health effects of a substance (e.g. impact on
the skin, such as dermatitis, would not be considered with an airborne limit).

Comparison of Measurements to Recognized Standards

As we have seen, different measurements are applied in different regions of the world. In the
USA alone, several different groups recommend what occupational exposure limits should be:

• The ACGIH sets Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), as described above.

• The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommends RELs
(Recommended Exposure Limits).

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• The American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) has developed WEELs - (Workplace
Environmental Exposure Limits).
• Local, state or regional governments also set or recommend their own limits.

As well as these, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) enforces
Department of Labour Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) - which are legal limits in the USA.

The safe levels of exposure set out above may vary due to different time-measuring periods;
different measuring criteria (equipment used); different expected airborne concentrations,
and various other criteria determining the toxicity of a substance.

The amosite form of asbestos is a good example of how standards differ (this data is provided
for illustration only and should not be taken as a definitive list of limits).

• Australia - 1.0 f/ml (fibres per millilitre).

• Belgium - 2.0 f/ml.
• Canada - 0.5 f/ml.
• France - overall asbestos limit of 2.0 f/ml.
• Germany - overall asbestos limit of 1.0 f/ml.
• In the UK, the limit for amosite was set at 0.2 f/ml.
• In the USA, the limit for amosite is set at 0.5 f/ml, with an overall asbestos limit of 2.0 f/ml.

It is therefore important to be aware of the relevant limits when working internationally, and
to compare measurements to these exposure limits.

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 Control Measures 7.4

The Need to Prevent Exposure or, where this is Not Reasonably

Practicable, Adequately Control It

Article 16 of the ILO Occupational Safety and Health Convention C155 requires employers to:

• "Ensure that, so far as is reasonably practicable, the workplaces, machinery, equipment and
processes under their control are safe and without risk to health.
• Ensure that, so far as is reasonably practicable, the chemical, physical and biological
substances and agents under their control are without risk to health when the appropriate
measures of protection are taken".

This is further supported by the ILO Chemical Convention C170, Chemical Convention Article
13 requires employers to establish the following operational controls:
"Make an assessment of the risks arising from the use of chemicals at work, and shall protect
workers against such risks by appropriate means, such as:

1. The choice of chemicals that eliminate or minimise the risk.

2. The choice of technology that eliminates or minimises the risk.
3. The use of adequate engineering control measures.
4. The adoption of working systems and practices that eliminate or minimise the risk.
5. The adoption of adequate occupational hygiene measures.
6. Where recourse to the above measures does not suffice, the provision and proper
maintenance of personal protective equipment and clothing at no cost to the worker, and
the implementation of measures to ensure their use".

"Every employer shall ensure that the exposure of his employees to substances hazardous
to health is either prevented or, where this is not reasonably practicable, adequately
controlled".

If exposure cannot be prevented, preferably by avoiding the use of a hazardous substance,

then employers should adequately control exposure.

To achieve this, the employer should apply protection measures appropriate to the activity
and consistent with the priority that will achieve effective control:

Provision of a high level of inherent health and safety by careful design, selection and use of
appropriate work processes, systems and engineering controls, and use of suitable work
equipment and materials, for example, systems and processes which reduce to the minimum
required for the work the amount of hazardous substance used or produced, or equipment
which totally encloses the process.

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• Controlling exposure at source, for example, by including adequate ventilation systems
and appropriate organisational measures such as reducing to a minimum the number of
workers exposed and the level and duration of their exposure.
• Using personal protective equipment in addition to the previous measures where those
measures alone cannot achieve adequate control.

The selection of protection measures should be determined by the level of the ill-health risk
resulting from exposure to the hazardous substance and the scope for reducing the risk to
a minimum. It is important to ensure that protection measures are put in place that protect
those directly affected by the substance and maintenance workers. Protection measures need
to be supported by the provision of information, instruction, training and supervision to
ensure exposure limits are met and protection measures not undermined. It is essential that
the protection measures are monitored for effectiveness by the provision of workplace and
worker monitoring.

The principles of good practice for the control of exposure to substances hazardous to health
should be followed.

Common Measures Used to Implement Principles of Good Practice

Above

The precautions taken to control risks arising from chemical and biological hazards should
be established following an appropriate risk assessment. This will involve both the analysis of
the nature of the risks present in the workplace and a critical evaluation of existing control
measures. After this, a decision must be made as to what if any improvements or additional
measures are necessary to reduce the level of risk further.

It is widely accepted that the following hierarchy should be followed in choosing control
measures:

• Eliminate the hazard.

• Use physical or engineering controls which reduce the risk at source and provide
protection generally rather than individually.

Control the risks to the person by job design, management, or (as a last resort) personal
protective equipment.

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Elimination or Substitution of Hazardous Substances

Elimination

The first priority for control of any significant risk to health is to try to eliminate completely
the agent responsible in the first place. For each of the agents we have examined, the option
usually exists to eliminate the hazard at source by replacement with materials which do the
same job but present no risk to health. Improvements in technology often present the
opportunity to replace older hazardous processes or activities with those involving no risk to
health; for example, the use of new water-based materials such as paints or adhesives can
eliminate completely the risk to health of exposure to solvents.

Elimination requires a careful examination of the work activity and process, and demands a
good understanding of the properties and behaviour of alternative substances and materials.
It may also be the costliest method of risk control, since it may involve a radical change in the
way in which the work is carried out. However, the elimination of hazards is the key objective
of the health and safety programme and the opportunities available should be re- examined
every time an assessment is reviewed.

Substitution

Although elimination of risk is the ideal it is often not practicable. The next option then
becomes reducing the risk by substituting the hazard with a different one with less potential
for harm; for example:

• Using the same material but in a different physical form, such as using granulated pottery
glazes rather than powders to reduce the risk of dust inhalation.
• Using a similar, but different substance altogether, such as one with a lower volatility
and/or higher WEL.

Since the risk is not completely eliminated but only reduced, it is essential to ensure that the
potentially harmful properties of any proposed replacement are fully taken into account to
ensure substitution does not introduce different but equally unacceptable risks.

Process Changes

In some circumstances an analysis of the process itself may identify specific activities which
produce harmful substances or agents. In these cases, changing the work method may
minimise or suppress the generation of the agents of concern; for example:

• Brush painting rather than spraying will considerably reduce the level of airborne
contaminant.

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• Vacuuming, rather than sweeping up (which pushes dust into the air), reduces dust levels.
• Damping substance during mixing or when clearing up also reduces dust levels.

In general, the aim is to identify the particular element of the process or work activity which
is responsible for the harmful agent and try to replace it with one with less potential for harm.
The opportunities for this may be limited by practicability from a production point-of-view.

Reduced Time Exposure

The ill-health effects arising from hazardous substances and agents in the workplace are often
related to the length of time of exposure as well as the severity (the concentration of the
contaminant) of the hazard. So reduction of exposure can be used as a means of minimising
possible ill-health effects.

As a general principle, when a hazard exists from a substance or a physical agent, the
cumulative dose should be reduced to as low a level as possible by organising the work
pattern to provide periods of zero exposure. There are two methods of achieving this, based
on establishing safe exposure time limits:

• Providing for regular breaks away from contact with the hazardous substance.
• Job rotation, where the exposure of any particular individual is reduced by sharing the dose
with other workers, such as having a number of workers performing a task in rotation, with
strict control over length of time of exposure in order to ensure that dose limits are not
exceeded.

There is a close relationship between exposure and time. At a fixed level of contamination, the
effect will be proportional to the time exposed. Concentrations of airborne substances
averaged over a period of time are known as a time weighted average (TWA). This is the basis
of workplace exposure limits, including long-term exposure limits (8 hours’ time weighted
average value) and short-term exposure limits (15 minutes time weighted average value).
Long-term exposure limits are used to help protect against chronic ill-health effects and short-
term exposure limits are to protect against acute ill-health effects such as eye irritation, which
may happen after minutes or even seconds of exposure.

The working time limits will be based on an assessment of the average exposure over a period
of time, whether it is 8 hours or 15 minutes. Within this period, variations in the exposure
levels above the average are allowed provided there are equivalent exposures below so that
the overall average is not exceeded. For instance, the limit set may be 20 parts per million
(ppm) for an airborne substance; so there may be periods where the levels are as high as, say,
25 ppm, provided there is an equal time where levels are 15 ppm, ensuring that the time
weighted average meets the 20 ppm level.

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There are often limits to how far above the WEL an exposure may be allowed to go, which are
set by short-term exposure limits, say no longer than 5 minutes above 25 ppm. These short-
term exposure limits should never be exceeded.

Enclosure of Hazards, Segregation of Process and People

The control measures we have looked at are all based on either preventing the risk or reducing
it in some way to an insignificant level. If this approach is not possible then we have to
consider physical controls which enclose the hazard and segregate people from the process
involving it.

Total enclosure or containment of the hazard is the best form of control since no one can then
be exposed to it; for example, total enclosure of a process which generates dust or fumes will
prevent the escape of airborne contaminants which could be inhaled by operators nearby.
When an area has been totally isolated, it may still be necessary to access equipment or
material within that area; for example, remote controlled robot handling systems may be
used, allowing access without physically entering the enclosed danger area.

Where isolation of the source is difficult it may be more practical to enclose the workers to
ensure that they remain segregated from the hazard.

There will always be situations where it is not possible to totally enclose the process or the
workers at all times; for example, when cleaning or maintenance work has to be carried out,
or access is necessary to introduce raw materials or remove the product. Special measures
will then be necessary to prevent any escape of the substance during periods when the
security of the enclosure will be broken; for example, through the use of ventilation systems
to carry away any airborne contaminants.

Local Exhaust Ventilation

Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) is the standard control measure for dealing with dusts, vapours
and fumes which are generated from a point source. The harmful contaminant is extracted at
the point of generation using engineered systems to ensure that the direction of the
ventilation flow is away from the breathing zone of any operators.

LEV is a mechanical system of ventilation designed to remove a specific contaminant from its
source, e.g. welding fume. It consists of the following: a receptor or capture hood; ducting to
remove the contaminant; an air cleaning device, e.g. filter to remove the contaminant from
the air; a fan to ensure an adequate ventilation rate for the contaminant. This will be
dependent on the size of the particles and the size of the LEV system; and a discharge point.

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 Local Exhaust Ventilation.

Examples of LEVs include:

Glove boxes: total enclosures, often used in laboratories, which are accessed through flexible
gloves and kept under negative air pressure to prevent any release of contaminant.

Fume cupboards: partial enclosures, again often used in laboratories, which are accessed
through a vertical sliding sash, with the enclosure again being kept under negative pressure
so that the air flow is through the sash into the hood to prevent any release of contaminant.

Captor hoods: movable ventilators which can be positioned as near as possible to the hazard
and capture contaminants by a negative air flow into the hood before they reach the
operator, as are used to extract woodworking dust.

Receptor hoods: large structures designed to capture contaminants which have been
directed into the hood by thermal draughts, directional movement, or by local generation.
An example of a receptor hood is a chimney in an incinerator.

To be effective the LEV must be properly designed and located close to the source of
contamination so that the system can extract all or at least sufficient of the contaminant to
prevent exposure above the WEL. Capture and extraction may be through engineered natural
air flows, such as pressurised systems, or by the use of fans or pumps to suck the air away.
Some systems are very noisy and this in itself may represent a hazard.

The contaminant must be carried away by secure ducting to an exhaust outlet. There will
usually be some form of filter fitted between the capture hood and the outlet to remove as
much of the contaminant as possible before venting.

The positioning of the outlet itself is important. The exhausted air must exit from the system

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to a safe place. This will usually be into the atmosphere and care must be taken to ensure that
this does not create an atmospheric pollution problem; factors such as chimney height and
prevailing wind direction and speed must be considered to ensure adequate dispersal. The
efficiency of the exhaust outlet must not be impaired by variations in wind direction or by
weather cowls (which should be sited well away from the end of the duct). Exhausted air must
also be directed away from any air inlets, otherwise a cyclic pollution system is produced.

Effectiveness of a LEV system will be reduced by:

• Poorly positioned intake hoods.

• Damaged ducts.
• Excessive amounts of contamination.
• Ineffective fan due to low speed or lack of maintenance.
• Blocked filters.
• Build-up of contaminant in the ducts.
• Sharp bends in ducts.
• Unauthorized additions to the system.

Inspection and Monitoring

LEV systems should be routinely inspected and maintained to ensure their ongoing effectiveness,
through:

• Routine visual inspection – to check the integrity of the system, signs of obvious damage
and build-up of contaminant, both outside and inside the ductwork; filters should be
visually inspected to ensure they are not blocked; the exhaust out-feed should be checked.

• Regular visual inspections, either as part of daily operations or as a more formal

procedure perhaps involving specific checks, are often a first indication that there is a
problem. A typical example might be where a local exhaust ventilation system is in place
to remove sawdust generated by a circular saw. An excessive build-up of sawdust around
the saw might indicate a problem with the system.

• All hoods should be examined in detail to ensure they capture or contain the contaminant
effectively. This may be done by using smoke generation to follow the airflows around a
hood or by taking airflow measurements.

• Manometers (pressure gauges) or U-tubes can be used to measure static pressures at

hoods or enclosures. They can also be used to measure pressure drops across filters or air
cleaning plant. The measurements will confirm the suitability of airflow distribution and
agreement with the design specification.

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• A check should be made on pipe velocity in dust collection systems to ensure that ducts
will remain free of dust settlement.

• Air cleaning plant and fans should be checked for continued compliance with the design
specification.

• Planned preventive maintenance – may include replacing filters, lubricating fan bearings and
inspecting the fan motor.

• Periodic testing – to ensure that air velocities through the system are adequate. This can
be done by visual inspection of the intake hood using a smoke stick, measuring air
velocities at the intake and in the ductwork using anemometers, and measuring static
pressures using manometers and pressure gauges.

Components of a Basic System

The components of a basic system are:

• Hoods to collect airborne contaminants at, or near, where they are created (the source).
• Ducts to carry the airborne contaminants away from the process.
• Air cleaner to filter and clean the extracted air.
• Fan must be the right size and type to deliver sufficient 'suck' to the hood.
• Discharge the safe release of cleaned, extracted air into the atmosphere.

Components of a basic system

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Use and Limitation of Dilute Ventilation

Dilution ventilation operates simply by diluting the contaminant concentration in the general
atmosphere to an acceptable level. This is achieved by changing the air efficiently in the
workplace over a given period of time; for example, a number of complete changes every
hour.

The workplace air will be extracted by the use of fans set in the walls or roof, with fresh air
being pumped in.

The system is intended to remove gas contaminants (sometimes fumes) and keep the overall
concentration of any contaminant to below the WEL and/or the concentration of a flammable
substance to below its lower explosive limit. Where both a harmful and flammable substance
is encountered, such as propanone (acetone), then control of the first objective will usually
control the second.

Dilution ventilation has fairly limited use as an effective control strategy in occupational
hygiene. It can, however, be used with reasonable success provided the contaminants
conform, where applicable, to the following descriptions:

• The WEL of the harmful substance is high.

• The vapour pressure of a liquid is low, that is it has a low evaporation rate.
• The rate of formation of the gas product is slow.
• Operators are not in close contact with the contamination generation point.
• Any hazardous substance is carried swiftly away from the operator.

Two important criteria have to be considered when contaminants are to be removed from a
workplace using dilution ventilation:

The rate of contaminant generation. This condition the number of air changes per hour
required. Relevant factors in respect of the generation of contaminated vapour from liquids
include:
• The vapour pressure and potential to evaporate at the operating temperature of the
system.
• The surface area of the liquid in contact with the workplace air, including the potential
increase in surface area from spreading; for example, contact adhesives generate vapour
at a much greater rate after they have been spread over a surface, and complex metal parts
may have quite an extensive covering of solvent after they have been removed from a
degreasing bath.

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The position of the extraction fans. The important factor which controls the positioning of
the extraction fan unit is the density of the contaminant. The density of air is taken as a value
of one. The density of many common solvents is greater than one, therefore they tend to
layer over the lowest floor area in the workplace. For such conditions, fans should be
positioned in the walls at a low level. Where the density is less than one then the contaminant
will rise; for this situation the fan must be positioned high on the workplace walls or in the
roof.

A major problem in setting up an efficient dilution ventilation system is the formation of dead
areas. These are areas in the workplace which, owing to the airflow pattern produced by the
extraction fan and the inlet of make-up air, remain motionless and so the air is not changed.
Dead areas can be detected by the use of smoke tracer tubes. A high density of smoke will
remain in the unventilated areas.

A second problem with dead areas is that they can move from one position in the workplace
to another. Such moves can be produced by changing the inlet for the make-up air; for
example, in cold weather the inlet may be spread over the workplace via the cracks in
windows and doors. In hot weather, opening doors and windows will produce a quite
different flow pattern. Moving the position of machinery or workbenches can also cause the
same problem. To help reduce the problem, controlled air make-up inlets can be constructed.

Where large quantities of air are being used to carry out the dilution process then
consideration must be given to recycling heat losses from the workplace. It can be achieved
by using heat exchange systems whereby make-up air is heated by the exhausted air.

Respiratory Protective Equipment

Personal protection involves the use of systems designed to be worn by individuals to help
reduce the possibility of harm from the hostile environment in which they are working. This
is called a safe person strategy. Ideally, the safe person strategy is a second line of defence
against a potential hazard, because control at source or a safe place strategy should be the
first aim.
However, there are situations where personal protection is the only, or the most appropriate,
method to deal with a particular hazard; for example, when the cost of controlling the hazard
at source is high and the time required for protection is low. Classic situations which typify
these conditions are:

• Work involving planned maintenance; for example, during plant shutdowns or deluging
(damping with water) asbestos-covered boilers.
• Failure of primary safety systems or emergency situations; for example, a chemical leak
from a totally enclosed plant, or exposure to a smoke-filled building during a fire.

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As a generalisation, the need for personal protection during normal working should be
avoided. However, there will always be some exceptions to this rule and protective footwear,
headgear, hand protection and special clothing are worn during most, if not all, of the working
time in some cases.

Types of Respiratory Protective Equipment

Respiratory protection can be classified into three basic types as follows:

• Air purifying respirators

• Fresh air masks
• Self-contained breathing apparatus

AIR PURIFYING RESPIRATOR are fit for use in atmospheres where there is sufficient or normal
oxygen content and should not be used in oxygen deficient atmospheres. This essentially purifies
the air from contaminants. Particulate dust filter masks, vapor and gas removing cartridges or
canister masks can be included in this category.

Filter Face - Piece Canister Respirator Half Mark Respirator

FRESH AIR MASKS: Fresh compressed air from an outside source is

supplied through a hose to the face piece worn by the person. It offers a
reasonably good protection from respiratory hazard limitations. Length of
air hose can limit the travel distance. If the compressor intake air is
contaminated the supply air will be contaminated. Hence location is
important and must be checked.

S.C.B.A.: The user carries with him air supplied from a source and it offers
protection against all types of respiratory hazard. The duration for which Self-Contained
the air in storage will be sufficient will have to be borne in mind and the Breathing Apparatus.
person must quit the area deficient in oxygen to a safe place

Self-contained apparatus
Self-contained breathing apparatus provides air or oxygen to the user from cylinders or
some other form of container which is carried in a harness on the user’s chest or back. The

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system provides respiratory protection in toxic, corrosive, dusty and oxygen-deficient
atmospheres.

There are three main types of self-contained breathing apparatus, classified mainly on the
basis of duration and use:
• Escape sets that have a limited supply of compressed AIR lasting about 10 minutes.
• General breathing apparatus with a larger cylinder of compressed air lasting up to 45-
60 minutes at normal working rates.
• Oxygen sets used for medical purposes (and perhaps in certain specialised applications).

Selection, Use and Maintenance

• The selection of appropriate respiratory protection is based on three main criteria:

• Type of hazard: whether the hazard is dust, corrosive or toxic substances, or oxygen
deficiency, etc.
• Contaminant concentration: the extent to which filters can reduce the concentration to a
safe level, or complete protection is required.
• Wearer acceptability: the extent to which users are able to use the system in comfort whilst
undertaking the work. To give full protection, respiratory protection systems must be worn
during all of the time the hazard is encountered. Poor wearer acceptability may result from
misting visors, unbalanced strain upon the head and neck muscles, a feeling of head
discomfort (possible headaches) from headbands, difficulty with breathing and
conversation, overheating of the area around and covered by the face-piece, excessive
sweating and possible dermatitic response, to name but a few. There is a high probability
that the equipment will be removed during use by a wearer to gain some relief from such
discomfort.

All PPE must be maintained in efficient working order by defined maintenance at a specified
frequency or, where appropriate, by a programme of regular replacement. It must also be
stored safely when not in use.
Other Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for Chemicals

While PPE should only be relied upon as a last line of defence, its use is often essential when
working with chemicals and required to supplement higher level control measures.

PPE when working with chemicals includes but may not be limited to overalls, aprons, footwear,
gloves, chemical resistant glasses, face shields and respirators.

Appropriate PPE must be selected and used specifically for the hazardous chemical(s) in question,
be a suitable size and fit, maintained appropriately and worn and used correctly by workers.

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When fitted and worn correctly, goggles protect your eyes from hazardous substances. A face shield
may be required in areas where workers are exposed to severe chemical hazards.

Personal protective equipment devices for chemical hazards:

Safety Goggles: Primary protectors intended to shield the eyes against liquid or chemical splash,
irritating mists, vapors, and fumes.

Face Shields: Secondary protectors intended to protect the entire face against exposure to chemical
hazards.

• Safety goggles protect the eyes, eye sockets, and the facial area immediately surrounding the eyes
from a variety of chemical hazards. Goggles form a protective seal around the eyes, preventing
objects or liquids from entering under or around the goggles. This is especially important when
working with or around liquids that may splash, spray, or mist.

• Safety goggles may incorporate prescription lenses mounted behind protective lenses for
individuals requiring vision correction. Take time to consider specific lens, frame, and ventilation
options when selecting safety goggles.

• Heat-reflective and wire-screen face shields are intended to shield the entire face from a range of
heat hazards. Specific hazards associated with heat include high temperatures, splash from
molten metal, and hot sparks. Face shields are considered secondary protectors to be used in
addition to primary protection such as safety spectacles or goggles.

• Face shield windows are made with different transparent materials and in varying degrees or
levels of thickness. The thickness of the face shield window should be matched to the task.
Window and headgear devices come in various styles in order to enable the worker to select the
appropriate equipment.

Overalls

The same basic principles apply for overalls as for gloves. Specialised overalls, aprons and
other forms of clothing, such as leggings, are available to offer protection from a similar range
of hazards.

Gloves

Gloves and gauntlets are designed to protect the user from harm caused by external agents. There
are specific types of protection for use with different types of hazards, and it should never be
assumed that one type will offer protection against others.

Types of Gloves

After identifying the chemical hazards in a particular application, the next step is to match the
hazards to the glove material -- or polymer -- best suited to protect against them. Different glove

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materials not only differ in protective properties, but also in texture, flexibility and thickness, there
are two key factors to consider when choosing gloves: degradation and permeation.

Latex. Natural rubber, or latex, gloves are the least expensive and most common type of glove used
in occupational settings, it’s mainly used in the food industry and the medical industry because it
does protect well against bloodborne pathogens.

Nitrile. Nitrile gloves have a good, general chemical resistance and are generally less expensive
than other gloves.

Neoprene. Neoprene gloves provide excellent chemical resistance to a broad range of hazardous
chemicals including acids, alcohols, oils and inks, "Neoprene is great in situations needing good
sensitivity and grip."

Neoprene gloves are not recommended for use with inorganic oxidizing agents, however, such as
concentrated nitric or chromic acids.

PVC (polyvinylchloride). PVC (also known as plastic or vinyl) gloves are used frequently in the
petrochemical industry, PVC gloves are durable with good snag and cut resistance.

PVA (polyvinyl alcohol). PVA gloves are excellent when dealing with aromatics and chlorinated
chemicals, according to Arbill's Weiss. "PVA will hold up to some really nasty stuff," he said, "but
water will dissolve it."

PVA gloves are water soluble because they are made out of a water solution, Slosser explained.
"While they are tremendous against almost any chemical, if you have them out on a humid day, they
begin to draw moisture out of the air and literally dissolve in front of your eyes."

Butyl. A major use for butyl gloves is for working with gases -- chlorine gas or hydrogen cyanide.

For example, when choosing appropriate chemical-resistant gloves that provide the best protection
against a certain chemical, be aware that some gloves may be resistant to some chemicals but not
others.
Furthermore, the effectiveness of PPE – when working with chemicals or any other hazard – relies on
workers using it correctly. Dexterity and clear vision are essential as is training on how to fit and use
PPE properly.

Other control measures businesses should consider when managing the health and safety risks
associated with using, handling, generating and storing hazardous chemicals include but are not
limited to:

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• Providing information, training, instruction and supervision to workers
• Clearly labelling chemicals with warnings and safety signs
• Maintaining a hazardous chemical register and manifest
• Identifying any risk of chemicals reacting and ensuring their stability
• Ensuring workplace exposure standards for hazardous chemicals are not exceeded
• Providing health monitoring to workers (if relevant)
• Providing a spill containment system if necessary
• Obtaining the current SDS from the manufacturer, importer or supplier of the chemical.
• Controlling ignition sources and providing fire protection and firefighting equipment along with
emergency and safety equipment

Personal Hygiene and Protection Regimes

Personal hygiene and good housekeeping have an important role in the protection of the
health and safety of the people at work. Laid down procedures and standards are necessary
for preventing the spread of contamination. The provision of adequate washing/showering
facilities is important to remove contamination from the body. The provision of laundry
facilities for overalls and PPE reduces the effect of contamination. Barrier creams and suitable
hand protection are important considerations for chemical and biological risks.

Where personal hygiene is critical, for example, when stripping asbestos, a 'three room
system' is employed. Workers enter the 'clean end' and put work clothes on, leaving by means
of the 'dirty end'. When work has been completed, they return by means of the 'dirty end',
carry out personal hygiene and leave by means of the 'clean end'.

"To reduce the risk of ingesting chemicals hazardous to health, workers should not eat, chew,
drink or smoke in a work area that is contaminated by such chemicals".

Vaccination

Certain occupations, such as water treatment/sewage workers, medical profession, have a

higher than average risk from some biological hazards. Staff from these occupations may need
to be immunised against common high risks, for example, hepatitis B.

Whilst vaccination can be an effective way of preventing ill-health as a result of exposure to

biological agents, it is important that employers are aware of problems that can arise. In the
first instance, vaccination is intrusive. Employers may need the permission of workers before
adopting this method - the willingness of workers to receive vaccinations may not always be
forthcoming. Secondly, it is possible that some workers will suffer adverse effects from the
vaccination. Finally, not all diseases are treatable by vaccination and, for those that are,

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vaccination might not be available.

Health Surveillance and Biological Monitoring

Health Surveillance

The objectives of health surveillance is to identify where workers are exposed to substances
hazardous to health in the course of their work are:

• The protection of the health of individual workers by detection as soon as possible of any
adverse changes which may be attributed to exposure to substances hazardous to health.
• To assist in the evaluation of measures taken to control exposure.
• The collection, maintenance and use of data for the detection and evaluation of hazards to
health.
• To assess, in relation to specific work activities involving micro-organisms hazardous to
health, the immunological status of workers.

Thus, the purpose of routine health surveillance is to identify, at as early a stage as possible,
any variations in the health of workers which may be related to working conditions.

Where hazards are low and the likelihood of occupational disease remote there may be no
necessity for a system of regular health checks. Nevertheless, it is recommended that basic
personal records should be kept for all workers, including a historical record of jobs
performed, details of periods of exposure to harmful agents, absence due to sickness or
injury, and cause or duration of absence. Where hazards are low but there is known to be the
possibility of occupational disease leading to easily recognisable symptoms, self-checks may
be acceptable.

For medium range hazards checks by a responsible person, such as a supervisor, first-aider
or nurse, may be required.

Where there appears to be a higher level of risk, an assessment of the level of surveillance
required should be made with the assistance of an occupational physician. These “higher-
level” checks may include:

• Biological effect monitoring – the measurement and assessment of early biological effects
in exposed workers (see below).
• Medical surveillance – clinical examinations and measurements of physiological and
psychological effects of exposure to hazardous substances in the workplace, as indicated
by any symptoms.
• Enquiries about symptoms – inspection or examination by a suitably qualified person.
• Review of records and occupational history during and after exposure, to check

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 correctness of the assessment of risks to health and to indicate if the assessment requires
a review.

Examples of the substances and processes which may give rise to identifiable health effects
and for which health surveillance measures might have to be carried out include:

• Substances of recognised systemic toxicity (poisons which affect the entire body rather
than a single organ) – monitored by appropriate clinical or laboratory investigations.
• Substances known to cause occupational asthma – monitored by enquiries seeking
evidence of respiratory symptoms related to work.
• Substances known to cause severe dermatitis – monitored by skin inspection by a
responsible person.
• Contact with chrome solutions in electrolytic plating or oxidation of metal articles by use
of an electrolyte, in dyeing processes, or in processes of liming and tanning of raw hides
and skins – monitored by skin inspection by a responsible person.

Pre-employment Health Screening

In certain circumstances, pre-employment health screening may be appropriate to ensure
that workers are fully fit at the outset and able to perform their work efficiently:

• For new workers, or those being transferred from one type of work to another, if it is
considered that the work is hazardous to health.
• Where the worker has to enter a hazardous environment to which he or she has not been
exposed previously.
• Where there is a high risk of accidents to themselves or others, such as in transport.
• Where there is a risk of endangering others through transmission of infection.
• Where the work entails high standards of physical or mental fitness.

Tests and procedures for pre-employment health screening should relate to the demands of
the work and the potential hazards it presents and may include vision, hearing and lung
function.

Records of pre-employment health screening provide a base-line measurement of an

individual’s health and can be used as a comparison for any subsequent health testing.

Biological Monitoring

Biological tests are used in number of circumstances for the early detection of occupational
disease and its precursors. Tests include:

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• Blood sampling in which red and white cell counts are measured by automatic analysis
techniques and which enables early detection of anaemias and leukaemias.
• Urine tests measure concentrations of certain metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury,
and also the metabolites (products of chemical changes within the body) of certain organic
compounds, which can be used to assess exposure and absorption of those substances.
• Chest X-rays to screen people in dusty occupations where there is a risk of
pneumoconiosis, and establish accurate classification of the stages of the disease.
• Renal (kidney) function tests to identify damage to the liver cells themselves or to the
transport mechanisms to and from the liver, from occupational hepatotoxins (toxins which
can damage the liver), including organic compounds, antimony, arsenic and yellow
phosphorus; and infective agents such as serum hepatitis.
• Assessment of nerve conditions. Toxic damage to the nervous system may affect motor
and sensory function or brain function and cause impairment of consciousness. There is a
range of neurotoxins (arsenic, lead and mercury, carbon disulphide, methylene chloride,
toluene) which require environmental control and regular biological monitoring of people
who work with them. Tests include visual testing, nerve transmission tests
(electromyography, neuromuscular transmissions) and assessment of any changes in
intelligence or personality.

Biological monitoring takes into account routes of absorption, effects of workload, and
exposure outside the workplace. It can sometimes be a more reliable indication of health risks
than environmental measurements.

Additional Controls that are needed for Substance with Specific Effects

Carcinogens

Carcinogens are substances that have been identified as having the ability to cause cancer.
Examples of these include arsenic, hardwood dusts and used engine oils.

Genetic Damage

Substances known as mutagens have been identified that cause changes to DNA, increasing
the number of genetic mutations above natural background levels. These changes can lead to
cancer in the individual affected or be passed to their offspring's genetic material, for example
thalidomide and plutonium oxide.

Due to the serious and irreversible nature of cancer and genetic changes, an employer's first
objective must be to prevent exposure to carcinogens and mutagens. These substances
should not be used or processes carried out with them, if a safer alternative less hazardous
substance can be used instead. Where this is not feasible suitable control measures should
include:

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• Totally enclosed systems.
• Where total enclosure is not possible, exposure to these-substances must kept to as low
level as possible through the use of appropriate plant and process control measures such
as handling systems and local exhaust ventilation (these measures should not produce
other risks in the workplace).
• Storage of carcinogens/mutagens must be kept to the minimum needed for the process,
in closed, labelled containers with warning and hazard signs, including waste products until
safe disposal.
• Areas where carcinogens/mutagens are present must be identified and segregated to
prevent spread to other areas.
• The number of people exposed and the duration of exposure must be kept to the minimum
necessary to do the work.
• Personal protective equipment is considered a secondary protection measure used in
combination with other control measures.
• Measures should be in place for monitoring of workplace exposure and health surveillance
for work involving carcinogens and mutagens.

Occupational Asthma

Occupational asthma is caused by substances in the workplace that trigger a state of specific airway
hyper- responsiveness in an individual, resulting in breathlessness, chest tightness or wheezing.
These substances are known as asthmagens and respiratory sensitizers. Exposure to these
substances should be prevented, and where that is not possible, kept as low as reasonably
practicable. Control measures used should take account of long-term time weighted averages and
short-term peak exposures to the substance. If an individual develops occupational asthma, their
exposure must be controlled to prevent any further attacks. Workers who work with asthmagens
must have regular health surveillance to detect any changes in respiratory function.

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7.5 Specific Agents

Introduction
In this section, we consider number of toxic chemicals and biological agents and the hazards
which they pose, together with the circumstances in which the hazards arise. We also describe
the body reaction to entry of these agents, both in respect of the immediate superficial
response and the long-term body defence mechanisms.

There are several other commonly encountered chemical and biological agents that are
hazardous to health. These are described below, with an outline of the ill-health that they
cause and the relevant control measures.

Health Risks and Controls Associated with Other Specific Agents

Asbestos
Asbestos has been a widely used natural material which, although now banned in many
countries, is much in evidence in many workplaces. Previously used as an insulation and fire-
resistant material in building construction, it was also a common friction lining in machinery
(brakes, clutch plates, etc.).

The inhalation of asbestos fibres causes incurable respiratory diseases, mainly cancers of the
lung and chest lining. Death occurs only 15-60 years after exposure although the initial
symptoms (breathlessness and coughing) can appear sooner. Although the use of asbestos
is now banned in most countries, many people are still dying each year due to earlier
exposures and this number is still rising. Three main types of respiratory disease associated
with asbestos can be distinguished:

• Asbestosis is formation of scar tissue (fibrosis) in the walls of the alveoli (air sacs) causing
thickening and hence slowing the passage of oxygen into the blood, so causing
breathlessness on exertion.
• Mesothelioma is a type of cancer of the lining around the lungs and of the abdomen
(through swallowing asbestos fibres).
• Lung cancer occurs particularly amongst smokers exposed to asbestos. Fibres protecting
the lungs are flattened after inhaling cigarette smoke, so there is less protection against
asbestos fibres.
We still have the legacy of thousands of tonnes of asbestos in existing buildings. Some of it
is bound up in products such as asbestos cement and sprayed coatings. So long as it is in

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 good condition and not disturbed then it does not pose a significant risk. Most countries
have some legislation pertaining to the management of asbestos (and also banning future
use) because of its previous widespread use and the special risks it poses. To manage the
risk of asbestos in any business premises, the following are useful guidelines:

• Find out if there is asbestos in the premises, its amount and what condition it is in.
• Presume materials contain asbestos unless you have strong evidence that they do not.
• Make and keep up to date a record of the location and condition.
• Assess the risk.
• Prepare a plan to manage the risk.
• Take steps to put the plan into action.
• Review and monitor the plan and arrangements.
• Provide information to anyone who is likely to work on or disturb the asbestos.

Eventually it will have to be removed by specialist contractors.

All air we breathe is contaminated to some degree with asbestos fibres, but this background
level is not a cause for concern and in any case, there is nothing we could do about it. What
we have to avoid is further contamination.

Asbestos is a naturally occurring mineral containing silicates. There are many types. The most
common is serpentine asbestos such as chrysotile, commonly known as white asbestos. Note
that the others may also look white. This is the least harmful form and its use has only been
banned totally in many countries comparatively recently. Nevertheless, it is not without some
risk to health, partly because often it contains some of the other types.

Amphibole asbestos includes blue asbestos (crocidolite) and brown asbestos (amosite), which
have a higher risk of health effects, as well as tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite. They
have been banned for some time, but still exist in older buildings. Anywhere they are
identified they should be removed by specialist contractors taking appropriate precautions.

Originally the group of workers most at risk were those mining the mineral, those processing
it, and those applying it in a loose form such as lagging. They still comprise a high percentage
of new cases. Since its use was banned, building maintenance, refurbishment and demolition
workers have become most at risk.

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 Table 5: Examples of uses and locations where asbestos can be found.

Asbestos Products What it was used for

Sprayed asbestos (limpet). Fire protection in ducts and to structural steel work, fire
breaks in ceiling voids etc.
Lagging. Thermal insulation of pipes and boilers.
Asbestos insulating boards Fire protection, thermal insulation, wall partitions, ducts,
(AIB). soffits, ceiling and wall panels.
Asbestos cement products, flat Roofing and wall cladding, gutters, rainwater pipes, water
or corrugated sheets. tanks.
Certain textured coatings. Decorative plasters, paints.
Bitumen or vinyl materials. Roofing felt, floor and ceiling tiles.
General uses. Vehicle brakes linings, woven fires, ropes used as high
temperature gaskets for furnaces, jet engines, chemical
pipelines. Electrical insulation for hotplate wiring, electrical
fuse wire holders and in building insulation and sound
absorption. Filters for cigarettes. Artificial (chrysotile) snow
effects in Hollywood Films made in the USA in the 1920’s and
1930’s.

Managing Asbestos in Buildings

Asbestos has been widely used in building materials for a long time, though some countries
have established programmes to phase out its use because of the risks to health. As long as
the asbestos-containing material (ACM) is in good condition, and is not being or going to be
disturbed or damaged, there is negligible risk. But if it is disturbed or damaged, it can become
a danger to health, because people may breathe in any asbestos fibres released into the air.

Workers who may be particularly at risk of being exposed to asbestos when carrying out
building maintenance and repair jobs include:

• Construction and demolition contractors, roofers, electricians, painters.

• Decorators, joiners, plumbers, gas fitters, plasterers, shop fitters, heating and ventilation
engineers, and surveyors.
• Anyone dealing with electronics, for example, phone and information technology (IT)
engineers, and alarm installers.
• General maintenance engineers and others who work on the fabric of a building.

If asbestos is present that can be readily disturbed, is in poor condition and not managed
properly, all people in the building could be put at risk. Asbestos has been used in many parts
of buildings, for examples of uses and locations where asbestos can be found.

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Sprayed coatings, lagging and insulating board are more likely to contain blue or brown
asbestos. In general, materials that contain a high percentage of asbestos are more easily
damaged.

Asbestos insulation and lagging can contain up to 85% asbestos and are most likely to give off
fibres. Work with AIB can result in equally high fibre release if power tools are used.

Asbestos cement is of lower risk, since it contains only 10-15% asbestos, which is tightly bound
into the cement, so the material will only give off fibres if it is badly damaged or broken, or is
worked on, for example, if it is drilled, abraded or cut.

What are components of an asbestos control program?

A control program is necessary when handling or using asbestos-containing material. The goal is to
prevent or minimize the release of airborne asbestos fibres. The employer must make sure that the
control plan is developed and implemented according to the requirements for their local
government regulations.

In general, the control plan should address:

• Containment of asbestos operations.

• Controlling of the release of asbestos fibres.
• The engineering controls, work practices, hygiene practices, and facilities necessary to control the
exposure of a worker to asbestos.
• Providing workers with task-specific work instructions that address both the hazards and the
necessary controls.
• Providing, using and maintaining appropriate personal protective equipment and clothing.
• The methods and procedures needed to monitor the concentration of airborne asbestos and the
exposure of a worker.
• The methods needed to decontaminate workers clothes, etc.
• The removal and clean-up of asbestos waste and related material.

https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/asbestos/control.html

Blood-Borne Viruses
There are many viruses that can be transferred from one person to another by transfer of
blood and other body fluids. Perhaps the best known of these blood-borne viruses (BBVs) are
hepatitis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV - the causative agent of Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)). Hepatitis presents the greatest risk in the workplace; there are
several forms of hepatitis (A, B, C, etc.) caused by different strains of the virus. The route of
infection depends on the virus type:

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Hepatitis A is contracted orally by cross-contamination with faecal material containing the
hepatitis A virus, so sewage workers are at risk.

Hepatitis B is transmitted in body fluids, such as blood, so occupations at risk would include
healthcare workers (doctors and nurses), fire-fighters, police and waste- disposal workers.
The virus survives for long periods outside the body and can survive harsh treatment that
would kill other micro-organisms (such as boiling in water). Contaminated body fluids can
cause infection by contact with damaged skin, needle- stick injury and even splashing to the
eyes and mouth. Symptoms of the disease include jaundice and liver damage. Though many
people are able to make a full recovery other will become long-term sufferers and some
continue to carry the virus but do not display any symptoms of infection.

Typical controls include:

• Use of PPE (such as gloves and eye protection) when handling potentially contaminated
material.
• Correct disposal of potentially contaminated material (such as clinical waste).
• Prevention of needle-stick injuries by correct disposal of sharps in a sharps bin.
• Decontamination and disinfection procedures.
• Vaccination where appropriate.
• Procedures to deal with accidental exposures (e.g. needle-stick injuries).

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

A colourless, odourless gas usually encountered as a by-product of partial combustion (e.g.
poorly maintained heating boiler). It is hazardous by inhalation.

During normal respiration, oxygen from the atmosphere is absorbed by the red blood cells
in the blood and chemically bound to haemoglobin (a protein) so that it can be carried around
the circulatory system to body tissues. Carbon monoxide interferes with this oxygen carrying
process by binding onto the haemoglobin molecule at the same place where the oxygen
should be (forming a compound called carboxy-haemoglobin). This prevents oxygen
transportation and can lead to death by asphyxiation.

Low levels of CO (0.005%) will cause a progressively worsening headache. Levels of 1.3% will
cause immediate unconsciousness and death within three minutes. Note that this can occur
even though oxygen concentrations are normal at 21%.

POSHE V2| Unit IG2 – Element 7 – Chemical and Biological 53

Agents
Typical controls include:

• Restricting work on gas systems to competent engineers only.

• Maintenance and testing of boilers and flues.
• Good general workplace ventilation.
• LEV for vehicle exhausts in workshops.
• Care in the siting of equipment containing combustion engines.
• Carbon monoxide alarms.
• Confined-space entry control.

Cement
Cement is used extensively in the construction industry to make mortar and concrete. In its
dry powder form it is an irritant dust, which is easily inhaled or blown into the eyes. Once
mixed with water it is corrosive on contact with the skin or eyes.
Workers can be exposed to cement during:

• Mixing operations - in both the dry powder and mixed, wet forms.
• Bricklaying and concrete pouring - in the wet form.

The harmful effects of exposure include:

• Irritation or corrosive burns to the eyes.

• Irritation of the respiratory tract.
• Irritant dermatitis on skin contact.
• Allergic dermatitis on repeated skin contact.
• Corrosive burns to the skin on prolonged contact (sometimes referred to as cementitious
burns).

Typical controls include:

• Eliminating or reducing exposure.

• Use of work clothing, and PPE such as gloves, dust masks and eye protection.
• Removal of contaminated clothing.
• Good hygiene and washing on skin contact.

POSHE V2| Unit IG2 – Element 7 – Chemical and Biological 54

Agents
Legionella Bacteria
Legionella bacteria are water-loving soil bacteria. The bacteria are hazardous when inhaled
into the lungs, where they cause Legionnaires' disease (also called legionellosis). This can
occur when water systems in a workplace become contaminated with the bacteria and that
contaminated water is then sprayed to create a mist (with living bacteria inside the droplets).

The most common sources for outbreaks of the disease are outdoor cooling towers associated
with air-conditioning systems. Water containing the bacteria is sprayed inside the cooling
tower, then drifts out of the top of the cooling tower and is inhaled by passers-by. These
people may then develop the disease.

Symptoms start as flu-like (fever, headache, muscle pain, etc.) and then progress to
pneumonia. The disease can prove fatal, especially for the elderly, infirm or immuno-
supressed, or if it is not diagnosed early.

Typical controls include:

Management Controls

• Assessment of the risk from Legionella.

• Appointment of a 'responsible person' to carry out risk assessment, manage and
implement the controls.
• Review of control measures.
Practical Controls

• Avoid water temperatures between 20°C and 45°C and conditions that favour bacteria
growth.
• Avoid water stagnation, which can encourage biofilm growth.
• Avoid using material that can harbour bacteria and provide them with nutrients.
• Control the release of water spray.
• Keep water; storage systems and equipment clean.
• Use water (chemical) treatments where necessary.
• Carry out water sampling and analysis.
• Ensure correct and safe operation and maintenance of water systems.

POSHE V2| Unit IG2 – Element 7 – Chemical and Biological 55

Agents
Leptospira Bacteria
Leptospira bacteria commonly infect animals such as rats, mice, cattle and horses.

Rats are common carriers of the Leptospira

bacteria.

Infected rats pass the bacteria in their urine, perhaps onto wet surfaces, or into water where
the bacteria can stay alive. If contaminated water comes into contact with cuts or grazes, or
is ingested, then infection may occur. Occupations at risk are those who work with potentially
infected animals (e.g. dairy farmers), or in wet areas where there may be rats (e.g. sewer
workers, water-sports instructors).

The disease leptospirosis starts with flu-like symptoms (fever, headache, and muscle pain)
and then progresses to a more serious phase involving jaundice. At this stage the disease is
causing liver damage and may be known as Weil's disease. If diagnosed early the disease is
usually treated successfully. It can prove fatal, especially if diagnosed late.

Typical controls include:

• Preventing rat infestation, by good housekeeping and pest control.

• Good personal hygiene (e.g. hand-washing).
• PPE (especially gloves).
• Covering cuts and grazes.
• Issuing workers with an "at risk" card to be shown to the worker's doctor (physician) to
allow early diagnosis.

POSHE V2| Unit IG2 – Element 7 – Chemical and Biological 56

Agents
Covid 19 or Corona Virus

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has drastically changed the way we work, introducing new challenges,
health and safety concerns in the workplace. Understanding the hazards associated with the virus and
implementing effective controls is indeed important for ensuring the health and well-being of all the
employees.

What is covid 19 Virus?

Coronaviruses are large family of viruses that can infect animals and humans. These viruses affect the
lungs ranging from common cold to severe disease such as MERS – Middle East Respiratory syndrome
and SARS – severe acute respiratory syndrome.

SARS-CoV-2 is the specific coronavirus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, which is a novel virus
identified in the year 2019 December in Wuhan, China.

Symptoms:

• Fever
• Cough
• Shortness of breath
• Body pain
• Loss of taste
• Sore throat
• Respiratory issues.

The virus is capable of quick transmission through respiratory droplets though cough or sneezes, physical
contact with affected person by hand shakes or through touching the contaminated surface.

Typical controls include:

• Personal hygiene
• Wearing masks
• Maintaining social distance
• Vaccination

Silica
A component of rock commonly encountered in the mining, quarrying, pottery and
construction industries; silica is hazardous by inhalation. When inhaled, respirable crystalline
silica dust is deposited deep in the lungs. Over time it causes scar tissue to form (known as
silicosis - very similar to asbestosis). This progressive disease leads to breathlessness and
chest pain and can prove extremely disabling and fatal (by heart and lung failure).

POSHE V2| Unit IG2 – Element 7 – Chemical and Biological 57

Agents
Typical controls include:

• Prevention of exposure by use of alternative work methods.

• Dust suppression by water jet/spray.
• Local exhaust ventilation.
• Respiratory protective equipment.
• Health surveillance (lung-function test and chest X-ray).

Wood Dust
Wood dust is hazardous on inhalation and causes asthma. Certain types of wood dust are
more likely to cause asthma than others and are therefore categorised as asthmagens.
Hardwood dusts can cause cancer (usually of the nose). Again, certain types of hardwood are
more strongly associated with risk of cancer and are therefore recognised as carcinogens.
Workers in the woodworking industry, such as carpenters and joiners, are most at risk of
exposure to wood dust, as well as those working in forestry.

Typical controls include:

• Local exhaust ventilation systems.

• The use of vacuuming to clean up dust (not sweeping).
• Respiratory protective equipment.
• Health surveillance (usually annual questionnaire).

POSHE V2| Unit IG2 – Element 7 – Chemical and Biological 58

Agents
References
1. https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/whmis_ghs/pictograms.html
2. http://www.hse.gov.uk/chemical-classification/labelling-packaging/hazard-symbols-
hazard-pictograms.htm
3. https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/clp/clp-pictograms
4. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/23036412/sds_en.pdf/01c29e23-2cbe-49c0-
aca7-72f22e101e20
5. https://www.hse.gov.uk/reach/resources/reachsds.pdf
6. https://www.hsa.ie/eng/Publications_and_Forms/Publications/Occupational_Health/Local_
Exhaust_Ventilation_LEV_Guidance.pdf
7. http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/hsg258.pdf
8. https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iii/otm_iii_3.html

POSHE V2| Unit IG2 – Element 7 – Chemical and Biological 59

Agents
 Element 8
General Workplace Issues

Learning Objectives
1. Describe common health, welfare, and work
environment requirements in the workplace.

2. Describe the hazards and control measures for

safe working at height.

3. Describe the safe work practices for working

within confined spaces.

4. Describe the hazards and controls associated

with lone working.

5. Describe the hazards and control measures for

the safe movement of people and vehicles in
the workplace.

6. Describe the control measures for work-related

driving and the hazards associated with electric
and hybrid vehicles.

.
 Contents

Health, Welfare, and Work Environment Requirements

Welfare Provision 8-1
Work Environment Requirements 8-2
Exposure to Extremes of Temperature 8-4

Working at Height

Introduction to Working at Height 8-6

Risk Factors for Work at Height 8-7
Controlling the Risks of Work at Height 8-7
Avoiding Work at Height 8-8
Preventing Falls and Falling Materials 8-8
Minimising Distance and Consequences of a Fall 8-11
Provision of Equipment, Training, and Instruction 8-11
Safe Working Practices for Access Equipment 8-12

Working in Confines Spaces

Introduction to Confined Spaces 8-22

Factors to be Assessed 8-23

Lone Working

Introduction to Lone Working 8-27

Risk Assessment Factors for Lone Working 8-27
Safe System of Work for Lone Working 8-27

Slips and Trips

Common Slipping and Tripping Hazards 8-29
Control Measures for Slips and Trips 8-29

Safe Movement of People and Vehicles in the Workplace

Risk Associated with Workplace Transport Operations 8-31
Workplace Transport Control Measures 8-34

Work-Related Driving
Managing Work-Related Road Safety 8-38
Risk Assessment Factors 8-38
Evaluating the Risks 8-40
Control Measures 8-40
Hazards of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 8-44
 Health, Welfare and Work Environment Requirements 8.1

Health and Welfare

Welfare Provision

Welfare facilities are basic needs, which are necessary for the well-being of employees,
such as washing, toilet, rest and changing facilities, and a hygiene place to eat and drink.
The employer is responsible to provide adequate welfare facilities for the employees while
they are at work.

Working environment refers to physical conditions at work. It includes workspace,

temperature, ventilation, lighting, etc.

The workplace welfare provision requirements are subject to legal standards, for example
the workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992.

The regulations look particularly at:

- Access and egress

- Traffic systems
- Internal layout and Space
- Hygiene and waste disposal

Similarly, in India, the Building and Other Construction Workers Act, 1996, Chapter VI
Hours of Work, Welfare Measures and Other Conditions of Service of Building
Workers, establishes standards for constructions sites in India.

Drinking water

Adequate supply of drinking water should be made available to the workers, preference
should be given to the distribution of running water supply wherever possible. Wherever
this is not possible then consideration shall be given to the use of enclosed refillable
containers.

The drinking water must be labelled ‘drinking water’ or

‘not for drinking’ as appropriate.

Washing facilities

Adequate washing facilities are made available with

running hot or cold water. The washing facilities must
be in convenient locations, close to washrooms and
changing facility.

Showers are provided where the work is strenuous or

dirty or there is a risk of contamination of skin or body
from hazardous substances. e.g. chemical

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 1

manufacturing process. Along with showers, eye wash stations can be provided to rinse
eye if there is contact of chemicals into eyes.

Sanitary conveniences

Adequate number of toilets must be provided in the workplace, the number must be
decided on the number of employees present in the workplace. These facilities must be
separate for men and women, if not possible provide lockable doors. The toilets must be
kept clean, well-lit and ventilated. Supply of hot and cold running water with soaps and
provision for drying.

Accommodation for clothing

Adequate, suitable and secure space should be provided to store workers’ own clothing
and special clothing with facilities should allow for drying clothing. Changing facilities
should also be provided for workers who requires to change into special work clothing.

The facilities should be readily accessible from workrooms and washing and eating
facilities, and should ensure the privacy of the user, be of sufficient capacity, and be
provided with seat.

Resting and eating facilities

Adequate facilities for resting and eating should be

provided. The rest areas must be located away from
normal work areas with sufficient seating facilities to
relax during breaks.

Eating facilities should be adequately clean with

suitable surface to place food with sufficient seating
facilities. separate rest facilities should be provided
for pregnant women and nursing mother with
sanitary conveniences, must also have facilities to lie
down.

Restriction of smoking to protect non-smokers from

tobacco smoke.

Work Environment Requirements

Wherever possible the employer must provide workplace environment so far as is

reasonably practicable to ensure it is free from health risks.

Seating

Workstation should be designed to ensure that the task is carried out safely and
comfortably.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 2

The minimum requirement includes:

• Unobstructed workspace.

• Controls at convenient location

• Comfortable ergonomic seating, considering the special needs for workers with

disabilities.

• Provision of footrest, where the worker cannot comfortably place his/her feet flat

on the floor.

Ventilation

The workplace must be well ventilated to ensure adequate supply of fresh air. This is
possible by supplying air through windows or using mechanical ventilation system.

Consider the following factors when providing ventilation system.

- Air inlets should be sited carefully to avoid

drawing in contaminated air.

- Workers should not be expose to

uncomfortable draughts.

- Mechanical ventilation system should be

regularly cleaned, tested and maintained to

ensure they are free from contamination.

Lighting

Lighting is significant factor in the workplace to reduce

accidents. Natural lighting is the best form of lighting,
however good level of local lighting shall be provided wherever necessary.

Recommended Light levels

Work area located close to the windows may be reduced to 1000 lux; for normal activities
range from 100 - 300; common lighting level range between 500 - 1000 lux is common
depending on activity; for precision and detailed work the range may require from 1500 –
2000 lux

Poor lighting can cause health issues such as eyestrain, migraine, and headache. Lights that
shines brighter than the average brightness into the eyes can cause glares.

Lighting should be suitable for the environment and the type of work performed, it should
not cause glares, flicker, or stroboscopic effects.

In some situation emergency lighting may be required, for e.g. in the event of fire the main
lights go off, the emergency lighting should be able to assist employees to the safe exit.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 3

Effects of Exposure to Extremes of Temperature
Exposure to hot temperature results in significant health issues. The employer provides a
reasonable temperature at the workplace, however due to certain situation the workers
may have to expose to extreme temperature above or below the reasonable temperature.

Sources of heat from the workplace includes Indoor - foundries, steel mills, bakeries, glass
factories, extremely molten materials are the main sources. Outdoor – Constructions, road
works, mining are main sources.

The temperature in a workplace should normally be at least 16 degrees Celsius. If work

involves rigorous physical effort, the temperature should be at least 13 degrees Celsius.

If a reasonable temperature cannot be achieved, then the employer may consider

providing local heating or cooling (air – conditioned) in the workroom.

Effects of Hot Temperature

• Sunburn - reddening of skin, due to over exposure to UV rays from Sunlight

• Dehydration - loss of water content from the body

• Muscle cramp - Salt imbalance – failure to replace salt due to sweat

• Heat stroke - acute illness caused by over exposure to heat, body temperature

often rises greater than 41º C which leads to loss of consciousness

• Heat Exhaustion - caused due to excessive sweating, symptom to heat stroke

Other effects associated with the hot temperature seizures, prolonged exposure causes

skin cancer, chronic heat exhaustion leads to lack of sleepiness.

Extreme Cold – Cold stores

Cold environment brings ill health effects to the workers. The most challenging factors are

temperature, air movement (wind speed), and humidity (wetness)

Effects of Cold Temperature

• Hypothermia - the body’s core temperature falls below 35º C without adequate
clothing, the sensation of cold followed by pain on the exposed area are early signs
followed by shivering.
• Frostbite – injury caused by freezing of skin and tissues, extreme exposure causes
necrosis, amputation
• Frostnip – mild form of frostbite results in numbness in the exposed area usually
painful.
• Heart Problem – cold temperature increases the risk of heart attacks due to
increased heart rate.
• Accidents due to human error as a result of fatigue.
• Slip hazard due to icy floor.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 4

Control Measures for Hot / Cold Environment

The risk can be controlled from the effects of extreme temperature can be through

equipment design, safe working practices and suitable protective clothing.

Hot Environment

• Ventilation at the work environment to reduce hot temperature

• Lagging hot sources with heat resistant materials

• Frequent breaks

• Provide access to isotonic (water, sodium and carbohydrates) drinks.

• Provide cool refuges.

• Provision of Personal Protective equipment – heat resistant face shields, coverall.

Cold Environment

• Provide local heating facilities

• Lagging or shielding cold sources

• Frequent breaks

• Provide warm refuges

• Provision of Warm workstations

• Provide access to hot food and drinks.

• Personal protective equipment – thermal wears.

• Treat icy floor with salt.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 5

8.2 Working at Height

Definition

‘Work at height’ means work in any place at or below ground level, were if no precautions

in place, a person could fall a distance liable to cause personal injury, for example While

working at height

• a fall through a fragile roof.

• fall while working on ladder or fragile surface.

• Could fall into an opening in a floor or a hole in the ground.

Work at height remains one of the major causes for fatalities or serious injuries leading to

permanent disability. This is the largest cause of deaths in construction industry.

Types of work that are classified as work at height

• working on a scaffold or from a mobile elevated work platform (MEWP).

• working on a truck while securing or sheeting a load.
• using cradles or ropes to gain access to parts of a building,
• climbing permanent structures, such as gantries, masts, or telephone poles.
• working close to an excavation area or a cellar opening
• painting, pasting or erecting bill posters at height.
• demolition work carried out in a multi-storey building.

The main risk associated with work at height are:

• Falling from height

• Falling of object

The severity of fall from height may result in

• Permanent disability

• Multiple fractures

• Broken bones and spine damage

• Head injury

• Fatal

Falling of objects also causes severe injuries alike as discussed above.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 6

Risk Factors for Work at Height

There are several risk factors that contribute to work at height, the significant risks include:

• Vertical distance – work carried out above 2 metres above has the risk of injury of

death.

• Overhead obstructions – powerlines, fixed structures.

• Fragile roof surfaces – that does not support weight of a person or loads they carry.

• Sloping roof surfaces - are pitch with greater than 10º. Potential to cause worker to

slip down with increase acceleration force liable to cause serious injuries.

• Working platform - Unprotected edges of scaffold, overloading of platform.

• Poorly Maintained Access Equipment – ladders, tower scaffold, MEWPs.

• Environmental factors including – adverse weather conditions, floor condition, poor

housekeeping.

• Falling Materials – due to poor housekeeping or absence of toe boards. e.g. bricks,

hand tools could fall.

Methods to control work at height

The employer has responsibility to control the risk associate with Work at height, which is

regulated by Work at Height Regulations 2005. The regulation applies to all work at height

where there is a risk of fall liable to cause personal injury.

Simple Hierarchy of Control

• Avoid work at height

• Use work equipment or other measures to prevent falls where working at height

cannot be avoided.

• Where the risk of a fall cannot be eliminated, use work equipment or other

measures to minimise the distance and consequences of a fall.

Wherever possible work at height must be avoided, alternatively carry out the tasks from

the ground level.

When selecting the control measures, employers must give priority to collective protective systems

(scaffolding, nets, and soft-landing systems) that will protect groups of workers. Individual

protective system relies on the behaviour of the individual. For example, providing safety nets,

prevent falling of workers as well as materials is a collective protective system, whereas fall arrest

system is an individual protective system which protects only those who wear it correctly.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 7

Provision of adequate information, instruction, and training on work at height is a legal

requirement.

Emergency rescue procedures, first aid facilities must be a part of the system when using

fall arrest equipment.

Avoiding Work at Height

Eliminate work at height wherever possible, the hierarchy of controls suggests that work at

height must be avoided by carrying out the tasks from the ground level.

For example:

• Erect roof trusses at the ground level and craning them into position.

• Use water pressure jets to clean a swimming pool from the ground level rather than

using a ladder to step off.

• Use extension and water fed poles to clean upper storey window from ground level.

Prevent a Falls and Falling Materials

Prevent falls by

• Creating a safe place of work - (e.g. a flat roof with permanent edge protection).

• using work equipment that protects workers from fall – (e.g. independent scaffold, mobile
elevating work platforms (MEWPs).

Minimise the distance and consequences of fall by

Use work equipment that minimise the distance and consequences of a fall:

• using fall arrest system with anchorage points, rope access system

• using nets or soft-landing system

Prevent falling of materials which could cause injuries by

• toe boards

• physical guards such as Canopy or debris nets.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 8

Guardrails and Toe Boards

Guardrails – prevents people falling from height

Guardrails to be provided at locations where there is an unprotected edge which is liable to

cause people or materials falling.

• The guardrails must be strong enough to withstand a person falling against it.

• It must be securely fixed

• It must be Sufficiently high to prevent people topple from height.

• It must not have large gaps in between.

Toe boards – prevent falling of materials

Toe board are fixed at the edges of working platform, acts as a

barrier to prevent equipment or materials from falling to lower

level. For example, preventing a screwdriver dropped on the

platform of a scaffolding from rolling offside to fall on a worker

below.

Work Platform

The working platform on access equipment (e.g. Scaffold) should be:

• wide enough to allow safe access (usually 600 mm wide)

• strong enough to support any loads likely to be place on it.

• constructed to prevent falling of materials that may be used on the platform from

falling through gaps or opening causing injury to people working below.

• Platform must be kept clean and tidy, also free from trip and slip hazards.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 9

Suspended Access Equipment

Suspended access equipment is used to access the exterior of

the building for cleaning and maintenance purpose. It consists

of a cradle lowered from the roof structure. The cradle must be

provided with safe access and egress; the working platform

must have edge protection and toe boards.

Boatswain’s chair can be used, where there is no provision of

mechanically operated suspended access system.

Emergency Rescue

The employer needs to consider foreseeably emergencies that may arise while working at

height. e.g. worker falling with connected whole-body harness, where there no supporting

structure or unbale to reach a safe place. If the worker is not rescued immediately, he may

sustain suspension trauma which could lead to fatal.

The methods to rescue depends on the work, manual aids such as ladders can be used to

be accessed by the fallen person to descent, on the other hand mechanically aided rescue

equipment shall be used such as MEWPs or proprietary rescue systems.

The rescue plans and arrangements must be in place to identify the potential hazards and

to minimise the consequences. Hence the everyone must be trained those who are

involved in working at height and rescue procedures.

The training must include

• Hazard recognition

• Control measures

• Fall protection and rescue procedures

• Inspection regimes for equipment before work starts.

The employees must be familiar in rescue plan in place, whom to be contacted when

something goes wrong. Practicing rescue drills is a key factor.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 10

Minimising Distance and Consequences of a Fall

Fall Arrest

Fall arrest system is used to arrest an employee in a fall

from a height, it consists of harness, anchorage and

connector. It safely arrests an employee’s fall if one

occurs.

Personal fall arrest system including harness or fall

arrest blocks are considered as last line of defence

while working at height as they do not eliminate the risk

of fall from height, it only prevents user from colliding

with the ground or any other structure.

Full body harness consists of

• Shoulder D rings

• Side D rings

• Hip pad with side D rings

• High visibility webbings.

The harness is connected to the D rings with two lanyards with snap hook on to it, which is

then connected to an anchorage point.

Provision of Equipment, Training, and Instruction

The workers must receive appropriate training if they are involved in working at height, as

this is legal requirement.

Training gives an opportunity to improve the skills which is required to perform the tasks.

Training should be effective the workers must understand the hazards such as unprotected

edges, fragile roofs etc, and suitable control measures in place.

Additional training may be required

• Erecting, modifying, or dismantling a scaffold.

• while operating mechanically operated equipment such as MEWPs should have

undergone operator training course.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 11

Safe Working Practices for Access Equipment

Ladders

Ladders are designed for short duration work, due to this reason many accidents occur since the

ladders are not secured properly, as a result of this worker may fall due to ladder toppling or

overreaching, or due to loss of 3 point contact while climbing ladder with carrying loads.

Ladders are also used as access equipment for scaffold or excavation.

Rule of 3’s, the worker must face the ladder, as well as maintain three points of contact (two feet and

one hand, or one foot and two hands) always when at work position.

The hazards associated with ladders

• falls from ladder due to overreaching, ladder toppling

• base of the ladder tipping outward from the supporting structure.

• Falling of objects.

• Striking overhead powerlines

• Striking other persons or objects

• Musculoskeletal disorder from lifting loads while working on ladders.

Control measures to use ladders

• Ladders must be placed on a firm level ground and supported on a solid structure.
• the ladder must be secured at the top as well as at the bottom against a solid
structure to avoid toppling on the sideways.
• Use guy ropes to secure ladder or footed by the co-
worker at the bottom.
• Hold stiles, never on rungs while climbing and
descending.
• make sure the ladder angle is at 75° – you should
use the 1 in 4 rules (i.e. 1 unit out for every 4 units
up)
• Extend the ladder 3 feet above the landing, hence
the ladder must be extended 1 metre above the
landing level.
• Never carry tools by hand, use holster or hoists.
• Only one person at a time while climbing or
descending the ladder.
• Always maintain three-point contact.
• Extension ladders follow manufacturer’s instructions.
• Avoid working with overhead powerlines.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 12

Stepladders

Step ladders are intended for short duration work

Control measures to use step ladders:

• Carry out pre user check before using stepladder.

• Must be placed on a stable and level surface that is not
slippery.
• Spreaders must be fully extended and lock the braces.
• Face the ladder while climbing up or down, maintain the
body between the side rails.
• Do not use damaged step ladder that has cracks,
corroded rivets, or defective braces.
• Do not work higher than two steps from the top.
• Do not overreach
• Avoid side-on works
• Do not overload.

Trestles and staging platform

Trestles and boards provide a firm and level working platform to the workers who work

from at various heights.

Control measures to use trestles:

• Must be wide enough to allow safe passage and safe use of equipment and

materials

• free from trip hazards or gaps through which persons

or materials could fall

• fitted with toe boards and handrails

• kept clean and tidy, e.g. do not allow mortar and

debris to build up on platforms

• not loaded to give rise to a risk of collapse or to any

deformation that could affect its safe use. This is

particularly relevant in relation to blockwork loaded

on trestles

• erected on firm level ground to ensure equipment

remains stable during use.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 13

Independent Tie Scaffolds

Scaffold Component Description

Standard Standards are vertical tube used as a support to
transfer the load to the ground or base plate.

Ledger Ledger is a horizontal tube used for tying a scaffold

structure longitudinally, it is also used to support
transoms.

Transoms Transom is a tube running across ledgers to tie a

scaffold transversely, it may be used to support to
working platform.

Bracing Diagonally fixed tube across a scaffold, to improve

the stability of the structure. Distributes the weight
of the load equally.

Coupler Scaffold fitting, a friction grip is applied to the

external surface of two tubes, holds them together.

Base Plate Flat square steel plate with locating pin, inserted
into the bottom of standard to provide a bearing
surface for load distribution.

Sole Plate Strong wooden plank wider than base plate and
long enough, to bear loads when the ground
condition is soft.
Work platform Wide and strong boards

Guardrails Enclose the edges of the work platform to prevent fall.

Toe boards To prevent falling of objects or tools

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 14

An independent scaffold consists of two line of standards, with each line parallel to the

building. The inner standard is set as close to the building; hence, the entire scaffold is

independent of the building, but is tied to the building for security.

An independent tie scaffold is designed to carry its own structure weight, full loads of all

materials used and workers who work on the scaffold. The total load is supported by the

ground on which the scaffold is erected.

The ground condition must be suitable to withstand the load, the use of base plates and

sole plates are significant to spread the load.

Independent Tie Scaffold

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 15

Hazards associated with Scaffold

• Collapse of scaffold

• Workers can suffer sever injuries due to fall from missing boards.

• Fall of items or materials from platform.

To avoid the above hazards, the scaffold must be erected and inspected by a competent person.

Reasons why a scaffold may collapse

• Poor erection or erected by incompetent person

• Soft soil or poor ground conditions

• Overloading of platforms

• Scaffold not tied or secured to the building

• Damaged components including cracks on the standards or corrosion.

• Adverse weather condition – heavy winds

• Incompatible components – use of incorrect couplers to joint tubes.

• Being struck by moving vehicles, especially while reversing.

• Unauthorised alterations.

Safety precautions for Independent tie scaffold

• The scaffold must be erected, altered, or dismantled by

competent person.
• The scaffold must be erected on a firm level ground,
the ground condition must be capable of bearing the
load capacity of the scaffold and any materials placed
likely to be placed on it.
• Ensure it must be braced and tied to the building
structure for stability.
• The platforms must be fully boarded and wide enough
for the work and access (usually 600 mm wide).
• Make sure that there is a safe access through staircase or ladder access.
• The working platform must be fitted with guardrails, toe boards with adequate strong to
prevent people falling.
• Appropriate Scaff tags must be in place during erection, alteration or for safe use.
• Protect the scaffolding from adverse weather conditions.
• Protect scaffolding from moving vehicles through edge protection or balustrade.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 16

Mobile Tower Scaffolds

Mobile tower scaffolds are commonly used for jobs involving painting or maintenance, it is used to

access the height for short period, the structure is mounted on four wheels so it can move

frequently around the work area.

Mobile tower scaffold has one working platform with access ladder fitted insider and are light duty

scaffolds only. Normal scaffold tubes are used to construct this mobile tower scaffold, more often

proprietary made structures.

Except for special purposes, generally the height of the mobile tower scaffold is restricted to 12

metres. The base height ratio is 1: 3.5 for internal use, the shortest base dimension. When it is used

externally then the ratio is 1: 3. The base height ratio may be available in manufacturer instructions

as well. To add more stability, the mobile tower scaffold may be attached with guy ropes, rakers or

outriggers.

The hazards associated with mobile tower scaffolds are

• Structural collapse

• Fall from height

• Falling of objects

• Overturning while moving

• Unintentional movement of wheels

• Contact with overhead powerlines during movement

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 17

Control Measures for safe use of mobile tower scaffold

• Mobile tower scaffold must be sited on a firm level ground.

• Follow base height ratio or manufacturer’s recommendation while erecting the
tower.
• The tower must be erected, altered, and dismantled by a competent person.
• Do not overload the tower, follow manufacturer’s recommendation.
• Ladders must be fitted inside the tower; worker must climb from inside.
• Use outriggers or rakers wherever possible to increase stability.
• Ensure that the wheels are locked, or chocks are provided to avoid unintentional
movement.
• The tower must be inspected routinely pre and post work, certainly every shifts.
• People and materials are off the tower during movement.
• Maintain safe distance from overhead powerline during movement.
• The working platform must be fully guarded with top rails, mid rails, and toe board.
• Erected barriers to prevent people or vehicle entering the tower area.

Mobile Elevated Working Platform

Mobile elevated working platforms are self-propelled, and power operated which consists

of a working platform on an extending structure and chassis, with controls for operation.

The basic types of MEWP are Cherry picker and scissor lift.

Hazards associated with Mobile Elevated Working Platform

• Falling from work platform / cradle

• Falling of objects

• Collapse – soft soil, overloading, or heavy

wind.

• Overturning

• Striking against fixed or permanent

structure.

• Contact with overhead powerlines

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 18

Control Measures for safe use of MEWPs includes

• MEWPs must be used on firm level ground.

• Outrigger must be fully extended and chocked prior to operation.
• The area must be barricaded to prevent MEWPs being struck by moving vehicles.
• Prevent unauthorised access.
• Must have clearance from fixed or permanent structure including overhead
obstructions.
• The operator must be competent and familiar with controls.
• Do not overload the equipment, follow manufacturer’s instructions.
• Work platform is provided with guardrails and toe boards.
• Fitted with emergency stop button at ground level, which can be deployed if the
carrier is trapped against a fixed structure.
• Tires inflated and in good condition.
• Protect from adverse weather, establish a maximum wind speed for safe operation.
• Do not operate close to overhead powerlines.
• Do not move the equipment when platform is in raised position.
• Wearing full body harness with work restraint lanyard and must be fixed to an
anchorage point inside the cradle.
• Pre user check prior to start the operation.
• Statutory inspection is mandatory every six months.

Leading Edge Protection

Purlin trolley system is usually used together with a safety

harness during large industrial roof, such system have a

double handrail on the leading edge positioned (opposite

to the working side), where worker could fall, hence fall

protection equipment is needed to prevent fall. As second

line of defence the purlin trollies are used as a horizontal

barrier beneath the leading edge.

Safety nets and soft landings systems such as air bags can

be used as leading protections to minimize consequences

and distance should a fall occur.

Safety nets are collective protective methods to reduce the risk of injury from leading edge

falls, as they provide protection to everyone on the roof.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 19

The following must be considered while using a safety net

• Must be erected by trained and competent riggers and strong enough to withstand
weight of the people.
• Nets should be positioned as close as possible to the working level to minimise the
height of a fall.
• Inspected frequently to ensure it is fixed correctly and arrest a fall, e.g. weekly
basis.
• Rescue procedures must in place to rescue someone from a rigged net.
• First aid facilities must be readily available to treat if someone is injured.

Inspection of Access Equipment

It is always a good practice and often a legal requirement to routinely inspect access

equipment. The inspection must be carried out by a competent person. The equipment

must also be inspected at regular intervals. The inspection regimes include:

• Before use for the first time

• After any assembly or followed by any modification.

• Any incident which would likely to affect the integrity of the equipment (being

struck by reversing vehicle or adverse weather conditions.

• Periodical or thorough inspection (weekly, every six months).

Inspection details must be recorded and kept until next inspection for further reference.

Tags or labels are used to indicate the condition of the equipment that it has passed

inspection or not. Any defects must be notified to the employer in a written report. The

defective equipment must be withdrawn from workplace.

Prevention of Falling Materials Through Safe Stacking and Storage

Housekeeping is vital to eliminate trip and slip hazards, fire hazard. The employer should

take possible measures to conduct workplace inspection to ensure that the housekeeping

arrangements including removal of waste materials regularly, emergency walkways free

from obstructions and keep access and exists routes clear.

All unwanted waste materials must be removed from the workplace, as piled up materials

make block walkways, obscure steps or kerbs. Removal of snow or treating icy floor is

indeed important to prevent slip and fall.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 20

Careful consideration must be given to keep the site tidy and how housekeeping will be

effectively managed, storage space must be planned at the initial stage must include:

• Clearly defined
• Separate storage facility for each item for quick identification.
• Flammable liquids must be stored in a separate fire -resistant container with doors
secured, a drip tray can be attached to the storage container.
• Storage area must be isolated and restricted for normal operations.
• Routinely inspected, maintained always with good housekeeping.
• Warning signs must be in place.

Stacking materials vertically is the most effective way to use the space correctly

• Separate stacks for each material to avoid items gets mixed.

• Define maximum stack height based on the item being stored.

• Do not keep material on ground, use pallets of adequate strength for loads

• Stacking should not be so high or leaning, which result in toppling over.

• Workplace must be carefully designed for safe movement between the stacks.

• Protect stacks from being struck by moving vehicles. E.g. edge protectors,

balustrade.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 21

 Working in Confined Spaces 8.3

Introduction to Confined spaces

Definition

“confined space” means any place, including any chamber, tank, vat, silo, pit, trench, pipe, sewer, flue,

well or other similar space in which, by virtue of its enclosed nature, there arises a reasonably

foreseeable specified risk;

Specified risks are

• serious injury to any person at work arising from a fire or explosion

• the loss of consciousness of any person at work arising from an increase in body temperature

• the loss of consciousness or asphyxiation of any person at work arising from gas, fume,

vapour, or the lack of oxygen

• the drowning of any person at work arising from an increase in the level of liquid

• the asphyxiation of any person at work arising from a free flowing solid or the inability to

reach a respirable environment due to entrapment by a free flowing solid.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 22

Factors to be assessed when assessing the risk in the Confined space

General conditions of the confined space must be assessed to identify the hazards that could be

present in the confined space.

Previous content - Information about previously stored contents for example cements or flammable

liquid storage facility gives indication of potential hazards.

Residues - Left over in the confined space including residual chemicals, sludge or wall scale can be

highly reactive.

Contamination - If the valves not closed correctly there could be leaks which could contaminate

adjacent areas.

Oxygen deficiency and oxygen enrichment - A lack of oxygen in the atmosphere may

also lead to asphyxia or unconsciousness, oxygen enrichment increase the risk of fire.

Physical dimensions - The physical dimensions, structure and layout of the confined space can result

in air quality differences within the space, which are unaffected by ventilation.

Hazards arising directly from confined space work

The hazards arising from work undertaken in confined space must be assessed. Conditions may

become hazardous when work is done in conjunction with residues, contamination etc.

Hazards that can be introduced into a space includes:

Operation of internal combustion engines

The operation of internal combustion engines, e.g. portable electrical generators or pumps, whose

exhausts contain carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen dioxide likely to seriously

contaminate the atmosphere.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 23

Cleaning Chemicals
Chemicals that is used for cleaning purposes could affect the atmosphere directly or interact with

residual substances present in the confined space.

Flammable Substances
The work might involve use of a flammable substance, a quantity of which is thereby introduced into

the confined space. For example, an opened container of a flammable solvent-based paint may be

hazardous in a confined space.

Sources of Ignition
Sources of ignition may be introduced in the form of incorrectly specified electrical work

equipment, by inadequate static electricity precautions or, more obviously through spark generating

processes such as welding or cutting. This equipment or activity will be hazardous in

conjunction with the presence of a flammable or explosive atmosphere.

Hazards outside the confined space

The need to isolate the confined space to prevent dangers arising from outside should be assessed.

These dangers include ingress of substances (liquids, gases, steam, inert gas, water, raw materials,

etc.), ingress of sources of ignition and inadvertent confinement (closing or blocking of exit routes).

Examples of how these may arise:

• Inadequate isolation of adjacent plants may allow unexpectedly substance to enter.

• Inadvertent Operation of Plant the automatic opening of valves by the plant control system
or the unexpected start-up of a pumping system in a sewer, as this may create hazards such
as contact with machinery parts.

Controlling the risks from working in confined space

Wherever possible the need to entry into confined space must be avoided, where this is not possible,

a risk assessment must be carried out to enable suitable controls to be introduced.

No person shall enter a confined space to carry out the task unless it is justified to do the

task without such entry.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 24

Planning can reduce the need to work in confined space such as by:

• Modifying confined space to eliminate entry.

• Carry out work from outside, for example removing blockages through remotely operated

rotating flail devices, vibrators, or air purgers.

• Carrying out inspection, sampling, and cleaning from outside using appropriate tools and

equipment

• Using remote cameras for internal inspection of vessels.

Safe System of work for Entry into Confined Spaces

Where the hazards cannot be physically eliminated in confined space, safe system of work is

significant when carrying out confined space work.

Numerous confined space accidents occur resulting in multi-fatalities due to the lack of, or failure to

comply with detailed procedure. The procedure should be based on a permit-to-work.

The factors be considered when developing a safe system of work

• Access and egress

• Training, supervision, and suitability

• Permit-to-work procedure

• Gas purging and ventilation

• Removal of dangerous residues

• Testing and monitoring the atmosphere prior to enter

• Mechanical, electrical and process isolation – Lock out and tag off

• Respiratory protective equipment and other personal protective equipment

• Safe use of work equipment for example the use of lighting which is suitable for the

atmosphere.

• Communications devices required to use in the confined space

• Emergency and rescue arrangements

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 25

Permit to work

The possible way to ensure a safe system of working in confined space is by implementing a permit-

to-work. The permit system must be under the control of a competent person and will provide

details on the operating procedures to be adopted.

The permit must specify any precautions and instructions appropriate to the area. There is

also a requirement to ensure that the employee understands the entry permit. This

provides an additional safeguard to ensure that the safe system of work is strictly followed.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 26

8.4 Lone Working

Introduction

Lone workers are those who work by themselves without

close or direct supervision. Anybody who works alone,

including contractors, self-employed people, and employee,

is classed as a lone worker.

Typical examples include

• Fixed establishments where only one person works on the premises, e.g. in small
workshops, kiosk, petrol pumps.
• people work separately from others, e.g. in factories, warehouses, some research and
training institutions, leisure centres.
• people who work outside normal hours, e.g. cleaners, security, special production,
maintenance, or repair staff.
• people who work working away from their fixed base, e.g. on construction, plant
installation, maintenance and cleaning work, electrical repairs, lift repairs, painting and
decorating.
• agricultural and forestry workers
• service workers, e.g. rent collectors, postal staff, social workers, home helps, district nurses

Hazards that a lone worker might be exposed to

• accidents or emergencies arising out of the work

• sudden illness

• inadequate provision of rest, hygiene, and welfare facilities

• physical violence from public or burglars

The risk assessment should recommend control measures to be implemented to

eliminate/minimise the identified risks as well as to develop a safe system of work.

They include

• avoid lone working for high risk activities

• remote supervision arrangement including periodic visits

• logging in worker location.

• Use of communication system is indeed important such as radio, mobile phones.

• Automatic warning devices to raise alarm, for example panic alarms, no movement alarms

etc.,

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 27

 • Implementing standard operating procedures for lone workers

• Emergency procedures in place.

• Provision of first aid kits

• Provision of counselling

• Health surveillance.

• Providing training to lone workers

Training

Due to limited supervision, training is crucial to manage unexpected circumstances for example

exposure to aggression and violence.

Lone workers must be experienced and fully understand the risks, control measures in place,

hence training should be relevant to their work activity.

Supervision

The supervision depends on the risk level and the ability of the lone worker to handle the situation

by himself.

The level of supervision is decided based on the risk assessment findings, the higher the risk, the

greater the level of supervision is needed.

Monitoring

There are wide range of systems in place to monitor lone workers.

Monitoring systems must be embedded into an organisation so that the workers understand the

requirements. Clear procedures must be in place as effective communication are essential.

This may include

• Periodic visits by supervisor to observe lone workers

• Regular contact between lone worker and employer through phones, radios, email etc.

• Alarm devices both manual and automatic systems

• Reporting system to monitor their logs.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 28

 Slips and Trips 8.5

Introduction

Slip and trip are the most common cause for injuries at workplace. Most of the slips and trips are
primary cause for accident resulting in broken bones.

Slip and trip accidents happen for various reasons. Slip accidents happened due to wet condition
or slippery surface. Trips are caused by obstructions on the walkway or trailing cables. Poor
housekeeping, environmental condition can also contribute towards slip and fall.

Slips

Slips happen where there is too little friction or traction between the footwear and the walking
surface. Common causes of slips are:

• wet or oily surfaces

• occasional spills
• weather hazards
• loose, unanchored rugs or mats
• flooring or other walking surfaces that do not have same degree of traction in all areas

Trips

Trips happen when your foot collides (strikes, hits) an object causing you to lose the balance and,
eventually fall. Common causes of tripping are:

• obstructed view
• poor lighting
• clutter in your way
• wrinkled carpeting
• uncovered cables
• bottom drawers not being closed
• uneven (steps, thresholds) walking surfaces

Control Measures to prevent Slips and Trips

There are simple ways to control slips and trips as well as to prevent accidents in the workplace.

Stop floor becoming contaminated

• use entrance mats.

• Fix any leaks which could causes slippery surface from the machinery or building.

• Plant and equipment are maintained in good condition.

• Design tasks to minimise spillages.

• Plan pedestrian and vehicle routes to avoid contaminated areas.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 29

Use the right cleaning methods

• Choose right cleaning methods which is effective for the type of floor.

• Avoid more slips or trips while cleaning is being done.

• Dry wet surface after cleaning.

• Remove spillages frequently.

• Have adequate arrangements in place for routine cleaning and dealing with spills.

• Use suitable detergent mixed with correct concentration.

Check and Consider the flooring and work environment

• any loose, damaged, or worn flooring or mats and replace if necessary.

• Floors likely to get wet or have spillages on them should be a type that is non slippery.

• Ensure Sufficient lighting, changes in the floor level must be clearly visible.

• Walkways and work areas must be kept clear of obstructions.

Get the right footwear

• Footwear play a significant role to prevent from slips in areas where floors cannot be

maintained.

• Ensure the footwear is fit and suitable for the condition of the environment.

• Employer should supply footwear at free cost if supplied as PPE.

Think and about people and organisational factor

• The work must be planned and controlled, for example avoid rushing, overcrowding,

trailing cables.

• Make sure employees are involved in the decisions that affect them, for example choice of

PPE footwear or a change in cleaning methods.

Signs

Use signs only where hazards cannot be avoided or

reduced, signs can be used as a cordon system. Signs

creates caution to the pedestrian and vehicles to stay

away from the hazards.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 30

8.6 Safe Movement of People and Vehicles in the Workplace

Risks Associated with Workplace Transport Operations

Typical Risks Relating to Vehicle Movements

When vehicle moves around in workplace, they are a hazard

to pedestrians, to other vehicles and the driver. Vehicle can
possess many serious and fatal injuries and cause a significant
amount of property and equipment damage. You will find
various hazards listed below along with some typical
conditions and environments in which each hazard might
occur.

Collisions

The workers may enter vehicle movement area unexpectedly as part of their work requirement to
store materials or to collect items or tools. This situation may cause worker to cross the moving
the vehicles, hence causes driver / operator to take emergency action. For example, parking
entrance.

The warehouse is considered to be a space constrained area, where the racking is vertically aligned
to height causing poor visibility to the operator at corners.

Vehicles may collide with fixed structures such as racking supporter or guard
column while being reversed.

Factors that can cause risk of collision

• Over speeding of vehicles

• Excessive breaking

• Reversing vehicles can collide with pedestrians,

pallets, or racks.

• Insufficient lighting and signs.

• Poor visibility – sharp bends, concealed entrances

and exits, blind spots.

• Lack of crossing points

• Lack of separate access and egress for vehicles and pedestrians

• Lack of segregation of vehicles and pedestrians

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 31

Loss of Control and Overturning:

Loss of Control:

A driver may lose control of their vehicle for various reasons including over speeding at
corners.

• Loss of control shall occur due to mechanical failure e.g. failure of breaks, blown tyres or worn
out tyres.

• steering – modern steering system may fail in different ways, when they fail it is difficult to
control the vehicle and accidents may occur.

• Environmental factors contribute to loss of control due to poor maintenance of road, wet
condition of the road due to rain, environment can affect the visibility of the driver e.g. fog
leads to poor visibility.

Loss of controls can lead to fatal injuries, also contribute to vehicle to overturn.

Overturning:

There are two main ways in which a vehicle may turnover:

Lateral instability - a vehicle turning onto its side, as when a high-sided lorry is blown over in high
wind, or when a loaded forklift tips over whilst driving across a slope.

Longitudinal instability - a vehicle turning onto its front or back, as when a tractor's front wheels
lift due to the weight applied by an attached trailer, or when a forklift truck is
moving up or down a slope.

Overturning is caused by the centre of gravity of the vehicle moving outside of its wheelbase as
shown in the following diagrams of loaded forklifts.

With forklifts, the higher a load is carried vertically going down a slope, the more unstable the
vehicle is as the load centre is increased. It is, therefore, better for forklifts to reverse down
slopes with the load as low as possible. See the diagram later in this section.

Such instability is a major problem in the safe use of high vehicles, particularly those with
lifting mechanisms.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 32

The factors that can cause forklift truck to overturn

• The speed of travel.

• The steepness of the slope.
• The height the load is raised to, as well as the stability of the load.
• Increased or incorrect tyre pressure.
• Any external longitudinal pressure, such as wind or colliding objects.
• Presence, and size of, any bumps or holes in the surface.
• Excessive braking.
• Environmental condition – poor lighting, potholes etc.,

Non-Movement Related Hazards

Vehicles also bring hazards when certain work activities are carried out on the vehicle:

Loading and Unloading

• Manual handling hazards arises when the loads are being loaded or unloaded, the task may

include work at height, hence there is a risk of fall from vehicle.

• Mechanical hazard is present in the task for example collision of pedestrian and forklift in

the truck dock area.

• Vehicles overturn during tipping operation resulting in workers get struck by tipping

materials.

Coupling and Uncoupling

Coupling and uncoupling has the potential to cause collision or being crushed in between the trailers
and towed equipment.

Securing Loads

Loads are secured to the vehicles using webbings or ropes. Chains are used to hook the loads to the
anchorage points, during this activity the worker may fall from height when they try to secure the
loads on a truck.

Maintenance Work

Due to wear and tear vehicles are required to undergo routine maintenance. During maintenance
process the worker may have to access underneath raised tipping trailers or vehicle cabs, due to
poor support there is a possibility to get crushed.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 33

Workplace Transport Control Measures

The employer must carry out risk assessment keeping in mind the safe movement of vehicles at the
workplace, based on the risk assessed the control measures are introduced.

The risk assessment must

• Identify and list the types of vehicles that are used in the workplace and foreseeable accident
that might happen.
• Identify the people at risk including driver, pedestrian, vulnerable group etc.
• Evaluate the risk and the adequacy of the existing control measures and further control
measures to reduce the risk to an acceptable level.
• Record the significant findings
• Review periodically and update whenever necessary.

The control measures should consider the following

• Safe Site
• Safe Vehicles
• Safe Drivers

Safe Site

Many fatal accidents are caused as a result of a vehicle reversing, In 1982 in the UK the HSE produced
an analysis of fatal accidents due to transport activities (Transport Kills, HSE 1982), statistics showed
that 20% of the fatal accidents were due to reversing vehicles.

It is therefore essential to minimise reversing wherever possible.

One method by which the need to reverse can be minimised by using one-way systems which are
clearly marked.

Traffic routes must be safe for people and vehicles using it. A well-designed traffic routes ensures
vehicles and pedestrians are segregated, reduce transport related accidents.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 34

The following requirements shall be considered when designing a traffic route

• Access and egress – separate for vehicles and pedestrians

• The traffic routes must be clearly marked.
• Segregation of pedestrian and vehicles, e.g. barriers
• Routes must be free from obstructions
• Wide enough roads considering parking, turning, one-way
system.
• Provision of suitable lighting on traffic routes, corner,
loading and unloading areas.
• Vehicles routes designed far away from doors / gates or
away from pedestrian routes.
• Route markings to instruct the driver e.g. traffic lanes,
route edges etc.

Control Measures to reduce reversing of vehicles

Wherever possible try to remove the need to reverse vehicle by making it as one-way system, where
this is not possible reversing of vehicles should be kept to a minimum. Consider the following:

• Install barrier to prevent vehicle entering pedestrian zone.

• Plan and clearly mark designated reversing areas.
• Keep people away from reversing areas and operations
• Use portable radios or similar communication systems
• Increase drivers’ ability to see pedestrians
• Install equipment on vehicles to help the driver and pedestrian while reversing by fitting
reversing alarms, flashing beacons or proximity sensors.

Site Rules
All drivers and visiting drivers must be aware and understand site rules and conditions.

The security staff at the gates can provide an induction to the visiting drivers about the site rules.
The information includes parking systems, welfare facilities, reversing systems, one-way systems
etc.,

Site rules are applied for workplace vehicles that remains in the site

• Using audible alarms at blinds spots, pedestrian crossing points.

• Parking rules – vehicles shall be parked in the designated parking area without any

obstructions to the pedestrian walkway or emergency exits. The keys must be removed and

handed over to the designated person/department.

• Vehicles must not be left unattended at any point.

• Maintain speed limits as set by the employer.

• Using safety devices always fitted to the vehicle during operation.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 35

Safe Vehicles

• Vehicles used in the workplace should be suitable for the purpose.

• Carefully consider the working environment in which a specific vehicle will be used and the
suitability of that vehicle for the people using it.
• Warning devices such as rotating beacons and reversing alarms are often fitted.
• Maintained in good condition

Pre user checks mandatory prior to use vehicles

In addition, the vehicles must be fitted with:

• Seats for drivers and passengers

• Seat belts
• Roll bar
• Falling objects protective structure – FOPS
• Rear mirrors, reverse cameras
• Horns and reverse horns
• Beacon lights
• Audible alarms

Vehicles should be designed carefully. So that, wherever possible, those who use them can do their
work from the ground. Where people have to work at height on vehicles, suitable means of safe
access onto and around vehicles should be provided.

Safe Drivers

Drivers should be competent to operate a vehicle safely and receive appropriate information,
instruction, and training for the vehicle they use.

It is particularly important that younger or less experienced drivers are closely monitored following
their training to ensure they work safely.

Competence

Consider the following

For new recruits: Recruitment and placement procedures should be in place to ensure all new
drivers are competent.

For existing employees: Make sure they have, and continue to have, the skills and experience
needed to operate a vehicle safely. If the work changes, drivers should receive the necessary
training to carry out the modified task safely.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 36

Training

Training depends on the individual’s experience and

previous training they have received.

In general, newly recruited drivers requires more

training for example induction training, there should
also be refresher training for experienced drivers.

Fitness to operate

The driver must be medically fit to operate the vehicle; hence a medical assessment is required
prior to selection and at regular intervals.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 37

 Work–Related Driving 8.7

Introduction

Employer have legal duty to make sure that suitable arrangements in place to manage work-
related driving. Employers also ensure that others are not put at risk by your work-related driving
activities.

It is good management practice, that is should be part of everyday process.

You can follow a Plan, Do, Check, Act approach to help you to achieve the standards.
Plan
• Assess work-related road safety risks in your organisation
• Determine health and safety policy including organising journeys, driver training and
vehicle maintenance.
• Ensure there is a top management commitment
• Clearly set roles and responsibilities.
Do
• Departments with different responsibilities must co-operate each other
• Ensure adequate systems in place, for example vehicle inspection or maintenance
regimes.
• Involve workers during decision making process, communication, and consultation.
• Provide training, information, and instruction wherever necessary.
Check
• Monitor performance to ensure work-related road safety policy is effective.
• Encourage employees to report work-related road accidents and near misses.
Act
• Review performance based on the lesson learnt.
• Regularly review and update policy.

Assessing the risks

The employer must assess the risk for any work-related driving activity same as other activity.

The five-step approach is used to carry out risk assessment.

REVIEW

RISK

ASSESSMEN

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 38

Identify the hazards

Look for hazards that might harm when driving on public roads, consult with driver or
representatives.

Consider the following factors when identifying the hazards:

• The driver
• The vehicle
• The journey

Who might be harmed and how?

Usually be driver, also include other passengers, road users, pedestrians or any special group may
be particularly at risk, such as new employees, long distance driving and working long hours.

Evaluate the risks

Estimate the risk level and existing precautions and decide on suitable control measures.
Hierarchy of controls shall be followed:

Eliminate the need to travel

Substitute the travel by other means for example: using public transport.

If the above options are not possible then ensure

• Suitability of vehicle
• Condition of the vehicle
• Competent drivers

The required standards must be fulfilled.

Record Findings

Record findings – make it simple and focus on controls.

Review

Review risk assessment on a regular basis. There is no set frequency for carrying out a review.
Review is carried out followed by road accidents, changing circumstances for example: introducing
new routes, new equipment, or a change in a vehicle specification.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 39

Evaluating the Risks

The process of estimating the level of risks and existing controls in place, whether they are enough
to eliminate the risk or reduce to an acceptable level or still further control needs to be decided?

The factors to be consider during risk evaluation process are

• The Driver
• The Vehicle
• The Journey

The Driver

• Competency
• Training
• Fitness and health

The Vehicle

• Suitable for the purpose

• Safe Condition

The Journey

• Routes
• Schedules
• Time
• Weather conditions.

Control Measures

Control measures must be implemented based on the risk factor. Some control need specific
management arrangements are put in place, whereas other measures require preparation of
guidelines and communicated to the drivers. In some cases, control measures may state a clear
statutory requirement that must be met.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 40

The Driver

Three significant risk factors exist for the driver

Competency – The driver must be competent and capable of driving the vehicle, also must hold a
relevant driving licence. The driver must demonstrate their skill and expertise which are required
to drive the vehicles safely, this includes:

• To check the driver’s licences validity at the time of recruitment and periodically to ensure
it remains valid.
• Some organisation has set minimum standards regarding penalty endorsement on
company driving licence.
• The employer may take up references as a proof of competency, experience, and ability.

Training – driver may have to undergo specific training on safe driving.

• Some employer may require their drivers to undergo defensive driving training and
assessment.
• The employer must also ensure that the drivers to undertake induction training.
• Training the drivers on vehicle safety including pre-user checks, steering zoom and tilt
adjustment, the use of reversing cameras etc.
• Consider training about other road users for example, cyclists or other motorists. ‘

Fitness and health – Periodic medical examination conducted for drivers to ensure they are fit to
drive safely.

• It is a legal requirement for the drivers who

operate heavy vehicles (lorries, buses) they must
undergo medical examination and obtain medical
certificate.
• Drivers’ eyesight and other health requirements
needs to be checked.
• Drivers should be informed that they should not
drive while taking medicine that could impair their
judgement.

The Vehicle

The significant risk factors for the vehicles are:

Suitability – when buying vehicle ensure they are suitable for intended purpose.

• The vehicles have to fulfil certain standards set as a minimum requirement by the
organisation for example Euro NCAP – New Car Assessment Programme post-crash safety.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 41

 • Other standards set by organisations may cover features such as seat belts, head
restraints, air bags, hill assistant, anti-braking system.
• If private vehicles are used for work purposes, then they must be services in line with
manufacturer’s recommendations, insured for business use, the vehicle must have a valid
MOT certificate if it is three years old.

Condition – vehicles must be maintained in safe and in fit condition

• The responsible must ensure daily checks are carried out prior to use for example – oil
level, tyre pressure, warning lights, alarms etc.
• Planned/preventive maintenance is carried out in accordance with manufacturer’s
recommendations at regular intervals.
• Procedures in place to report defects and they are rectified promptly.

Safe equipment – availability of suitable safe equipment in the vehicle

• All safety equipment fitted in vehicle must be in working condition for example, seat belts,
airbags, revers cameras etc.
• Other equipment may be included by the organisation, such as first aid kits, car fire
extinguisher, tool kits, spare tyre, emergency triangle.

Safety Critical information – the driver must understand basic information

• Seat adjustments, steering pan tilt and telescopic adjustments, indicator lights, reverse
alarms are safe critical information that the driver should be aware of.

Ergonomic – appropriate seating position and driving posture

• Ergonomic consideration includes driving position, adequate road clearance and controls
should be considered when choosing the vehicle to ensure adequate comfort to reduce
ergonomic related hazards.

Use of mobile phone

• Clear policy must be in place for safe use of mobile phones while driving.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 42

The Journey

The journey must be considered to determine the

control measures.

Routes – planning routes helps to avoid hazards, the routes

must be appropriate for the type of vehicle

• To avoid busy area including town centre or

accident-prone zone.
• Motorways are safest roads, minor roads are fine
for cars, however minor roads could cause
difficulties for larger vehicles.
• Bridges and tunnels, overhead restrictions, roadways can be avoided.

Scheduling – are significant to reduce accidents.

• Avoid travelling during peak traffic flow

• Avoid travelling between 2 am and 6pm and between 2pm and 4 pm to minimise sleep -
related incidents.
• Set flexible deadlines.

Time – allowing adequate time for the journey

• Realistic time allowed based on the chosen route to complete journey safely. Plan
overnight stops due to adverse weather condition or traffic.
• Allow for rest breaks, the driver should take 15 mins. break every two hours drive is
recommended.
• HGV drivers must comply with rules for driving hours.

Distance – reasonable to drive

• Minimise travel by other modes of transport for specified journey.

• Distance must be reasonable to avoid irregular working hours and excessive tired.
Consideration can be given to overnight stay.

Weather Condition – consider weather condition when planning journey

• Planning journey according to the reliable weather forecast information.

• Provide guidance to the drivers to tackle poor weather condition.
• The vehicles must be equipped with anti-lock brakes, winter tyres fitted, defogger or
demister to clear condensation on the windscreen.
• Provided information on whom to be contacted to cancel journey during bad weather.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 43

Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

Due to increase in environmental awareness, the use of

electric and hybrid vehicles is increasing. The recovery,
repair and maintenance of these vehicles are also
increasing eventually.

These vehicles are referred as a Battery Electric Vehicles

(BEV), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV), and Plug-in Hybrid
Electric Vehicles (PHEV).

The range of hazards associated with BEV / HEV

Electric and Hybrid Vehicles introduce hazards into the workplace in addition to those normally
associated with the repair and maintenance of vehicles, roadside recovery, and other vehicle
related activities. These include:

• the presence of high voltage components and cabling capable of delivering a fatal electric
shock.
• the storage of electrical energy with the potential to cause explosion or fire.
• components that may retain a dangerous voltage even when a vehicle is switched off.
• electric motors or the vehicle itself that may move unexpectedly due to magnetic forces
within the motors.
• manual handling risks associated with battery replacement.
• the potential for the release of explosive gases and harmful liquids if batteries are
damaged or incorrectly modified.
• the possibility of people being unaware of vehicles moving as when electrically driven they
are silent in operation.
• the potential for the electrical systems on the vehicle to affect medical devices such as
pacemakers.

Control measures for BEV / HEV

• Battery management system – Monitor health of the battery through BMS.

• Thermal management system – to regulate the battery pack temperature, maintaining the
temperature helps for optimal performance.

• Charging infrastructure – Provision of standardised charging station, well ventilated. This

must have various charging stations, regular housekeeping.

• Over current protection – to reduce excessive flow of current which could damage battery
pack.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 44

 • Short circuit protection – Fuses and circuit breakers to be installed to detect short circuits
and respond quickly. This helps to prevent battery damage from overloading current.

• Voltage regulation system – To maintain stable voltage throughout the system, fluctuations
can affect battery life span.

• Vehicle control unit – to integrate a VCU, so that it helps to monitor and control different
vehicle functions. It manages the flow of power between the battery, motor, and other
components, optimizing efficiency and performance.

• Emergency shut down system – Install emergency shut down system such as brakers to
activate swiftly in the event of any safety failure.

• Training and education – Provided to users, maintenance personnel and emergency

responders. Training may include operations, battery changing, charging procedures,
manual handling, general maintenances, first aid arrangements etc.

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 45

References

• https://cdn2.webdamdb.com/md_0StBRDFqT0V5.jpg.pdf
• https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3660.pdf
• https://www.hsa.ie/eng/Publications_and_Forms/Publications/Construction/Using_Ladde
rs_Safely_-_Information_Sheet.pdf
• https://www.hsa.ie/eng/Publications_and_Forms/Publications/Construction/Safe_Use_of_
Work_Platform_Trestles_Information_Sheet.pdf
• https://www.ihsa.ca/rtf/health_safety_manual/pdfs/equipment/Scaffolds.pdf
• https://www.hsa.ie/eng/publications_and_forms/publications/construction/cop_for_acce
ss_and_working_scaffolds1.pdf
• https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/l101.pdf
• https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg73.pdf
• www.hsa.ie/slips
• https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg225.htm
• https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg382.PDF
• https://www.hse.gov.uk/mvr/topics/electric-hybrid.htm

POSHE V2 | General Workplace Issues 46

 Element 9
Work Equipment

Learning Objectives
1. Describe general requirements for work
equipment

2. Explain the hazards and controls for hand-held

tools

3. Describe the main mechanical and non-

mechanical hazards of machinery.

4. Explain the main control measures for

reducing risk from machinery hazards.
 Contents

General Requirements for Work Equipment

Types of Work Equipment 9-1

Hand Tools and Portable Power Tools

Hazards and Controls for Hand Tools 9-6

Hazards and Controls for Portable Power Tools 9-6

Machinery Hazards

Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazards 9-9

Control Measures for Machinery Hazards

Machinery Safeguarding Methods 9-13
Specific Machinery Examples – Hazards and Control Measures 9-20
Requirements for Guards and Safety Devices 9-20
9.1 General Requirements for Work Equipment

General Requirements for Work Equipment

Work equipment’ is almost any equipment used by a worker while at work including:

Work equipment used widely in the

• Hand Tools - chisels, hammer, screwdrivers, knives, hand saws and meat cleavers

• Power Tools – Portable electric drill, circular saws, chain saw

• Machinery – Pedestal drill, CNC, photocopiers, mowing machines, tractors, dumper trucks and
power presses.
• Access Equipment – Ladders, MEWPs.

Suitability

The equipment must be selected carefully, it must be suitable for intended job as well as suitable
for the environment in which it being used. Risk can be reduced when a right equipment is used
for the right task.

When selecting the equipment consider the following factors

• The equipment must be appropriate to the work and used in accordance with manufacturer’s
recommendations and instructions, it must be suitable for intended purpose.
• The environment in which the equipment is used must be considered for any risks, e.g. portable
grinding machine used in a flammable atmosphere.

CE Marking on the Equipment

CE Marking on a product is a declaration from the

manufacturer that the product complies with
European Health, Safety and Environmental
protection legislation, to prove this the manufactures
must fix CE Mark on the product.

When purchasing the equipment, the employer must

look for CE Mark, if the equipment is imported into
Europe then the CE Mark is mandatory to confirm that
it conforms to relevant standards.

The CE mark is not a quality mark, nor a guarantee that the product meets all of the requirements
of relevant EU product safety law. Suppliers and users should make physical checks before using
the equipment.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 1

Equipment
Preventing Access to Dangerous Parts

Prevent access to dangerous parts should be in the following order. In some cases, it may be
necessary to use a combination of these measures:

• Use fixed guards (e.g. secured with screws or nuts and bolts) to enclose the dangerous parts.
• If fixed guards are not practicable, use other methods, e.g. interlock the guard, photoelectric
devices, pressure-sensitive mats, or automatic guards may be used.
• Protection appliances use jigs, holders, and push sticks.
• Providing necessary information, instruction, training, and supervision.

Restricting Use

Work equipment involves ranges of hazards during operation; hence the use of work equipment
must be restricted to authorized personnel. The work equipment must be used by trained
person, any repairs, modification, or maintenance must be carried out the competent person.

Information, Instruction and Training

Provision of health and safety information is mandatory for those operate the equipment,
monitor or carry out maintenance. The information can be provided verbally, or it can be in the
form of writing.

Written information may be:

• User Manual
• Warning Labels
• Standard operation procedures

Written information must be easily accessible and easy to understand, written information is
required for more complex machinery which requires clear instructions for operation or service.

The user must receive appropriate training on how to use the equipment safely, the potential
risk as well as suitable control measures. Training may be required for existing staff, new or
inexperience staff if they tend to operate power machineries.

Young people require additional supervision due to lack of experience and poor judgement.

Users of work equipment should:

• Must only operate the equipment which they are permitted to use.
• Must operate equipment in compliance with instruction and training
• Use equipment for intended purpose, do not misuse the equipment
• Carry out pre-user checks prior to use equipment
• Do not use faulty equipment.
• Should report any defect found
• Equipment should be kept clean and maintain in good working condition.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 2

Equipment
Hence the users must be competent with knowledge and skills to perform the task safely by

following above precautions.

Information instruction, training and supervision is required for users or operators, supervisors

and maintenance staff.

Employers should ensure that the work equipment is maintained at regular intervals throughout
its life.

Maintenance Requirements
Provision and use of work equipment regulation 1998 (PUWER), requires that all work
equipment be maintained in safe working condition.

There are two types of maintenance

Active or proactive maintenance – Planned preventive maintenance or condition-based

maintenance

Reactive maintenance - Break-down maintenance

Planned Preventive Maintenance

Referred as planned or scheduled as

comprehensive overhaul, during this maintenance

components are replaced regardless of their

condition. Significance of this is to repair or replace

a spare before they fail. For example, inspection of

forklift after 150 hours of running.

Condition Based Maintenance

During service or inspection, monitoring the condition of the equipment and speculating a

failure due to deterioration of the component. For example, replacing a forklift tire as its been

found worn out during inspection.

Breakdown Maintenance

Repair carried out when thing go wrong, this is carried out followed by any repair of the

machinery.

Many accidents occur during maintenance work, the employer must ensure that reasonably

practicable measures are in place to protect workers while carrying out maintenance.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 3

Equipment
Hazards Associated with Maintenance Regimes

• Mechanical: entanglement from rotating parts, ejection from compressed springs, trap in

between moving parts.

• Electrical: high voltage, static electricity may cause electrocution, shocks, and burns.

• Pressure: sudden release of high-pressure steam, gases, or vapours.

• Physical: extreme heat, noise, vibration.

• Chemical: dusts & fibres (e.g. asbestos, silica) flammable corrosive, acids, organic solvents.

• Psychosocial: time pressure, long hour shifts

• Access: work at height, confined spaces.

Maintenance work must be carried out by competent person. Any maintenance on live
equipment are not allowed until the work is carried out with appropriate Permit to work system.
All maintenance records must be maintained.

Precautions Required During Maintenance Work

• Carried out by competent staff

• Isolate power sources and lock out.

• All stored energy must be released – hydraulic, spring, static electricity.

• For live maintenance use insulating materials to cover live power sources, use PPE rubber

gloves, anti-static shoes.

• Take additional precautions when having access to dangerous moving parts.

• Operate machine at slow speed.

• Providing temporary designed to do maintenance work.

• Access precautions and emergency procedures in place for work at height or confined space

entry.

• Avoid manual handling by using handling aids.

Emergency Stop Controls

Work equipment must be provided with one or more

emergency stop controls. Emergency stop controls are
intended to react quickly to a potentially dangerous situation, it
cannot be used as a functional stop during routine operation.

Emergency Stop buttons are red in colour like mushroom head,

with a push in button on a yellow background panel. Pressing
the emergency stop button will stop the machinery operation
and resetting the emergency stop button should not allow
machine to re-start. Emergency Stop Button

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 4

Equipment
The emergency stop button must be located at convenient location which should be easily
identifiable and provide with markings for clear marking so that it can be easily accessible.

Activating emergency stop button must bring the machine to safe position, disengaging
emergency stop button must not restart the machine, restarting should only be the command
from main panel by the operator.

Stability

The equipment must be fixed and secured in one position to prevent unintentional movement
during operation. Machineries can be fixed on the floor using nuts, blots & clamps; in case of lifting
equipment for e.g. Cranes, it is controlled with outriggers, additional precautions may be.

Lighting

The lighting must be adequate for the task to be carried out, in some areas, there may be local
lighting for workstation may be necessary, consider special lighting for flammable atmosphere.

Local lighting shall not produce glare, any stroboscopic effects.

Lighting levels should be checked periodically to ensure that the intensity is not diminished by
dust and grime deposits.

Markings

The work equipment should be clearly marked with warnings. Warnings and markings include:

• Operating instruction
• Hot surface
• Radiation hazards
• SWL safe working Load marked for lifting equipment
• Maximum and minimum operating speed for grinding machine, cutting machine
• Entanglement hazard
• Ejection hazard – flying objects, sparks.
Marking can be in the form of shapes, graphical pictogram, words – instruction.

Warnings

Alarms and flashlights can be used to alert people prior to machine start to keep people away
from danger. E.g. Audible and flashlight alarms alerts people prior to conveyor belt operation start.
Consider environmental condition for lightings, poor lighting may obstruct visibility to the visual
warnings. Noisy atmosphere can impede audible alarms; hence it is not suitable for noisy
atmosphere.

Clear Unobstructed Workspace

Unobstructed space allows the operator to move around the machinery also to carry out the task
safely. The work area must be wide enough without any obstructions to move around or carry out
pre-user checks. The work area must be provided with safe access, any obstruction must be clearly
marked, if there is lifting operation carried out then the area must be clear off from obstruction,
all unwanted materials must be cleared at regular intervals.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 5

Equipment
 Hand Tools and Portable Power Tools 6.2

Hazards from Handheld Tools

• Handheld tools may pose risk of injury during use or
while misusing the equipment or accidental or failure of
equipment.
• Accidental event for e.g. hammer striking the thumb
finger while nailing.
• Misuse – using wrong tool for the job for e.g. using a
knife as a screwdriver, the knife may slip off causing a cut
injury.
• Failure – the loose hammer head may fly off and strike
another person nearby.
• Defective tool – require more physical force.

Precautions that can be applied for safe use of hand tools

• Select the tool appropriate for the task for example, using screw drive to remove screw, not a

knife to remove a screw.

• Select the tool suitable for the environment.

• The operator must carry out a visible inspection prior to use the tool.

• Tools should be maintained in good condition

• Defective tools must be removed or discarded.

• Provide information, instruction, and training.

• Ensure a safe system of work is developed and communicated to all the users, emphasis

monitoring to ensure all the users follow safe system of work.

• Provide suitable personal protective equipment – gloves, goggles, face shields etc.,

Hazards and Controls from Portable Power Tools

When portable power tools are used in the workplace it

creates serious hazards to the users and others. Power
tools can be hazardous when incorrectly used. There are
several types of power tools, based on the power source
they use: electric, pneumatic, liquid fuel, hydraulic, and
powder actuated.

Power tools has the potential to create severe injury when

compared to handheld tools. The reason behind is the
power source makes the equipment to run at higher
speed, failure of power tool shall come in to contact with worker either accidently or through

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 6

Equipment
misuse. (for example, a broken drill bit causing eye trauma when ejected during operation,
where this not the case when using a screwdriver).

Additional hazards associated with the use of power tools

Electricity – the main source which is required to operate a power tool – electrocution, burns from

hot surface, fire and explosion.

Fuel – fire and explosion when petrol or other type of fuel is used.

Entanglement – rotating shafts or spindles may entangle loose clothing.

Ejection – fragments from operation or damaged disc wheels.

Flying debris – dust is produced during operation, e.g. using drilling machine to drill on a wall.

Vibration – powered tools may cause HAVS / WBV.

Noise – temporary and permanent hearing loss, as the power tools create high level of noise

during operation.

Trip hazards – trailing power cables are potential to cause trip hazard.

Precautions that can be applied for safe use of power tools

• Select the tool appropriate for the task and suitable for the environment.

• Follow instructions in the user's manual for lubricating and changing accessories.

• Avoid accidental starting. Do not hold fingers on the switch button while carrying a plugged-in
tool.

• The operator must carry out a visible inspection prior to use the tool.

• Tools should be maintained in good condition, subject to regular maintenance schedule.

• Maintenance carried out by a competent person and the records to be maintained, this helps
to keep a track of future maintenance schedules.

• Disconnect tools when not using them, before servicing and cleaning them, and when changing
accessories such as blades, bits, and cutters.

• Defective tools must be removed or discarded.

• Provide information, instruction, and training.

• Ensure a safe system of work is developed and communicated to all the users, emphasis
monitoring to ensure all the users follow safe system of work.

• Provide suitable personal protective equipment – gloves, goggles, face shields etc.,

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 7

Equipment
Safe use of power tools requires:

• sufficient power supply do not overload the fuse, regular inspection, use Reduced voltage
system.

• Sprinkle water to suppress dust, use appropriate masks.

• Do not touch any part / body of the equipment after use. E.g the drill bit shall be hot.

• Use battery operated equipment to reduce noise and vibration, else use equipment which
produces less noise and vibration. Use suitable PPE including Earmuffs. Job rotation to reduce
exposure.

• Ensure that the power tool has the correct guard, shield, or other attachment that the
manufacturer recommends.

• Keep all people not involved with the work at a safe distance from the work area.

• Reroute trailing cables to eliminate trip hazard.

• Tools must be inspected regularly – visual inspection, Portable appliance test.

In addition, precautions must be taken for fuel storage

storage must be in separate place, well-ventilated, preferably in a metal container. The area must
be free from any source of ignition, provided with suitable fire alarms systems and fire
extinguishers in place. Spill kits and procedures in place to handle emergency.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 8

Equipment
9.3 Machinery Hazards

Mechanical and Non-Mechanical Hazard

Mechanical Hazard

Machinery and equipment have dangerous moving parts. The action of moving parts may have
sufficient force in motion to cause injury to people.

Non-Mechanical Hazard

Include harmful emissions, contained fluids or gas under pressure, chemicals and chemical by-
products, electricity and noise, all of which can cause serious injury.

Mechanical Hazards

Crushing
Can happened when a body part is caught in between a
fixed and moving part of a machines for example, power
press or caught in between two moving parts of the
machine, for example support arms of a scissor lift
platform.

Shearing

Body parts can be sheared when trapped between two

machine parts for example, the table and blade of a
guillotine or power press.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 9

Equipment
Cutting

When body parts come into contact with tools that can
create cutting hazards for example, band and circular saw,
knives and saws.

Entanglement

Entanglement is when someone is caught in a machine by loose items

(such as clothing, gloves, ties, jewellery, long hair).

Drawing-in or Trapping

When a part of the body is draw into a ‘nip-point’ between two

counter-rotating parts like meshing gears, rolling mills, conveyor
rollers).

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 10

Equipment
Impact

Impact hazards are caused by objects that strike the body,

but do not enter into in the body. operators can be injured by
impact hazards. Example - the rotating arm of a robot.

Stabbing or Puncture

Machine parts or materials being ejected can cause injury by

stabbing and puncturing into the body, for example, a loose
tool in a lathe, an abrasive wheel breaking, swarf.

Friction and Abrasion

Friction burns can be caused by smooth parts operating at

high speed, contacting sides of the grinding wheel, or conveyor
belt.

High-Pressure fluid injection

Ejection of high pressure from the machines can penetrate through the skin and potential to cause

tissue damage, e.g. high-pressure hydraulic oil ejection.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 11

Equipment
Non-Mechanical Hazards

• Electricity

• Thermal hazard

• Noise

• Vibration

• Radiation

• Exposure to Hazardous substances

• Slips, trips and falls

• Ergonomics

• Fire and explosion

• Manual handling

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 12

Equipment
 Control Measures for Machinery Hazards 9.4

Machinery Safeguarding Methods

Guards are physical barriers which prevent access to the danger parts of the machine while it is in
motion.

Hierarchy of Machinery Guarding

In order to decide on the most appropriate guarding for different parts of the machine, it is
essential to undertake a formal risk assessment to determine risk.

A machinery risk assessment involves identifying significant hazards and for each one, evaluating
the likelihood of occurrence, frequency of exposure, degree of possible harm and number of
persons at risk. Having identified which risks need to be reduced, suitable safeguards can be
considered. It is then essential that the risks are reviewed to establish whether controls have,
indeed, sufficiently reduced the risks.

Your control strategy should follow the Hierarchy of Machinery Guarding as follows:

• Fixed enclosed guards.

• Other guards or protection devices such as interlocked guards and pressure-sensitive mats.
• Protection appliances such as jigs, holders and push-sticks.
• The provision of information, instruction, training and supervision.

All guards and protection devices and their designs should

• be suitable for the purpose for which they are provided

• good construction, sound material and adequate strength

• maintained in an efficient state, in efficient working order and in good repair

• not give rise to any increased risk to health or safety

• should not be easily bypassed or disabled

• situated at sufficient distance from the danger zone

• not unduly restrict the view of the operating cycle of the machinery, where such a view is
necessary
• constructed or adapted that they allow operations necessary to fit or replace parts and for
maintenance work, without the need to dismantle the guard or protection device.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 13

Equipment
Fixed Guards

Fixed guards are physical barriers that keeps

people out of dangerous areas during normal
use, maintenance or cleaning.

Fixed guards can be:

• permanent – welded into or part of the body

of the machine.

• removable – but they can only be removed

when the machine is stopped, with a special
tool that is not easily available to operators.

Barriers or fences held securely in place with fasteners or other suitable devices can stop access
to dangerous areas. Machine guards should be made of substantial materials (such as sheet
steel, wire mesh) that cannot be easily damaged.

Minimum (Safe reach) Distances for Fixed Guards

This method of hazard management relies on putting dangerous machinery parts out of reach of
people. The minimum separation distances are based on people with long arms, hands, and
fingers. The anthropometric data used in this standard to determine the distance so that
workers are safe while they operate the machinery.

Distance guards should be at least 1600mm tall and at least 900mm away from the danger zone;
If the guard is between 1000mm and 1600mm tall, it must be at least 1500mm away from the
danger zone.

Advantages Limitations

• creates a physical barrier to dangerous • not connected to machine controls

parts • no protection when the guard is removed
• requires special tool to remove the guard during maintenance.
• it requires less maintenance • allow people to access dangerous parts
when the guard is removed.
• more complex for machinery which
requires frequent access, or maintenance.
• poor visibility – may be hindrance to do
inspection.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 14

Equipment
Interlocking Guards

Interlocked guards work by cutting power to the

machine when the guard is opened. They are a good
guard to use when a machine needs to be accessed
often. An interlocked guard may use electrical.
mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic power or any
combination of these.

Interlocking guard which has a movable part so

connected with the machinery controls that:

• the parts of the machinery causing danger cannot

be set in motion until the guard is closed.

• the power is switched off and the motion braked before the guard can be opened sufficiently
to allow access to the dangerous parts.
• access to the danger point or area is denied while the danger exists.

Advantages Limitations

• connected to machine controls, hence • required careful adjustments and

machine does not operate when a guard maintenance.
remain open. • do not assume that they are reliable.
• easy for frequent access. • difficult to do inspection or testing.
• any failure or loss of power does not • gate system can be easily by-passed by
expose people to danger. stepping inside the gate.

Adjustable and Self-Adjusting Guards

Adjustable guards are made up of a fixed guard with

adjustable elements that are moved to suit each task.

They can be:

• self-adjusting – guards that are forced open by the entry

of work

• distance guards – barriers that can be moved to a safe

distance from the danger zone.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 15

Equipment
Guards that move out of the way for each operation (automatic
guards) need special care. Hazards can be created between the
guard and:

• machine.

• person.

• work piece.

Staff need full training on using and adjusting these guards. These
guards are only effective when the people use them correctly.

Advantages Limitations

• dangerous parts are covered • protection may not be possible at all

• adjustable guards allow operator to times
adjust manually. • requires frequent maintenance and/or
adjustments
• may interfere visibility

Sensitive Protective Equipment (Trip Devices)

It is designed to cut the power if someone

reached into a dangerous part of a machine. If the
system fails, there is no physical barrier to prevent
people coming into contact with dangerous parts.
Sensor are used to identify the presence of
someone who tries to reach the dangerous parts,
hence, it reduces the severity.

There are different types of sensitive protective

devices:

Trip Guards

Commonly include a trip bar attached to the machines close to the dangerous parts, when
touched causes the machines to stop with the assistance of braking devices.

Photoelectric Devices

Photoelectric safety devices use light beams that stop machines working when the light beam is

broken. This method is often used when fixed or interlocked mechanical guards are not

practical.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 16

Equipment
Pressure-Sensitive Mats

Pressure-sensitive mats are designed to cut the machine’s power if someone steps on them to

access a dangerous part.

Pressure-sensitive mats use a number of well-spaced electrical or fluid switches or valves in a

mat. The mat covers any entries to a restricted space. Pressure on the mat stops the automatic

operation of the machine.

Advantages Limitations

• Can allow freer movement for operator • Does not protect against mechanical failure
• Simplicity of use • Can be over-ridden by the operator.
• Used by multiple operators • Frequent trips due to over sensitive.
• Provide passer by protection • Takes time to come to the idle position, the
• No adjustment required operator may approach before machine
stops completely.

Two-Hand Controls

The two-hand control requires constant, concurrent

pressure by the operator to activate the machine. With
this type of device, the operator's hands are required to
be at a safe location (on control buttons) and at a safe
distance from the danger area while the machine
completes its closing cycle. Only use this method to
isolate people from machinery hazards as a last resort.

Two-hand controls should:

• need to be turned on together (so people cannot tape one control down)

• need to be held to run, so the machine stops immediately when the control is released

• be spaced well apart and shrouded so one arm cannot run both controls.

The rear and sides of the machine should be guarded by fixed guards to prevent stop access by
other people.

Advantages Limitations
• Protects operator hand • Protects only operator not others
• Machine stops when one hand is released. • Can be easily by-passed.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 17

Equipment
Hold -To-Run Device

Hold-to-run device requires the operator to hold a button or foot pedal to ‘run’ an equipment,
for example lawn mower. To operate it is essential to hold-to-run, releasing the button stops the
machine, the device is located away from the danger area to prevent operator accessing to the
moving parts without releasing the button.

Advantages Limitations

• Protects operator from danger • Protects only operator not others

• Safe distance between operator and hazard • Residual movement of dangerous parts
when the controls are released.

Emergency Stop Controls

The aim to provide a swift response to a dangerous situation, they should not be used as a
functional stop control during normal operations. It should be located at convenient locations
and easily accessible by the operator or others.

Advantages Limitations
• Isolate power supply • May not prevent access to dangerous
• Prevents accident restart parts.
• Releasing does not restart machine • Operator may not be able to access if he is
trapped.

Protective Appliances

Push Stick

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 18

Equipment
Allows the operator to keep their hands or body parts away from the dangerous parts of the
machinery. There a variety of protective appliances used in the industry including.

• Jigs – used to attach a saw blade to avoid direct contact with blade which reduces the risk of
lacerations.

• Push sticks – are used in the wood working machinery including table saws, band saw which
protect operator hand as it the stock is pushed through the cutting head or blade using push
sticks.

• Clamps – versatile tools used to secure the workpiece in place, they are used in many
applications including carpentry, wood working, lathe etc. for example, C clamps are widely
used in lathe industry.

Personal Protective Equipment

Employees may need personal protective equipment when

working with machinery that makes heat, fumes, noise or
other hazards. Personal protective equipment must be
provided by the employer and maintained and replaced
whenever required. PPE must be selected properly which
should be suitable for the work, gloves has potential to
entangle with rotating parts. Face shields or googles may
restrict operator view while operating machinery. Refer
Element 3.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 19

Equipment
Specific Machinery Examples – Hazards and Controls

We use wide range of machines in our business which could a simple to complex. These machines
could be:

• Manufacturing/maintenance machinery (including bench-top grinder, pedestal drill).

• Agricultural/horticultural machinery (including cylinder mower, strimmer/brush cutter,
chainsaw).
• Retail machinery (including compactor).
• Construction machinery (including cement mixer, bench-mounted circular saw).
• Emerging technologies (including drones, driver-less vehicles).

Manufacturing and Maintenance Machinery

Bench Top Grinder

Hazards

• Entanglement - rotating spindles.

• Drawing-in and trap in between tool rest area.

• Impact - busted abrasive wheel.

• Abrasion - contact with abrasive wheel.

• Noise / Vibration

• Electricity

Precautions

• No loose clothing, hair and jewellery.

• Fixed guards covering the motor, abrasive wheel,
and spindles.
• Polycarbonate guards on the exposed area of the
abrasive wheel.
• Sufficient gap in between tool rest area and
abrasive wheel to avoid drawing-in
• Operate machine at RPM as recommended by
manufacturer

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 20

Equipment
Pedestal Drill

Hazards

• Rotating shafts
• Entanglement – drill bit
• Flying debris
• Electricity
• Impact – unsecured workpiece
• Hot surface
• Noise / vibration

Precautions

• Ensure the drill bit is secured safely, use correct drill bit for the right job.
• No loose clothing or loose hair.
• Provide sufficient power supply, do not overload the fuse, regular inspection, use Reduced
voltage system.
• Sprinkle water to suppress dust, use appropriate masks.
• Secure workpiece with clamps.
• Do not touch any part / body of the equipment after use, e.g the drill bit shall be hot.
• Use suitable PPE including Earmuffs. Job rotation to reduce exposure.

Agricultural and Horticultural Machinery

Hazards

• Cut injury with rotating blades.

• Entanglement with rotating blades.
• Drawing in-nip points – drive pulley.
• Impact – stones or sharp objects
• Incomplete combustion – exhaust fumes.
• Noise / Vibration
• Fire and Explosion
• Hot Temperature – Sun

Precautions

• Fixed guards – rotating blades, drive pulley.

• Allow engine to cool down before refuelling, refuel in well-ventilated area.
• Restricted to trained users only.
• Job rotation to reduce exposure to noise and vibration.
• PPE – hearing protection, masks, aprons, and safety shoes.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 21

Equipment
Strimmer or Brush Cutter

Hazards

• Cut injury when body parts come into contact with rotating
blade or cutting cord.
• Entanglement from rotating blade or cutting cord.
• Ejection - sticks, stones can cause puncture wounds.
• Noise / vibration
• Fire and explosion
• Exhaust fumes

Precautions

• Restricted to trained users only.

• Fixed guards over the engines / drive mechanism.
• Partial guards enclose cutting cord.
• Allow engine to cool down before refuelling, refuelling in well-ventilated area.
• Fitted with throttle trigger interlock to avoid accidental start up.
• Job rotation to reduce exposure to noise and vibration.
• PPE – hearing protection, masks, aprons, and safety shoes.

Chainsaw

Hazards

• Kickback from nose of the guide bar when contact with a log.
• Cuts and lacerations from rotating blade.
• Noise and vibration
• Exhaust fumes
• Fire and explosion
• Hot surface
• Flying debris / dust

Precautions

• Restricted to trained users only.

• Fixed guards over the engines / drive mechanism.
• Avoid cutting with the upper nose of the guide bar this prevent kickback.
• Use low kickback chains or guide bars.
• Do not use chainsaw without chain brake.
• Allow engine to cool down before refuelling, refuelling in well-ventilated area.
• Throttle control lockout to prevent accidental opening of throttle.
• Job rotation to reduce exposure to noise and vibration.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 22

Equipment
chainsaw users should wear protective clothing which complies with required standards:

• Footwear – steel toe caps.

• Leg protection – chainsaw operator safety trousers or chaps.
• Safety helmet – to protect head from falling objects.
• Earmuffs – to prevent hearing damage.
• Eye Protection – Safety goggles /shields to prevent exposure to flying debris.
• Clothing – comfortable clothing to allow free movement.

Retail Machinery

Compactor

Hazards

• Crushing.
• Shearing from moving arms on the
compactor.
• Impact by ejected items during crushing.
• Biological hazard from wastes.

Precautions

• Fixed perimeter guard on all the sides of

the compactor
• Interlocked guards – material in feed and collection area.
• Good housekeeping to avoid slips and trips.
• Sprinkle vermin to treat biological hazard.

Construction Machinery

Cement Mixer

Hazards

• Entanglement from blades inside the drum or drive

shaft.
• Impact during drum rotation.
• Exhaust fumes
• Chemical hazard from exposure to cement dust or
silica dust.
• Electricity.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 23

Equipment
Precautions

• Fixed guard to totally enclose the drive mechanism.

• Use reduced low-voltage power through step down transformer.
• Allow parts to cool down before refuelling.
• Maintain safe distance while feeding into the drum.
• PPE – hearing protection, masks, aprons, and gloves.
• Maintain personal hygiene.

Bench Mounted Circular Saw

Hazards

• Cut injury or laceration on contact with blade.

• Entanglement from drive mechanism.
• Drawing in at nip point at drive pulley and
belt.
• Ejection of wood pieces during cutting.
• Inhalation of wood dust possess serious
health issues.
• Noise and vibration

Precautions

• Fitted with fixed and adjustable guards enclosing the blade on top and at the bottom.
• Use jigs and push sticks.
• Fix LEV to remove dust form the source.
• PPE – respiratory and hearing protection, goggles, or face shields.

Basic Requirements for Guards and Safety Devices

Guards and protective devices must:

• be of robust construction.
• must be compatible with process.
• be securely held in place.
• not give rise to any additional hazard.
• not be easy to by-pass.
• be located at an adequate distance
from the danger zone.
• cause minimum obstruction to the
view of the production process.
• maintained effectively though regular
checks, planned maintenance.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 24

Equipment
Emerging Technologies – Drones / Driver less vehicles

Mobile work equipment - including self-propelled,

remote-controlled work equipment - is subject to
specific requirements in addition to the
requirements for normal work equipment, which
cover:

• the suitability of equipment used for carrying

people
• the minimizing of rollover risk
• the provision of equipment to restrain or
protect people (in the event of rollover or
overturn)
• the control of the equipment, including operator vision and lighting (where required for
safety.

Those who provide self-propelled work equipment must ensure it has:

• facilities to prevent the equipment being started by unauthorised people.

• facilities to minimise the consequences of collision, where there is more than one rail-
mounted item in motion at the same time.
• a device for braking and stopping.
• (where required) emergency facilities for braking and stopping, operated by readily accessible
controls or automatic systems - in the event of failure of the main facility.
• adequate devices for improving driver vision, so far as reasonably practicable, where the
driver's direct field of vision is inadequate to ensure safety - modern CCTV systems can be
very effective where mirrors are found to be inadequate.
• appropriate lighting, where used at night or in dark places, so the work activity can be carried
out safely.
• carries (or have located close by) appropriate fire-fighting equipment, when carrying or
towing anything which could present a fire hazard and endanger employees.

Those who provide remote-controlled, self-propelled work equipment must:

• ensure there is a means to stop it safely and automatically when it leaves its control range, if
it presents a risk to safety while in motion.
• provide features to safeguard against crushing or impact with other machinery, obstacles, or
people.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 25

Equipment
References

1. http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg291.pdf
2. http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg229.pdf
3. https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg455.pdf
4. ILO CoPhttp://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/
safework/documents/normativeinstrument/wcms_164653.pdf.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 9 – Work 26

Equipment
 Element 10
Fire

Learning Objectives
1. Describe the principles of fire initiation,
classification and spread.

2. Describe the basic principles of fire prevention

and the prevention of fire spread in buildings.

3. Describe the appropriate fire alarm system

and fire-fighting arrangements for a simple
workplace.

4. Describe the factors which should be

considered when implementing a successful
evacuation of a workplace in the event of fire.
 Contents

Fire Initiation, Classification and Spread

Principles of Fire 10-1
Classification of Fires 10-2
Principles of Heat Transmission and Fire Spread 10-3
Common Causes and Consequences of Fires in Workplaces 10-5

Preventing Fire and Fire Spread

Control Measures to Minimize the Risk of Fire in a Workplace 10-6
Storage of Flammable Liquids 10-11
Structural Measures for Preventing the Spread of Fire and Smoke 10-13

Fire Alarms and Firefighting

Fire Detection and Alarm Systems 10-20
Portable Fire-Fighting Equipment 10-24
Access for Fire and Rescue Services 10-32

Fire Evacuation
Means of Escape 10-33
Emergency Evacuation Procedures 10-35
10.1 Principles of Fire

Fire

Fire is a chemical reaction. It occurs when fuel, oxygen and an ignition source are brought together.
These three elements are referred to as the ‘fire triangle’

The Causes of Fire

For a fire to initiate all the three elements must be present in equal proportion for a fire to sustain,
removal of any of these elements will extinguish the fire.

Starving Cooling
(Reducing the fuel) (Reducing the heat)

Smothering
(Reducing the oxygen)

Fuel - a combustible material or substance that is consumed during the combustion process.
In a typical workplace, fuels can include paper and cardboard; wood and soft furnishings;
structural materials; petrol and diesel fuels, butane, acetylene and other gases, solvents and
other chemicals.

Oxygen - consumed during combustion when it is chemically combined with the fuel. Oxygen
is present in air at a concentration of 21%. During a fire oxygen can also come from other
sources, including certain oxygen-rich chemicals (usually called oxidising agents), such as
ammonium nitrate.

Sources of ignition (heat) - a heat or ignition source is essential to start the combustion
process. Once combustion has started it generates its own heat which is usually sufficient to
keep the fire burning (in other words once the fire starts the heat source can be removed and
the fire stays alight). Some examples will be described later.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 1

Classification of Fires

Fire is classified based on the fuel type; this classification helps to identify the use of right means of
extinguishing methods.

Electrical Fire

Electrical fires are also often referred to as a fire class. Electricity is a significant ignition source that
can start fires. It is also a very significant hazard when attempting to extinguish fires because of the
risk of electric shock (e.g. as a result of spraying water onto burning electrical equipment). However,
because classification is on the basis of the fuel that is burning, and electricity is not a fuel, there is
no formal Class ‘E’.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 2

Principles of Heat Transmission and Fire Spread

Heat Transmission and Fire Spread

The fire and the smoke during the combustion process can spread through four ways which are
convection, conduction, radiation and direct burning.

Convection

Hot air becomes less dense and rises to the atmosphere, this hot
air continuous to rise temperature; in turn causes the materials in
the atmosphere at higher level eventually ignite the flammable
materials.

Hot air then becomes colder, falls down to supply fresh source of
oxygen to combustion.

Outdoors, these convection currents will contain burning embers

that are carried in the currents until the air cools and the embers Fire Spread - Convection
are dropped to the ground. This is a common way for forest fires
to travel and jump over obstacles (such as roads).

Conduction

Transfer of heat through matter through thermal motion of

atoms and molecules. Heat transfer takes place from higher
temperature to lower temperature especially in solids or between
solid objects in thermal contact. Fluids and gases are less
conductive than solids. A further example of conduction is how
hot the end of a metal spoon gets if you leave it in a pan of
boiling water.

Metals are considered as good conductors of heat, when there is

fire in the building the heat is transferred through conduction
method to the metal structure in the building resulting in Fire Spread - Conduction
spread of fire.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 3

Radiation

Heat is transferred by radiation through electromagnetic waves,

where no medium is required for them to propagate. You can feel
heat transfer from a fire or the Sun. Yet the space between Earth
and the Sun is largely empty, without any possibility of heat
transfer by convection or conduction. The rate of heat transfer by
radiation is largely determined by the colour of the object. For
example, an electrical element on a stove glow from red to
orange, while the higher-temperature steel in a blast furnace
glows from yellow to white.
Fire Spread - Radiation

Direct Burning

When a burning material is in contact with other material heat is transferred causing fire to spread.
Very often direct burning is the only cause of fire spread in the early stages of fire until the heat in the
fire builds up. For e.g. poorly discarded cigarette falling on to the newspaper causing to ignite.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 4

Common Causes and Consequences of Fires in Workplaces
Workplace fires occur due to various causes, all such fires are preventable if suitable precautions are
in place.

The common causes of fire in the workplace are:

• Deliberate acts by people

• Arson

• Children playing with matchbox

• Misuse or neglect of electrical equipment

• Faulty fuel supplies

• Careless use of cooking equipment

• Faulty cooking equipment

• Hot works

• Work equipment

• Placing articles too close to heat

• Careless disposal of smokers’ materials

Deliberate acts by people are one of the main causes of fires in the workplace; arson is a particular
problem, so it is worth identifying the reasons why arson is committed.

Consequences of fires
Fire interrupts business, incur huge financial loss including damage to the building, production stop,
damage to equipment, loss of raw materials and stocks, on the other hand there is massive loss of
lives including multiple fatalities through inhalation of dark smoke which has presence of toxic
gases, people are stamped causing death during evacuation. Fire also cause damage to the
environment by releasing toxic gases into the atmosphere or contaminates water courses.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 5

 Preventing Fire and Fire Spread 10.2

Control Measures to Minimise the Risk of Fire in a Workplace

Fire must be prevented at the starting stage; fire preventions are based on the fire triangle.

• Control fuel sources

• Control ignitions sources
• Control oxygen sources

Control of Combustible and Flammable Materials

Combustible materials (such as paper, cloth, and wood),

Flammable liquids (such as solvents, oils) and

Flammable gases (such as acetylene, propane, and methane) are all potential fuels and should be
stored,

The best practice is to eliminate the combustible and flammable material entirely from the
workplace. This might be done, for example, by disposing of old stocks of materials and substances
that are no longer needed.

If combustible and flammable materials cannot be eliminated or substituted, then the quantities of
these materials present in the workplace should be minimised. This requires good stock control,
housekeeping and waste management.

For any combustible and flammable materials that remain, arrangements must be made for their
safe use and storage.

For example, if Acetylene and Oxygen is present in a workplace, the following arrangements should
be made:

• Cylinders (gas bottles) should be stored outside.

• The storage area should be fenced with a secure, lockable gate.
• Warning signs should be displayed.
• Ignition sources should be eliminated from the area.
• Bottles should be chained upright.
• The storage area should be separate from other buildings.
• Empty and full bottles should be kept separate.
• Oxygen bottles should not be stored with Acetylene.
• Only those bottles required should be removed from the storage area and returned after use.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 6

Control Fuel Sources

Inventories of potential fuel for a fire must be reduced to a practical minimum, subject to
operational requirements. Some ways to reduce the potential fuel for a fire include:
• Remove flammable materials and substances or reduce quantities to the minimum
required for business operation.
• Replace flammable materials and substances with less hazardous alternatives.
• Ensure flammable materials, liquids (and vapours) and gases are handled,
transported, stored, and used properly.
• Ensure adequate separation distances between flammable materials, especially in
storage areas.
• Store highly flammable substances in fire-resisting stores.
• Where it is necessary to keep highly flammable materials in work areas, make certain that
only the minimum quantity is present and that the material is kept in a fire-resistant
cabinet.
• Remove or alternatively, cover or treat large areas of flammable wall and ceiling linings
with fire resistant material/coating.
• Ensure that flammable waste materials and rubbish are not allowed to build up and are
carefully stored prior to disposal.
• Take action to avoid storage areas being vulnerable to arson or vandalism.
• Ensure good housekeeping.
• Improve the fire resistance of the construction of the workplace.

Control Ignition Sources

Group Companies must seek to reduce the hazard from potential ignition sources by
such actions as:
• Remove unnecessary sources of heat or replace them with safer alternatives and
ensure that heat-producing equipment is used in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions and is properly maintained.
• Installing machinery and equipment that has been specifically designed to minimise the
risk of fire or explosion, rather than machinery and equipment that has not.
• Ensure that all electrical fuses, circuit breakers and similar protective devices are of the
correct rating and fit for purpose.
• Ensure that sources of heat do not arise from faulty or overloaded electrical or
mechanical equipment including overheated bearings.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 7

• Keep ducts and flue stacks clean.
• If appropriate, use a Permit-To-Work system [Ref. 1] to control work that may result in
a fire hazard, such as welding or flame cutting.
• Operate a safe smoking policy by designating smoking areas and prohibiting smoking
elsewhere.
• Enforcing a prohibition on matches, lighters and other potential naked flame sources
in areas with a high fire risk.
• Ensure that all equipment that could provide a source of ignition when unattended or
not in use is left in a safe condition i.e. turned off or isolated.
• Making sure that any smouldering material (including smokers' material) is properly
extinguished.
• Taking precautions to avoid the risk of arson.

Control Oxygen Sources

Ways to reduce the amount of oxygen available to a fire include:

• Closing all doors, windows and other openings that are not required for ventilation,
especially out of working hours.
• Shutting down ventilation systems that are not essential to the function of the
workplace.
• Not storing oxidising materials near or with any other heat source or flammable
materials.
• Controlling the use and storage of oxygen cylinders, ensuring that they are not leaking,
and their location is adequately ventilated.
• Ensuring oxygen-enriched vents from inert gas generators or similar are located outside the
building and away from fuel sources and ignition sources.

Use of Electrical Equipment in Flammable Atmospheres

Explosive atmospheres can be caused by flammable gases, mists or vapours or by combustible dusts. If
there is enough of the substance, mixed with air, then all it needs is a source of ignition to cause an
explosion.

ATEX Directive (ATEX Workplace Directive and ATEX Equipment), regulate the control of
flammable atmospheres and the use of electrical equipment in explosive atmospheres. The
Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002 (DSEAR), requires the employer
to classify hazardous locations by zones and then take steps to control the risk of fire and explosion.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 8

Hazardous Area Zones and Equipment Categories
Hazardous places are classified in terms of zones on the basis of
the frequency and duration of the occurrence of an explosive
atmosphere.

Gases, vapours and mists

For gases, vapours and mists the zone classifications are:

Zone 0 A place in which an explosive atmosphere consisting of

a mixture with air of dangerous substances in the form of gas, vapour or mist is
present continuously or for long periods or frequently.

Zone 1 A place in which an explosive atmosphere consisting of a mixture with air of

dangerous substances in the form of gas, vapour or mist is likely to occur in
normal operation occasionally.

Zone 2 A place in which an explosive atmosphere consisting of a mixture with air of

dangerous substances in the form of gas, vapour or mist is not likely to occur in
normal operation but, if it does occur, will persist for a short period only.

For dusts the zone classifications are Zone 20, 21 and 22.

Special precautions need to be taken in hazardous areas to prevent equipment from being
a source of ignition. In situations where an explosive atmosphere has a high likelihood of
occurring, reliance is placed on using equipment with a low probability of creating a source
of ignition.

Equipment categories and zones

The hazardous area zone classification and corresponding equipment categories are:

Electrical Equipment Category Zone

Category 1 equipment Zone 0 or zone 20
Category 2 equipment Zone 1 or zone 21
Category 3 equipment Zone 2 or zone 22

Marking of equipment

A standardized marking scheme is applied to identify equipment suitable for a specific location.
Equipment built to the requirements of EPS will carry the explosion protection symbol “Ex” in a
Hexagon, the equipment category number (1, 2, or 3), the letter G and/or D depending on whether it
is intended for use in gas or dust atmospheres, and other essential safety information.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 9

Safe Systems of Work
Systems of work must be designed and implemented to minimise fire risk in the workplace. The
degree to which this is done, and the exact procedures implemented should be decided through the
risk assessment process by a competent person.

An example of a safe system of work applied to fire safety is the use of a permit-to-work system to
control hot work (where naked flames or a significant ignition source will be created).

Typical precautions for control of hot work include the following:

• Flammable materials are removed from the work area.

• Items that cannot be removed are covered with fire-retardant blankets.
• The floor must be clean.
• A wooden floor is damped down.
• A suitable type of fire extinguisher needs to be placed.
• A ‘fire-watcher’ must present in the area.
• The work area is visited routinely, after the work has finished, checking the area for smouldering.

Good Housekeeping
Good housekeeping is not just about cleanliness; it lays basic foundation for accident and fire
prevention. It requires attention to details, such as the layout of the worksite or facility, identification
and marking of physical hazards, ensuring the adequate number of storage facilities, and routine
maintenance.

Waste-free – by removing waste on a regular basis so that it does not build up and increase fire risk
as a potential fuel source (e.g. emptying full litter bins).

Tidy – so that flammable and ignition sources are returned to safe storage after use (e.g. solvent
returned to the solvent store).

Well-ordered – so that fuel and ignition sources are kept separate (e.g. ensuring fan heaters are not
obstructed).

Pedestrian routes clear – so that they can be used in the event of a fire evacuation (e.g. no
obstructions by the office fire escape door).

Here are some of the many benefits that can be gained when implementing good workplace
housekeeping:

• Improved Worker Safety

• Improved Worker Health
• Increased Worker Productivity/Reduced Costs

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 10

Storage of Flammable Liquids
Many work activities require a limited quantity of flammable liquids to be held in the workplace, and
these may be stored in suitable cabinets or bins of fire-resisting construction that are designed to
retain spills.

Definitions

Combustible: A liquid with a flash point over 100°F (38°C) is considered combustible.

• Examples: diesel fuel, motor oil.

• Hazard: May produce ignitable vapors at elevated temperatures.

Flammable: A liquid with a flash point under 100°F is considered flammable.

• Examples: gasoline, acetone, toluene, diethyl ether, alcohols.

• Hazard: May produce ignitable vapors at normal ambient temperatures.

FLASH POINT

The flash point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which flammable vapour will form at the
surface that can be ignited by the application of an external ignition source. Sustained combustion
does not continue (the vapour burns briefly and then goes out).

The lower the flash point, the lower the temperature at which it is possible to ignite the liquid.

Some of these liquids have very low flash points and so are labeled as ‘highly flammable’ or
‘extremely flammable’:

• Category 3 ‘flammable liquids’ have a relatively low flash point (between 23°C and 60°C).
• Category 2 ‘highly flammable liquids’ have a low flash point (<23°C) and boiling point >35°C.
• Category 1 ‘extremely flammable liquids’ have a low flash point (<23°C) and boiling point <35°C.

Employers should determine the extent of the flammable atmosphere that could result from leaks
and ensure all potential ignition sources are excluded.

Cabinets and bins storing flammable substances should be located in well-ventilated areas that are:

• Away from the immediate processing area where possible; and

• Do not jeopardize the means of escape from the area.

Flammable liquids should be stored separately from other dangerous substances that may increase
the risk of fire or compromise the integrity of the container, such as oxidisers.

The recommended maximum quantities that may be stored in cabinets and bins are:

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 11

• No more than 50 litres for extremely or highly flammable liquids; and
• No more than 250 litres for other flammable liquids.

Safe use of flammable liquids includes the following:

• Use the minimum volume of liquid required.

• Store the liquid in a properly labeled container.
• Ideally, ensure that the container is metal with a self-closing lid.
• Use a metal tray to catch spills and have absorbent materials available.
• Use away from heat and ignition sources.
• Ensure that workspace is well-ventilated.
• Return containers to safe storage after use.

Safe storage of small volumes (extremely/highly flammable (<50 litres) or flammable (<250 litres)) in
workrooms includes:

• Storing minimal volumes only.

• Using closed containers.
• Storing in a purpose-built flammable cabinet. A flammables cabinet should: –– Be fire-resistant
(metal).
• Have lockable doors and fire-resistant hinges and fastenings. –– Be clearly signed.
• Have a built-in catch tray.
• Storing away from potential ignition sources.

Safe storage of larger volumes of flammable liquid involves:

• Storing flammables in a purpose-built, single-storey flammables store, with segregated storage if

necessary.
• The store being built of non-combustible materials.
• The store having a lightweight roof for explosion relief.
• Ideally, the store being built outdoors away from other buildings or having firewall protection.
• The store being suitably fenced in a secure area.
• All electrical systems being intrinsically safe.
• All other ignition sources being eliminated.
• The store being well-ventilated at high and low levels.
• All access doors being lockable with a sill to contain spillages.
• Having adequate fire-fighting equipment.
• Making regular checks for security, secure and safe storage, leaks of liquids, etc.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 12

Structural Measures to Prevent the Spread of Fire and Smoke

The designing of building plays a significant factor in preventing both the outbreak and spread
of fire. The main features which influence are:

• the layout and construction of the building or the site premises

• the materials with which buildings are constructed and those used in decoration and
furnishings.

Properties of Common Building Materials

The types of material used for both the structure and decoration of a building are a significant factor
in the manner and rate of fire spread, affecting the safety of both the occupants and the building
contents. There are many different types of building materials available and selecting which to
employ depends on the specific use and circumstances of the building. It always involves a
compromise between the various properties of the materials, mainly their combustibility, structural
strength when subject to heat and the products of combustion (harmful or otherwise) – and of
course their cost. We shall consider here the properties of the main types of building materials.

Steel Frames

Steel has a high strength/weight ratio and is used extensively as load bearing, structural
members such as columns, beams, portal frames and roofs, etc. It can also be used as
“profiled” sheets or light-weight roof members (purlins).

Unprotected steel will rapidly lose its designed shape in a fire and also its structural strength;
mild steel loses half its cold strength at about 550°C and high-tensile steel at about 400°C. A
typical effect of this is that, for example, heating a steel cross-beam will cause it to expand,
pushing vertical columns out and causing floor slabs to collapse onto the floor below which,
not being strong enough to carry the extra load placed upon it, may itself collapse and hence
lead to the whole building falling through.

Steel is also a very efficient conductor of heat and so extensive unprotected steelwork can be
a significant cause of the spread of fire.

As a result of these weaknesses in the face of fire, steel is generally used in combination with
concrete, where the concrete provides a measure of protection for the steel.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 13

Reinforced Concrete Frames

Almost all concrete used for structural purposes is reinforced with steel rods. Their fire
resistance is determined mainly by the protection offered by the concrete cover against an
excessive rise in the temperature of the steel. This in turn depends on:

• The type of aggregate used – all concrete is likely to “spall” (break away) when hot,
particularly when hit by a jet of fire or hot air, although the use of lightweight aggregate
or aerated concrete can minimise this.
• The thickness of concrete over the reinforcing rods.
• The fire resistance of reinforced concrete is good. In contrast to unprotected steel, structural
concrete may deflect under fire conditions but does not normally collapse suddenly. Indeed, many
structures have been able to be reinstated after severe fires.

Timber

Timber burns but in a predictable manner. If designed with an adequate factor of safety there can be
a reasonable time lag before failure occurs, particularly if the timber is protected with plasterboard
or other coverings. Applied heat will not cause expansion to stress the structure nor does wood
collapse suddenly.

Bricks

There are three types of brick in common usage – fired clay, calcium silicate and concrete.
Fired clay bricks usually respond better in a fire situation due to their composition (clay) and
the fact that during the manufacturing process they have already been exposed to very high
temperatures and there will therefore be little reduction in their strength in any subsequent
fire.

However, no distinction is made between the three types in classifying their behavior in fire
when incorporated as a wall. The key features which affect the fire resistance of a wall are:

• Its thickness.
• The applied rendering or plastering, especially if lightweight plaster is used.
• Whether the wall is load bearing or not.
• The presence of perforations or cavities within the bricks.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 14

Building Blocks

Blocks may be of clay or concrete:

• Clay blocks are usually hollow. The greater the thickness and the smaller the voids, the
better the fire resistance. Spalling (blistering and exploding) is likely to occur on the face
exposed to fire.
• Concrete blocks may be made of dense or lightweight aggregates and can be either solid
or hollow.

Both types give high fire resistance (which can be improved by the application of plaster) with
little risk of collapse, so they can be safely used for the walls of a fire compartment.

While these types of manual systems provide for an alarm over a limited area, operation of
one of them is rarely adequate to give a general alarm throughout the premises. Also, as a
person is required to operate them, a continuous alarm cannot be guaranteed for as long as
may be necessary.

In order to raise a more general alarm it is also possible to use facilities which may already be
installed in a building for other purposes – for example, a telephone or public address system.
With automatic telephone systems, arrangements can be made for a particular dialing code
to be reserved for reporting a fire to a person responsible for calling the fire brigade and
sounding the general alarm. Alternatively, it can be arranged that use of the code
automatically sounds the general alarm.

Building Boards

Boards are generally combustible but are not easily ignited. The main types are:

• Fibre building boards – either soft board (often called insulating board) which is non-
compressed in manufacture or hardboard of both low and high density which, if
tempered by impregnation with oils and resin, has high strength and water resistance
and is not easily ignitable.
• Plaster boards which retard fire spread until the paper face burns away.
• Asbestos boards which have a high asbestos content and consequently have good fire-
resistance properties (but the use of which is now forbidden in many countries due to
the carcinogenic properties of asbestos).
• Asbestos cement sheets which have a low asbestos content and usually fail by shattering
under fire.
• Plywood and block boards which offer variable fire resistance depending on the type of

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 15

 wood, thickness, treatment, etc.
• Plastic board of variable resistance depending on the surface treatment.

Building Slabs

Slabs are similar to building boards but are much thicker. “Wood-wool” slabs and compressed
straw slabs are combustible and are often treated to give improved resistance. These are
usually found as underlays for roofing materials.

Stone

Often used for cladding, the type of stone used in buildings is generally one of the following:

• Granite – which is likely to expand rapidly and shatter at 575°C, and has a risk of spalling
(although this is reduced by the use of large blocks).
• Limestone – which is likely to spall if hit with a high temperature jet of fire or air.
• Sandstone – which generally comes between limestone and granite in behavior, and is
likely to shrink and crack.

Stone has a tendency to crack when subjected to continuous heat or to sudden cooling by a
jet of air.

Glass

Glass is susceptible to breakage and cannot therefore be used as a barrier to fire. There are
two exceptions to this – wired glass and copper light glazing – which offer some fire
resistance.

Insulating Material

Most modern insulating materials are non-combustible but unfortunately in many older
building’s combustible materials (such as sawdust) have been used. Their location in
concealed spaces can aid fire spread considerably.

Lime (Plaster)

Lime is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) which is converted to quicklime

(calcium oxide) and then slaked with water to make slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). Lime is
a component of plaster and mortar. It is used for plastering internal walls and, if supported
by lathing or expanded metal, has good fire resistance.

Paint

Most paints are flammable, and a layer of many coats built up over years may be a fire risk.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 16

Flame-retardant paints and intumescent paints are also available. These bubbles up to protect
the timber beneath.

Plastics
There are two types of plastic:

• Thermosetting plastics, which are formed by the action of heat and compression – these
will not soften and melt when involved in a fire but will decompose.
• Thermoplastic plastics, which are moulded into the required shape by heating and on
cooling, remain in that shape – if involved in a fire they will melt and flow.
Plastics are used primarily in building services and surface fascia’s. The principal hazards they
present in fires are the dripping of molten plastic and giving off products of incomplete combustion
in the form of toxic smoke.

Compartmentation
Compartmentation is the process or design of isolating zones of a building to ensure a fire in one
area does not spread uncontrolled to another area. The design technique of compartmentation is
not only applied to roof voids and other concealed spaces, but can be applied to most areas creating
specific fire protection zones within a building. The potential for such fire protection zones is in fact
inherent to the building design i.e. the walls or rooms of the structure - if suitably designed,
constructed or modified - create the boundaries for compartmentation. A simplified analogy is that
the property has been divided up into 'boxes', each of which intend to inhibit fire growth; again, in
simple terms an example is the difference between a room with either on open or closed door. The
division of a building into these fire zones offers perhaps the most effective passive means of
limiting fire damage.

Properties of Intumescent Coatings

Intumescent coatings provide an appearance similar to that of a paint finish, and remain stable at
ambient temperatures. However, in a fire situation, the increase in temperature causes a chemical
reaction, and the intumescent coating expands to many times its original thickness. This provides an
insulating foam-like coating or ‘char’ which protects the substrate. In the protection steelwork, the
intumescent coating is designed to insulate the steel and prevent the temperature of the steel from
rising above a certain point. This in turn protects the steel and other materials from the high
temperatures of fires, thus preventing or retarding structural damage during fires. Intumescent
coatings are also used on wood but work in a different manner; timber structures are more
susceptible to the surface spread of flame and heat propagation. Intumescent are designed to
reduce heat propagation, and reduce the spread of flame. Intumescent coatings are made of a

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 17

combination of products, applied to the surface like paint. These coatings are designed to expand to
form an insulating and fire-resistant covering when subject to heat. In a fire, the coating expands to
a thick non-flammable layer of bubbles, offering good insulation protection to the material.

Protection of Openings and Voids

Fire doors are used to ensure that door openings are protected in the event of fire.
However, buildings, and the fire compartments that they are made up of, will inevitably
have numerous voids and openings running through them, such as lift shafts, service
conduits, air-handling ducts, voids between floors, roof voids, etc. and all of these need to
be protected to ensure that smoke and flames cannot easily travel from one compartment
to another. This protection can be done in many different ways (e.g. a self-closing shutter
held open by a fusible link (a piece of soft metal that melts at a very low temperature,
releasing the shutter)). It is important that any new openings made in fire break walls are
reinstated or protected in some way (e.g. when cables are run through a hole in a wall, the
hole might be filled with fire-retardant foam).

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 18

10.3 Fire Alarms and Fire Fighting

Fire Detection and Alarm System

In workplaces where a fire is unlikely to cut off the means of escape, for example open
areas and single-storey buildings, where all exits are visible and the distances to be travelled
are small, it is likely that any fire will be quickly detected by the people present. A shout of
"Fire" may be all that is needed.

In larger workplaces, particularly multi-storey buildings, an electrical fire warning system with
manually operated initiation points is likely to be the minimum facility needed. Automatic fire
detection will be necessary in normally unoccupied areas, where a fire could start and develop
to the extent that escape routes may become affected, before it is discovered/

Manual Systems

Manual systems are suitable for small workplaces and involve the use of the following basic
devices:

• Rotary gongs – which are sounded by turning a handle around the rim of the gong.
• Hand strikers – for example, iron triangles suspended from a wall accompanied by a
metal bar which is used to strike the triangle manually.
• Hand bells.
• Whistles.
• Air-horns.

These devices are normally located on the walls of corridors, entrance halls and staircase
landings, etc., where they are readily available to anyone who may have to raise an alarm.

Electric Systems

These are systems which, although set in motion manually, operate as part of an electrical
alarm circuit. When an alarm call point is activated, the alarm signal is automatically sounded
throughout the premises (or a particular part of them). The alarm system may also sound an
alarm outside the building and possibly relay an alert to the fire brigade.
The call points in a manual/electric system are usually small red wall-mounted boxes which
are designed to operate either automatically when the glass front is broken or when the glass
front is broken and a button pressed. Most available models are designed to operate
immediately the glass front is broken.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 19

Detectors
Detectors detects change in the state, this may be either through detection of smoke or heat.

Smoke Detectors

• Ionisation

• Optical

Ionisation detectors ionize the oxygen and the nitrogen in the air, which causes a small electric current
in the detector. When smoke enters the chambers, the current is reduced and the alarm sounds.

Optical detectors have a light source and a photoelectric cell in the detector. Smoke enter the chamber
either obscures the light between the cell and the source, known as a light obscuration type detector
or causes the light to reflect on the to the cell, known as light scatter type detector in both the cases
it causes the alarm to sound.

Heat Detectors

• Fixed Temperature

• Rate of rise

Heat detectors rely on the principle of the expansion of solids, liquids or gases to operate. Fixed
temperature detectors operate when a predetermined temperature has been reached whilst rate of
rise detectors allow workplace which generate a slow build-up of heat to do so without actuation.
However, should a sudden increase in temperature occur, as would be found in a fire situation, the
detector will activate.

Smoke Detection

Smoke is usually the first detectable sign of any carbonaceous fire;

therefore, smoke detectors are most frequently used

unless there are problems with steam or dust, etc., which may trigger
false alarms.

Ionizing detectors operate when smoke enters the detector and it

absorbs ions, reducing the flow of electrical current. These devices are
very sensitive to smoke and may be triggered by cigarette smoke and
dust, etc.

Light scatter detectors operate when smoke scatters a beam of light. Smoke Detector

Obscuration detectors operate when smoke enters the detector

preventing light from reaching a photoelectric cell.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 20

 Fire Detection

The earlier a fire can be detected, the more time there is for occupants to escape and the better are
the chances of extinguishing or at least containing the fire. A wide range of devices exists for
detecting either heat or smoke. Each of these has some advantages and disadvantages

Flame Detection

Photoelectric cells detect the emission of infra‑red / ultra‑violet radiation.

Flammable Gas Detection

Flammable gas detectors measure the amount of flammable gas in the atmosphere and compare
the value with a reference value. When this is exceeded the gas supply valve is closed an alarm is
actuated.

Heat Detection

Heat detection can be used as a means of actuating a mechanical control or sprinkler system. The
disadvantage of heat detection is that toxic smoke can be evolved from burning materials long
before sufficient heat is generated to trigger the mechanism. These systems are rarely relied upon
as a means of raising the alarm, however where fires raise little smoke, e.g. solvent fires, fixed
temperature or rate of rise detectors can be used.

Fusible Links

Sensors operated by the melting of a metal (fusion detectors), e.g. used to open automatic smoke
vents and close ventilation system dampers and shutters; or expansion of a solid, liquid or gas
(thermal expansion detectors), e.g. to actuate sprinkler systems.

Thermal Expansion, Fusible Solder Link Sprinkler Head Thermal Expansion, Quartzoid Bulb Sprinkler Head

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 21

Fire Alarms

In most workplaces manually operated break glass switches automatically operate the alarm when
the glass is broken. Such alarm points are located at a convenient position so that no person needs
to travel more than 30m to reach one.

In public buildings operating the manual break glass may not initially operate the alarms. This allows
the occupier to swiftly investigate whether there is a fire situation and prepare trained personnel to
assist the evacuation.

Tannoy systems with pre-recorded messages have been found to be more effective in public
buildings.

In small premises such as a small office or shop a manually operated bell or even simply shouting
might be adequate to raise the alarm. In most work premises however, electric bells, sounders or a
Tannoy system would be required so that they are clearly audible in all parts of the building.
Provision should be made for employees with hearing difficulties by means of flashing lights, etc.

Fire / smoke detectors are often linked to automatic alarms. In medium or large buildings, the alarm
and detection systems may be linked to a control panel, which will indicate the zone in which the
alarm was raised.

Alarms can be linked to door releases (i.e. self-closing fire doors normally held open by electro-
magnets).

Testing the Alarm

The alarm should be sounded periodically (weekly) at the same time so that employees become
familiar with its sound. Alarm systems should also be inspected, maintained and tested at regular
intervals, with a record of the tests kept.

Contact with Emergency Services

The emergency fire / rescue services should be contacted at the earliest opportunity; this can be
achieved automatically from a link from the fire alarm or manually by telephone.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 22

Portable Fire-fighting equipment
To extinguish the fire at early stages firefighting equipment must be in place for people to use. The
extinguisher must be appropriate to the risks, the classification must be clearly labelled.

Wood, Petrol, Electrical

paper, straw, diesel, equipment,
textiles, coal paints etc. flammable liquids
etc.

Mixed – solids,
Cooking oil /
flammable liquids,
deep fat
gases, electrical
fryers
Fire blanket
Siting, Maintenance and Training

Fire extinguishers should be positioned on fire exit routes, near exit doors and close to the
specific hazard that they are provided to protect against (e.g. a fire blanket close to a gas
hob in a kitchen). Ideally, no-one should have to travel more than 30 metres to reach an
extinguisher. Fire extinguishers should be fixed to the wall at a comfortable height (usually
1 metre for larger extinguishers and 1.5 metres for smaller ones) or may be on
stands/trolleys. They should be clearly visible and signed.

Fire extinguishers must be inspected and maintained routinely to ensure that they
are always available in safe working condition:

• Frequent routine inspections – ensure that extinguishers are present at their designated
positions and that they appear to be in good condition. This might be done as part of a
routine housekeeping inspection or as a specific fire safety check, perhaps by fire
wardens.

• Planned preventive maintenance – ensure that they remain in safe working order. This

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 23

 is normally carried out on an annual basis by a certificated engineer and may involve
inspection, testing and dismantling (depending on the type of extinguisher).

Records should be kept of visual inspection and maintenance checks carried out.

Workers who might have to use portable fire extinguishers should be trained in safe use.
This will be determined by a fire risk assessment. This training should include theoretical
training (classroom-based) but should also include some practical training. This will
normally involve workers using real fire extinguishers to put out real fires, set up under
controlled circumstances either at the workplace or at a training centre. A typical training
course would include:

• A general understanding of how extinguishers operate.

• The importance of using the correct extinguisher for different classes of fire.

• Practice in the use of different extinguishers.

• Knowing when to tackle a fire, and when to leave it alone.

• Knowing when to leave a fire that has not been extinguished.

• Records should be kept of training provided.

Extinguishing Media
Extinguishing a fire is based on removing one or more sides of the fire triangle.

Removing the Fuel

Extinction by this process is known as starvation. This can be achieved by taking the fuel away
from the fire, taking the fire away from the fuel and/or reducing the quantity or bulk of fuel
available. Thus, materials may be moved away from the fire (to a distance sufficient to ensure
that they will not be ignited by any continuing radiant heat) or a gas supply may be turned
off.

Removing the Oxygen

Extinction by this process is known as smothering. This can be achieved by either allowing
the fire to consume all the available oxygen, whilst preventing the inward flow of any more
oxygen, or adding an inert gas to the mixture. The most usual method of smothering is by use

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 24

of a blanket of foam or a fire blanket.

Removing the Heat

Extinction by this process is known as cooling. Cooling with water is the most common means
of fighting a fire and this has a dual effect in terms of absorbing heat and thereby reducing
the heat input into the fire, and reducing the oxygen input through the blanketing effect of
the steam produced.

Although water is the most common medium used to fight fires, it is by no means the only or
the most suitable substance. Indeed, using water on certain types of fire can make the
situation worse.

The main different types of extinguishing media are described below, and you should note
their application to the classification of different types of fire.

Water

Water applied as a pressurized jet or a spray is the most effective means of extinguishing class
A fires, and may also be used as a spray on class B fires involving liquids and liquefied solids
which are miscible (capable of mixing) with water, such as methanol, acetone and acetic acid.
Whilst ineffective on class C fires themselves (those involving gases), water may be used to
cool leaking containers.

It must never be used on fires involving electricity, as the current can flow up the stream of
water, nor on non-miscible liquid fires as only a cupful of water can cause the whole fire to
erupt into a conflagration.

Foam

Foam is a special mixture which forms a smothering blanket over the fire, cutting off the
supply of oxygen. It can be used on class A and B fires (although there are some restrictions
in its use on class B fires since certain types of foam break down in contact with alcohols) and
also on small liquefied gas fires (which make up certain class C fires).

Using foam as an extinguishing agent demands considerable skill when dealing with anything
but very small-scale liquid fires, since the procedure is to start at the rear and to lay a blanket
of foam across the surface of the liquid.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 25

Dry Chemical Powder

The powder is sprayed as a cloud over the fire, again acting to smother the supply of oxygen.
It can be used on class B fires and on small, liquefied gas fires (within class C). Specialized dry
powders using inert substances are also used on class D fires, where they form a crust over
the burning metal and thus exclude the oxygen.

Dry powders are also effective on fires involving electricity.

Carbon Dioxide Gas

This works by means of smothering the supply of oxygen. It is effective on class B fires and
also for electrical fires as the gas can enter into the inside of the equipment.

Wet Chemical

Specifically designed to deal with high-temperature (>3600C) oil / fat fires (Class F). It reacts
with burning oil to form thick suds, cooling and emulsifying the oil, putting out the flames and
sealing the surface.

Vaporizing Liquids

When applied to a fire these agents produce a heavy vapor which extinguishes the fire by
excluding oxygen. They are safe to use on class A and B fires and are particularly effective on
fires involving live electrical equipment, since they interfere with electrical combustion
reactions.

1.Water (APW)

APW’s extinguish fire by taking away the “Heat”

element of the Fire Triangle.

APW’s are designed for Class A fires only: Wood,

paper, cloth. Here are a couple of reasons you need
to be careful about which extinguisher you use:

• Using water on a flammable liquid fire could cause

the fire to spread.

• Using water on an electrical fire increases the risk

of electrocution. If you have no choice but to use Water (APW)
an APW on an electrical fire, make sure the electrical
equipment is unplugged or de-energized.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 26

APW’s will be found in older buildings, particularly in public hallways, as well as in residence halls on
campus. They will also be found in computer laboratories. It is important to remember, however,
that computer equipment must be disconnected from its electrical source before using a water
extinguisher on it.

Large, silver fire extinguishers that stand about 2 feet tall and weigh about 25 pounds when full.

APW stands for “Air-Pressurized Water.”

Filled with ordinary tap water and pressurized air, they are essentially large squirt guns.

2.Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

The pressure in a CO2 extinguisher is so great, bits

of dry ice might shoot out of the horn!

CO2 cylinders are red. They range in size from 5

pounds to 100 pounds or larger. On larger sizes,
the horn will be at the end of a long, flexible hose.

CO2’s will frequently be found in laboratories,

mechanical rooms, kitchens, and flammable liquid
storage areas.
CO2 Type

In accordance with NFPA regulations (and

manufacturers’ recommendations) all CO2 extinguishers at OSU undergo hydrostatic testing
and recharge every five years.

Carbon dioxide is a non-flammable gas that takes away the oxygen element of the Fire Triangle.
CO2 is very cold as it comes out of the extinguisher, so it cools the fuel as well.

A CO2 may not be very effective in extinguishing a Class A fire because it may not be able to displace
enough oxygen to successfully put the fire out. Class A materials may also smolder and re-ignite.

CO2’s is designed for Class B and E (flammable

liquids and electrical sources) fires only!

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 27

3.Dry Chemical (ABC, BC, DC)
ABC extinguishers are red. On campus, they
range in size from five pounds to 20 pounds.

ABC extinguishers are filled with a fine, yellow

powder. This powder is mostly composed of
monoammonium phosphate. The extinguishers
are pressurized with nitrogen.

Dry chemical extinguishers put out fire by coating

the fuel with a thin layer of dust. This separates the Dry Chemical Powder Type
fuel from the oxygen in the air. The powder also
works to interrupt the chemical reaction of fire. These extinguishers are very effective at putting out
fire.

It is extremely important to identify which types of dry chemical fire extinguishers are located in
your area! You don’t want to mistakenly use a “BC” extinguisher on a Class A fire thinking that it was
an “ABC” extinguisher.

Dry chemical extinguishers with powder designed for Class B and C fires (“BC” extinguishers) may be
located in places such as commercial kitchens and areas with flammable liquids.

Dry chemical extinguishers come in a variety of types. You may see them labeled:

• DC (for dry chemical)

• ABC (can be used on Class A, B, or C fires)

• BC (designed for use on Class B and C fires)

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 28

Fire Safety Equipment Maintenance

Equipment Period Activity

Fire detection and fire warning Weekly Check all systems for state of repair and
systems including self-contained operation. Repair or replace defective units.
smoke alarms and manually Test operation of systems, self-contained
operated devices alarms and manually operated devices

Annually
Full check and test of system by
competent service engineer. Clean self-
contained smoke-alarms and change
batteries.

Emergency lighting equipment Weekly Operate torches and replace batteries

including self-contained units as required. Repair or replace any
and torches defective unit.
Monthly Check all systems, units and torches for
state of repair and apparent working order.
Annually Full check and test of systems and units
by competent person. Replace batteries
in torches.

Fire-fighting equipment including Weekly Check all equipment for correct

hose reels installation and apparent working order.

Annually Full check and test by a competent person.

Other Types of Fire Fighting Equipment

Fire blankets

These are portable fire-fighting devices designed to smother a fire. There are different types
of fire blankets suitable for different types of fire – light-weight ones suitable for class A and
B fires, and heavy-duty blankets for industrial use, including those that can be used for class
D fires. They are especially useful in a kitchen for extinguishing deep fat frying pan fires and
other types of small fat and oil fires (class F).

When using a fire blanket, the corners must be turned towards you so that you do not get
burnt as the blanket is laid over the fire. It should be kept in place until all the heat has been
removed.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 29

Hose reels

These are very effective as a first line of attack against class A fires.

Reels should be located near exits, stairways or lobbies and arranged so that no part of the
building is beyond the reach of the jet (6 metres). If the hose reel is fitted into a recessed
installation the doors, whether glazed or not, should bear the words “FIRE HOSE REEL”. The
hose has a shut-off nozzle and the supply is via a control valve at the connection to the main,
which must be opened before the reel is pulled out. Some reels operate this valve
automatically as the hose is rolled out.

Reel installations have several advantages:

• Only the required length of hose has to be run out.

• The hose is light and only one person is required to operate it.
• The lack of back pressure from the nozzle makes it easy for persons of limited strength to
handle it.
• The control of the water at the nozzle of a hose reel will limit water damage.

Automatic Sprinklers

There are several different types of sprinkler system but essentially, they all involve fixed pipe
work in the ceiling of each part of the protected building. The pipe work is connected via
control valves to a water supply and sprinklers are spaced at intervals along the pipe work so
that the discharge patterns overlap and leave no part unprotected. They are activated by
automatic fire detectors.

The quantity of water discharged is designed to at least control any fire in the protected area,
if not to extinguish it.

Drenchers

These are designed to provide coverage of water over areas of a building or structure which
could be damaged by radiant heat from a fire close by. Normally adequate spacing limits the
radiation hazard and therefore only vulnerable areas need be covered, such as unprotected
doors and windows.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 30

Hydrants and Foam Inlets

These are provided on the outside of buildings to allow the fire brigade easy access to a supply of
water or foam close to a potential fire hazard, with the type of extinguishing agent being
appropriate to the type of hazard.

Access for Fire and Rescue Services

Fire-fighting vehicles need to be able to get close to the perimeter of a building so they can position
and deploy high-rise equipment, such as turntable ladders, hydraulic platforms and pump appliances
with fire hoses. Fire regulations in some countries may place a duty on occupiers of premises to
maintain such access.

The requirements for vehicle access differ depending on the presence of fire mains (a water-supply
pipe installed specifically for fire-fighting purposes), the size of the building and the type of fire-
fighting vehicle to be used. For example, in the UK, for small buildings without a fire main, access
for a pump appliance should be provided to 15% of the perimeter or to within 45 metres on every
point on the building surrounds; for large, high-rise buildings, the entire perimeter will need to be
accessible to fire-fighting appliances.

Access for vehicles must be kept clear at all times, and people assembling outside buildings
during a fire evacuation must be kept clear of fire-fighting vehicles and fire-fighters so as not to
impede their access.

Fire-fighters need to have information about the contents of the building, and about any
hazardous materials or processes and facilities that might create a risk to them while they carry
out their duties. The emergency plan that the company has in place should include arrangements
for nominated and competent persons to liaise with the fire service on their arrival.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 31

 Fire Evacuation 10.4

Means of Escape
Once a fire is detected and a warning given, everyone in the workplace should be able to
evacuate without undue risk.

Group Companies must assess the means of escape by considering whether people can
escape to a safe place, before being cut off and exposed to risk of injury.

In buildings, most deaths by fire are due to the inhalation of smoke. It is also true that
many people are unwilling to travel more than a few metres through smoke to make
their escape. Therefore, and with view to the possibilities of escape routes being blocked
by smoke, it is important to provide alternative escape routes for people to escape safely
from the building.

In small single-storey premises, where travel distances are short, the time taken to
escape once the warning has been given can often be measured in seconds rather than
minutes. In such cases, it is likely that the normal exits will be sufficient in a fire
emergency. In larger premises, where travel distances are greater and where it is
possible for a single escape route to be affected by fire, heat or smoke, then two means
of escape from each area may be necessary.

Travel Distances

One important characteristic of the means of escape is the travel distance that a person has to
take from wherever they are in a room or area to the nearest available:

• Final exit (this will take them outside the building to a place of total safety).
• Storey exit (this will take them into a protected stairway).
• Separate fire compartment (containing a final exit)

This travel distance has to be assessed during the fire risk assessment when determining the
means of escape and is subject to guidance. Generally, the higher the fire risk of the workplace,
the shorter the travel distance has to be.

Stairs and Passageways

Stairs and passageways used as escape routes usually have to be protected against fire ingress to a
higher degree than other parts of a building. This is to ensure that the stairs and corridors will be
free of smoke and flames, so that they can be used as escape routes. So, the walls, floors and
ceilings will be fire-resistant and any doors will be fire doors. It is important that these stairs and
corridors are kept free from any equipment or materials that might start, or become involved in, a
fire.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 32

The width of stairs and corridors should be determined by the number of people who are going
to use the route for escape. Higher numbers of people require wider corridors and stairs to move
safely and quickly. For example, generally, escape routes should not be less than 750mm wide
unless they are to be used by fewer than five people. Escape routes for use by wheelchair users
must be wider (minimum 900mm).

Emergency (Escape) Lighting

Escape routes must be adequately lit. Normal workplace lighting will routinely achieve
this, but there should be arrangements to cover non-routine situations, such as power
failures. This is especially the case when night-time working is taking place or when the
work area is internal to the building or has no external windows (i.e. no natural light).

Emergency escape lighting is necessary where power failure will result in a blackout. In
very simple workplaces this may be a rechargeable torch, but in most workplaces
emergency lighting units are required.

Emergency escape lighting should:

• Illuminate the escape route.

• Illuminate fire signs and equipment.
• Be maintained in safe working order.
• Be tested routinely.

Assembly Points

An assembly point is a place where workers congregate once they have evacuated a building. This
allows for a roll call to be taken and identification of any missing persons. Assembly points should
be in a place of total safety and:

• A safe distance from the building (it may be on fire).

• At a safe location (not in a high-hazard area).

• At a location where people can move further away if needed.

• Out of the way of fire-fighters.

• Clearly signed.

In some cases, a temporary assembly point or ‘refuge’ may be provided

inside a building. This might be used as a location where a person with

impaired mobility temporarily waits for assistance to evacuate the building.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 33

Points which must be checked are:
• How long will it take for people to escape to a safe place once a fire has been detected?
• Is the escape time reasonable, or is it too long in view of the risk of fire and smoke
spreading?
• Are there enough exits and are they in the right place?
• Are the type and size of exits suitable and of sufficient number for the people likely to
need them?
• Are there any special requirements to preserve the modesty of women, who may be
present?
• Are there special needs that must be catered for such as wheel chair users, the visually
impaired and the hearing impaired?
• Could a fire affect all exits? At least one route from any part of the building should
remain available until everybody has escaped.
• Are all escape routes easily identifiable, free from obstruction and adequately
illuminated?
• Are people trained in using the means of escape?
• Are there instructions posted about the means of escape?
• Are the arrangements for escape included in the Fire Emergency Plan?
• Is a smoke control system required (e.g. smoke duct or extractor)?

If required, refer to the relevant detailed standards and codes for fire safety as provided in
a variety of documents by HSE executive (U.K) and NFPA (U.S).

The Fire Emergency Procedures

The Fire Emergency Procedures must detail the actions that persons in the workplace
should take in the event of fire. It must be kept at the work place and must be available
for perusal by all concerned personnel. The Fire Emergency Plan must be made available
for inspection by independent auditors and assessors, or by INDUSTRY
auditors/inspectors.

The Fire Emergency Plan should form the basis of the training and instruction for INDUSTRY
Group Company employees and others regarding fire safety in the workplace.

The purpose of the Fire Emergency Plan is to ensure that:

• People in the workplace know what to do if there is a fire.
• That the workplace can be safely evacuated in the event of a fire.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 34

The Fire Emergency Procedure must be developed, taking into account the results of the
FRA.

For small workplaces, the Fire Emergency Plan may comprise simple instructions covering
the above points in a Fire Action Notice. In large or complex workplaces, the Fire
Emergency Plan should be more detailed. The Fire Emergency Plan must provide clear
instructions for:
• The action people should take if they discover a fire.
• How people will be warned if there is a fire.
• Evacuation of the workplace.
• Where people should assemble after they have left the workplace
• Procedures for checking that the workplace has been evacuated and/or searching for
missing persons.
• Identification of key escape routes, how people gain access to them and escape to a
safe location.
• The identity and duties of people who have designated responsibilities in the event of a
fire.
• Arrangements for the safe evacuation of people identified as having special
requirements or who may be especially at risk including, people who may be less familiar
with fire safety procedures (e.g. contractors, visitors and children), people with
disabilities and arrangements to preserve the modesty of women.
• Arrangements to stop machines, processes or power supplies that need to be stopped,
shut off or isolated in the event of a fire.
• Specific arrangements for any areas of the workplace with high fire risk.
• Who is responsible for alerting emergency services (incl. Civil Defence Authorities and
police for COMAH sites) and how this is to be done?
• Procedures for liaison with emergency services on arrival, especially notifying them of
any special risks, e.g. location of highly flammable materials.
• Training to be given to INDUSTRY Group Company employees and others who are
normally present at the workplace.
• Arrangements for ensuring that training is given.

In larger or more complex workplaces, a plan of the workplace must be included in the
Fire Emergency Plan. The plan must clearly identify:
• Essential features such as layout drawings of the workplace, escape routes, doorways,
walls, partitions, corridors and stairways.
• Fire resistant structures and self-closing doors provided to secure the means of escape.
• Details of the number, type and location of fire-fighting equipment.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 35

• The locations of manually operated fire alarm call points and control equipment for the
fire alarm.
• The locations of emergency lighting units and any exit route signs.
• The location of any automatic or remotely actuated fire-fighting system and associated
release equipment.
• The location of key shutoff devices for isolation of utilities such electrical supply, gas
supply, oil supply, water supply, etc.

Where ownership, occupation or operation of workplaces is shared between INDUSTRY

Group Companies or third parties then the Fire Emergency Plan should be drawn up in
consultation with the other organization or organizations.

Provision of Information and Instruction

INDUSTRY Group Company employees and other persons normally present at the workplace must
be given information about the fire precautions in the

workplace and what to do in the event of a fire. Provision of this information must include people
working at the workplace outside normal hours, such as workers on over-time or cleaners.

Ensure training and instruction, including the provision of written information, is given in a way that
people can understand. Training and information provision must take into account levels of
education and languages commonly spoken by workers at the site.

On their first day at the workplace, all people must be instructed on:

• The location and use of escape routes from where they are working.
• The location, operation and meaning of the fire warning system.

Fire action notices similar to the example in Figure 5 complement this information and must be
prominently posted in key locations throughout the workplace.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 36

 Fire Action Notice

Note: that Fire Action Notices must also incorporate a simple plan indicating routes to safe
locations. The language of Fire action notices must be in Arabic and English. Further translation into
other languages must also be included where appropriate.

If required, refer to relevant NFPA, BS or other detailed guidelines for further detail.

Training Employees
The type of training required must be based on the particular features of the workplace and must:

• Explain the emergency procedures.

• Take into account the work activity, the duties and responsibilities of employees.
• Take account of the findings of the risk assessment.
• Be easy to understand – provision of training in employees’ mother language should be
considered.

All employees and other persons normally present, must be told about the evacuation
arrangements and be shown the means of escape as soon as possible after first attending the
premises.

Training should be conducted as often as necessary so that people remain familiar with the fire
precautions in the workplace and are reminded about what to do in a fire emergency. Training once
or twice a year should be sufficient. Those who work outside normal hours, such as cleaners, must

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 37

be included. It is also important that all affected people are told about changes to the emergency
procedures before the changes are implemented.

Training must include practical exercises, e.g. fire drills, to check people's understanding of the Fire
Emergency Plan and to make them familiar with its operation. Observations noted during drills
and/or post-drill meetings and corrective actions must be recorded and followed-up to close-out.

The training must include:

• The importance of general fire prevention and good housekeeping.

• The action to be taken on discovering a fire.
• How to raise the alarm and what action to be taken.
• The required response upon hearing the fire warning.
• The procedures for alerting those not normally present such as visitors and directing them to
exits.
• The arrangements for alerting the emergency services.
• The evacuation procedures for everyone in the workplace.
• Location of and routes to assembly points in safe locations.
• Where appropriate, the location and use of fire-fighting equipment.
• The location of escape routes, especially those that are not in regular use.
• How to open any escape doors including the use of any emergency latches.
• The importance of keeping fire doors closed to prevent the spread of fire, heat and
smoke.
• Where appropriate how to stop machines and processes and isolate power or other
utilities.
• The reason for not using lifts (except for those specifically designed or adapted for use
in evacuating people with impaired mobility).

In addition to the above training in general fire precautions and response, all persons
normally present must be informed of the risks from flammable materials used or stored
on the premises. They must also be trained in the precautions in place to control the risks,
particularly their role in reducing and controlling sources of ignition and fuel. Those
working in high-risk areas must receive specific training in safe operating procedures and
emergency responses. Such training must cover:
• Standards and work practices for safe operation of plant and equipment, and safe
handling of flammable materials (especially flammable liquids).
• Housekeeping in process areas.
• Reporting of faults and incidents, including leaks and spills of flammable liquids.
• Emergency procedures for plant or processes in the event of fire, spills or leaks.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 38

• Relevant INDUSTRY and Group Company requirements.

All those identified as having a supervisory role in the Fire Emergency Plan or other specific
duties associated with fire prevention and response should be given additional training so
that they can fulfil their role. They must also be provided with the details of the FRA.

Fire Marshals
Whatever the fire evacuation procedures are, there will always be the need for some members of
staff to take on particular roles in the emergency situation, perhaps as nominated ‘fire marshals’
(sometimes called ‘fire wardens’) to take roll calls of workers at assembly points and report back
to a responsible manager.

Fire marshals might be required to:

• Check all areas in the building to ensure that everyone knows that an evacuation is in progress
and to help where necessary. This is common practice in buildings where members of the
public may be present (e.g. shopping centres).

• Give special assistance to the disabled and infirm. This may require the use of special evacuation
equipment, such as an ‘evac-chair’.

• Investigate the site of the fire (as indicated by the fire alarm system control panel).

Some workplaces operate a ‘fire team’ whose role involves investigation of fire alarms and fire-
fighting.

High-risk installations may even have their own in-house fire-fighters with all the vehicles, equipment
and resources that might be available to the emergency services (e.g. at an airport or chemical plant).

Roll Call
Once workers and contractors have evacuated a building and collected at their assembly points,
it is usual to take a roll call to ensure that all persons are accounted for and no-one is missing.
This means that arrangements must be made for taking an effective roll call; accurate lists of
names of those on site must be produced and responsible individuals given the task of taking
the roll call.

In some cases (e.g. in shopping centres), a roll call will be impractical, in which case an alternative
method of ensuring that people have evacuated from the workplace will be required (e.g. building
checks by fire marshals).

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 39

Provision for the Infirm and Disabled
Staff with hearing or other disabilities must be accommodated within an evacuation plan. Plans
must be in place to assist people with mobility problems or in wheelchairs who cannot use stairs if
a lift is inactivated (in many cases, lifts and escalators are not appropriate as escape routes).

Provision must be made for the needs of other groups with limited mobility, such as the elderly or
infirm. Temporary illness and infirmity must also be taken into account (e.g. a worker with a
broken leg must be accommodated in the evacuation plan).

When these arrangements are put in place, the nature and degree of disability or infirmity
must be taken into account, and this is best achieved in consultation with the individual
concerned. Various solutions might then be sought.

• A profoundly deaf worker might not be able to hear the audible fire alarm, in which case a visible
alarm (flashing light) might be used in conjunction with the audible alarm. Or a buddy system
might be adopted where a colleague alerts the worker to the fire alarm. Or a technical solution
might be sought involving a vibrating pager.

• A wheelchair user above ground level in a multi-storey building might be provided with a refuge
adjacent to the stairwell. They might then be assisted down the stairs by nominated responsible
individuals, perhaps with the aid of an ‘evac-chair’. It must be noted that they should not be left
alone in the refuge and that their safe evacuation is the responsibility of their employer, not the
fire and rescue service.

Fire Drills
Fire evacuation arrangements need to be tested by carrying out fire drills. Generally, fire
drills should be conducted annually (the actual frequency should be determined by the
fire risk assessment).

Fire drills:

• Allow workers to practice emergency procedures.

• Enable the effectiveness of procedures to be tested to ensure that fast, effective

evacuation of the building takes place and that all workers behave in an appropriate
manner.

Records of fire drills, learning points and follow-up actions should be kept.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 40

References
1. The Storage of Flammable Liquids in Containers, Health and Safety Executive (UK), HSE
Books, Second Edition, 1998, ISBN 0 7176 1471 9.
2. The Safe Use in Handling Flammable Liquids HSG 140, HSE Book 1999 ISBN 716 09677,
Health and Safety Executive (UK).
3. https://www.hse.gov.uk/fireandexplosion/zoning.pdf
4. HSE Information Sheet, Small Scale Use of LPG in Cylinders, Chemical Sheet No. 5,
Health and Safety Executive (UK).
5. HSE Information Sheet: Use of LPG in Small Bulk Tanks, Chemical Sheet No. 4, Health
and Safety Executive (UK).
6. Relevant NFPA Guidelines and Codes e.g.:
• Standard Design for the Identification of the Fire Hazards of Materials, NFPA
704
• Code for Safety to Life from Fire in Buildings and Structures, NFPA 101
• Flammable and Combustible Liquids code, NFPA 30

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 10 –Fire 41

 Element 11
Electricity

Learning Objectives
1. Describe the hazards and risks associated with
the use of electricity in the workplace.

2. Describe the control measures that should be

taken when working with electrical systems or
using electrical equipment in all workplace
conditions.
 Contents

Hazards and Risks of Electricity

Introduction to Electricity 11-1
Hazards and Risks of Electricity 11-2
Dangerous Activities 11-5

Control Measures

Introduction to Control Measures 11-7

Protective Systems and Devices 11-8
Competent Persons 11-11
Use of Safe Systems of Work 11-11
Emergency Procedures Following an Electrical Incident 11-13
Inspection and Maintenance Strategies 11-13
11.1 Hazards and the Risks of Electricity

Introduction
Electricity can kill or severely injure people and cause damage to property. Every year many
accidents at work involving electric shock or burns are reported to the Health and Safety
Executive (HSE). Most of the fatal incidents are caused by contact with overhead power lines.

Even non-fatal shocks can cause severe and permanent injury. For example, shocks from faulty
equipment may lead to falls from ladders, scaffolds or other work platforms.

Those using or working with electricity may not be the only ones at risk – poor electrical
installations and faulty electrical appliances can lead to fire, which may also cause death or injury
to others. Most of these accidents can be avoided by careful planning and straightforward
precautions.

Electric Shock and its Effects on the

Body

An electrical phenomenon is caused by flow of

free electrons from one atom to another.
Electric current flow in conductor due to
potential difference or external force like how
the blood flow though the body by the pressure
produced by heart to pump blood to all blood
vessels.

Potential differences are measured in Volts.

Direct current (DC) is electrical current which
flows consistently in one direction. Whereas 1Basic Electric Circuit

the flow of electrons switches back and forth at

regular intervals is known as Alternating Current (AC),
for example, current flowing in powerlines and normal household electricity.

Relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance

Electricity

Electricity is the flow of electrons, referred to as an electric current. The rate of flow of electrons
are measures in amperes (A); Smaller currents are measures in milliamps (mA)

Voltage

Potential energy is required to move electrons through a conductor, the potential difference
(Voltage) is the force or pressure moving the electrons through a circuit. Pressure in an electrical
system is also known as potential difference or electromotive force. When you say that a battery
has 12 volts, you really say that it has an electrical pressure of 12 volts.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 1

Resistance

Just as friction opposes motion around you, there is an electrical quantity that opposes or resists
the flow of electric current. This amount of resistance in an electrical circuit relative to the
movement of electrons is measured in ohms (Ω).

OHM’S LAW

Conductors are elements that have atoms with electrons

that will pass through them easily. Example of good
conductor is copper. Certain materials do not allow current
to pass through them are called as insulators. Water is a
good conductor of electricity, hence electrical equipment in
wet condition can be more dangerous.

When there is a flow of current in a circuit it is referred as

“Live”, when the circuit is isolated it is referred as “Dead”. Ohm's Law

Static electricity refers to the electric charge of an object and the related electrostatic discharge
when two objects are brought together that are not at equilibrium. When the static electricity is
discharged to earth it is felt as shock, static electricity is unlikely to cause hurt, but it is potential to
ignite flammable dust or vapour in the atmosphere.

Hazards and Risks of Electricity

The main hazards associated with electricity

• Electric Shock
• Burns
• Fire and explosion
• Arcing
• Secondary effects

Electric Shock

When the human body come into contact with live current, the current flow through the body from
the point to contact to the earth to complete the circuit. This causes convulsion of the human body
which is called electric shock. The sensation of electric shock can be extremely painful. The passage
of electric current may cause muscular contractions, respiratory failure, fibrillation of the heart,
cardiac arrest or injury from internal burns. Any of these can be fatal.

Current flowing thorough the body Effect

0.001 Ampere (1 mA) Mild tingling sensation that can be felt
0.010 Ampere (10 mA) Start to lose muscular control
0.030 Ampere (30 mA) Breathing difficulty, muscular paralysis
0.100 Ampere (100 mA) Fatal if current lasts more than a second
0.200 Ampere (200 mA) Severe burns, both internal and external and fatal

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 2

Severity of the Electric Shock Depends On:

• Voltage – the higher the voltage, the greater the current flow through the body.
• Duration – the duration exposed by a person to an electric shock has the potential to cause
more severity. 60 mA of AC current for 30 milliseconds (mS) can cause fibrillation, however if
the same current flow through the body for a second or two, this has potential to cause fatal.
• Current path – electricity takes the shortest path to reach earth to complete the circuit. If shock
received at shoulder level, it may flow through vital organs and heart.
• Resistance - any impedance in the current path based on the skin condition whether dry, wet
or any cuts. The resistance is affected by
- Contact skin surface – more skin contact with live electricity with low resistance, the more
current flow to the body causes severe injuries.
- Environment – A shock received in a wet area would probably be more severe than in a
dry area.
- Clothing and footwear – high resistance will reduce the flow of electricity on to the body.
• Frequency – AC current or DC current.
Contact with alternating current above 60mA can prove fatal, particularly in wet condition. In such
wet condition, the electricity can cause ventricular fibrillation or cardiac arrest.

Electric Burns

Electrical burns are due to heating effect caused by

the passage of electric current through body tissues.
This can be extremely painful and slow to heal leaving
a permanent scarring.

Electrical burns can be through direct contact with

live conductors or indirectly from using a damaged
electrical equipment where the live parts are exposed
outside or other conducting materials become live.

Direct Contact: means a contact of a person or

implement a person is holding with a live conductor
that is supposed to be live. This may be caused by:
unsafe work practices, e.g. touching an overhead power line with a scaffold pole; and faulty or
ineffective insulation of conductors, e.g. damaged insulation or cracked plugs;

Indirect Contact: which occurs when there is contact with a conductor that should not be live
under normal conditions, but is live through a fault: poorly designed or maintained electrical
equipment or circuits which ‘Short Circuit’, the current taking an unintended path to earth, e.g.
where the damaged insulation on an electric drill touches a steel workbench; and electrical
equipment being used in an environment for which it is unsuitable, e.g. use of 230V tools
outdoors in the rain.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 3

Arcing

Electricity can jump, or arc, across small gaps between two

conductors, the possibility is limited with low-voltage
electrical equipment. But high voltage can arc across an air
gap, causing shock or burn without touching live voltage
parts. High voltage power lines can arc even 10 metres.

Risks associated with arcing:

• Electric shock
• Direct and indirect burns from the heat generated by arc.
• Ultraviolet radiation can cause damage to eyes.
• Fire and explosion – overheat electrical equipment.

Fires and Explosion

Electricity may start fires in various ways.

The major causes are:

• overheating of cables and electrical equipment because of overloading of conductors.

• leakage currents because of poor or inadequate insulation.
• overheating of flammable materials placed too close to electrical equipment, which is
otherwise operating normally.
• the ignition of flammable materials by arcing or sparking of electrical equipment.

Static Electricity

Produced when two substances are rubbed together or separated. The substances can be solid
or fluid. The rubbing or separating causes the transmission of electrons from one substance to
another. As a result of this one substance being positively charged and the other substance
being negatively charged. When either substance comes in contact with a conductor, an
electrical current flow until it is at the same electrical potential as ground. This is referred to as
electrostatic discharge(esD).

Secondary Hazards and Risks

As a result of electric shock people may fall from

height, when electricity flow through body it creates
muscular spasm, as this may be severe affects leg
muscles causing body being thrown away several
metres.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 4

Dangerous Activities
Portable and Stationary Electrical Equipment

A portable or movable electric appliance is any item that can be moved, either connected or
disconnected from an electrical supply. Portable or movable items generally have a lead (cable)
and a plug, for example, drilling, cutting etc, the equipment is normally weighing 18 kg or less.

Stationary power tools cannot be moved, it is fixed at one point, but offer accuracy and speed.
For example, dish washer, meat cutter. The equipment will not have handles to carry.

Most of the accident occurs with portable electrical equipment, the reason is they are used in a
different hostile environment, operated by different workers, often they are transported from
one location to another.

Reasons for accidents are:

• Using unsuitable equipment for the task and flammable environment.

• Using equipment in damp, wet/humid environment
• Misuse – makeshifts to extend the length of the cable or using high rated fuse to increase
speed or misuse of fuse.
• Physical abuse: pulling the equipment on the hostile environment, lifting the equipment using
cord.
• Using faulty equipment – damaged casing, loose connections.
• In appropriate maintenance or modifications carried out by an incompetent person.
• Physical damage by vehicle run over the cables or cables struck in machinery parts becomes
hot when machine runs or cables trailing over spilled chemicals.
• Being continuously flexed close to a terminal.
• Damaged covers or missing, thus exposing bare live conductors to touch.
• No regular maintenance or regimes followed as per manufacturer’s recommendation.

Use of Electrical Equipment in Wet Environment

Water is good conductor of electricity, also has a low resistance which allows greater current to
flow through the body, when any damaged cable or live conductor exposed to damp condition it
is likely to cause electrocution, because the skin is wet or moist.

Work Near Overhead Power Line

High voltage overhead lines i.e. greater than 1000 V or

1 KV have wires that are bare and uninsulated,
working near overhead power lines has the risk of
arcing, the factor depends on the voltage and
environment.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 5

Contact with Underground Power Cables

High voltage power cables are also buried under the ground, during excavation or manual
digging the tools or sharp object may penetrate insulated cables, or when cable is damaged by
an excavator. Because of this, it causes explosive effects of arcing current and associated fire or
flames. Typically, this causes severe fatal burns to the hands, face, and body. Electrical fires can
be catastrophic if damage spreads to other nearby services such as gas pipes.

Work on Main Electricity Supplies

Workplace have 230 V power supply – single phase and 400 V – three phase, alternating current
has potential to cause severe injury or fatal due to higher voltage supply.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 6

 Control Measures 11.2

Introduction
All the power tools and power sockets must be switched off before connected or disconnected,
the work associated with electricity must be carried out by a competent person.

Never work near overhead power lines or exposed live cables. Isolate all live electrical systems,
unless the job is justified to do so. Isolate electrical systems through Lock out Tag out, Padlocks
or use warning signs.

If it is necessary to work on live systems, then ensure the work is controlled with a permit to
work system to confirm that all precautions are in place. Decommissioned electrical equipment
must be isolated from electrical systems. Prove dead before you start to work, never assume
that the system is dead.

Protection of Conductors

All electrical conductors require protection through

insulating material so that workers will not be exposed to
the live conductor. Insulators does not allow current pass
through it, hence it makes safer to the worker to prevent
expose to live conductor. Example of conductor includes
rubber, wood, plastic. In some cases, even double layer
are used to give additional protection for live conductors.

Any exposed live cables must be insulated, the

equipment casing be intact to avoid contact with live
conductors. Insulation materials must be suitable to the
environment so that it will not get damaged during
operation from wear and tear or due to chemical spill or
from mechanical heat.

Strength and Capability of Equipment

The electrical system used must be suitable for the intended purpose, hence it should be

• Safe to use
• The tasks it is going to perform
• The environment in which the equipment is going to be used.

The equipment must be used as per manufacturer’s recommendation. The strength and
capability of the equipment must never be exceeded which will cause an accident. For example,
inappropriate drill bit used to make a hole in a wall.

The hazardous environment in which the equipment may be used are:

• Weather – equipment and cables must be suitable to withstand extreme weather condition
such as rain, hot temperature, snow etc.
• Natural hazards – solar radiation degrades insulating cables, cables gnawed by rats.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 7

• Extreme Temperature and pressure from machineries.
• Corrosive environment – chemical spill on the floor e.g. acids.
• Flammable atmosphere – presence of flammable substances such as vapours, dusts or gas.
• Contamination – caused by oils or debris.
The equipment must be robust and suitable for the environment to prevent foreseeable
mechanical damage. Cables protect against metal sheets in a heavy industry, or overheated
when running over the machinery, movement of vehicles over the cables causes abrasion.
Cables must be protected by rerouting away from environmental hazards or by armouring the
cables.

Protective Systems - Advantages and Disadvantages

Fuses

A fuse is an electric / electronic or mechanical device,

which is used to protect circuits from over current. A fuse
melts or break the circuit whenever there is heat
generated by the overcurrent. It disconnects the power
supply to the equipment to make the equipment safe. It is
important to ensure the correct fuse is used for the
appliance.

Example
A Printer requires 8 amp will be protected by a 10 amps fuse; hence it melts at overload
current than 10 amps and protect the printer.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Cheap • Does not protect people from electrocution

• Easy to replace • Slow operative

• Protect electrical equipment • Easy to bypass – replace incorrect rated

fuse.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 8

Earthing

Earthing is the method of transmitting the

instant electricity discharge directly to the
ground through low resistance conductors.

The process of earthing is in case of short

circuit, the conductor removes the overflow of
current and allow the current to flow to the
earth. If the earthing is not done correctly,
then protection won’t be possible.

All the equipment doesn’t require earthing,

equipment may be protected with other
means such as double insulation (discussed
later).

Advantages Disadvantages
• Protect people from electric shock • If earthing disconnected, then no
protection.
• Easily identified
• Requires installation, testing and
maintenance.

Isolation

Disconnecting the electrical equipment from the power

sources is called as isolation, this can be achieved by turning
off the equipment first then using a safety locks or pad locks
having a unique key or combination. Padlocks are used where
more than one electrical work is carried out on the same
system.

The maintenance person can place their own padlock on

multiple locking hasp, hence the circuit cannot be re-energised
until all the padlocks are removed. Notices can be placed along
with locks, so that everyone is aware of the work being carried
out.

For example – caution notices. Lockout –Tagout

Advantages Disadvantages
• Eliminates the supply of electricity through • Difficult to find live faults
isolation.
• May isolate sequence of machines
connected.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 9

Reduced Voltage system

Reducing the supply of voltage to lowest

voltage to operate the equipment. A nominal
line to line voltage does not exceed 110V, this
is achieved through a simple transformer,
often centre tapped to earth so that the
maximum voltage between a live conductor
and earth (the most common cause of electric
shocks from equipment) is limited to 55V.

Temporary and handheld lighting can be provided at 12, 25, 50 or 110 volts.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Redcues severity caused by electricity • Requires transfomer to step down the
voltage.
• Easy to identify – color codes for the cabels
• Needs protection with RCD

Residual Current Devices

Residual current device (RCD), is a device that breaks

the circuit on fault or any leaking current. RCD detects
a difference of 30mA / 30ms. RCD does not prevent
people from electric shock, but they are able to limit
the duration of electric shock through rapid
disconnection electrical supply when an electric shock
takes place. In the event of trip, the fault in the system
must be rectified before trip on, RCD’s with test button
should be checked frequently to ensure that the
mechanism works correctly.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Rapid disconnection • No overload protection
• Protect people from electric shock • Requires regular testing and maintenance.
• Difficult to defeat system. • Frequent tripping due to mechanical
failure.
• Prevetns reset if there is fault.

Double Insulation

Double insulation Protect people from exposing to live conductors.

Double insulations have two layers of insulating materials such as
sheathing around the conductors. Equipment without earthing are
usually double insulated, marked with ‘double square’ symbol to highlight
that the conductors are double insulated.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 10

Double insulation is often used for portable electrical equipment, hence additional earthing is
not required.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Double layers to enclose live conductors • Requires regular inspection
• No earthing required • No earth protection

Use of Competent Person

A competent person is someone who has the suitable training, skill and knowledge for the task
to be undertaken to prevent injury to themselves and others.

A successfully completed electrical apprenticeship, with some post-apprenticeship experience, is

one way of demonstrating technical competence for general electrical work.

More specialised work, such as maintenance of high-voltage switchgear or control system

modification, is almost certainly likely to require additional training and experience.

The competent person will need to have:

• sufficient knowledge of electricity.

• sufficient experience in similar electrical work being carried out.
• understanding of the hazards created by electricity and available precautions.
• Capable of identifying dangerous situations and ability to recognise whether it is safe to
continue work.

Use of Safe System of Work

The hazards associated with electrical work cannot be physically eliminated, hence it is necessary
to develop safe system of work.

Working on or Near Live Electrical Systems

Electricity at work regulation 1989 – Regulation 14, restricts working near live electrical system,
unless it is unreasonable in all circumstance to make it dead. Working with live system must be
justified where the work cannot be avoided then a safe system of work must be developed to
carry out live work.

SSoW may likely to use the following controls:

• Permit-to-Work system
• Competent person
• Insulated PPE (anti-static gauntlets and boots)
• Insulated tools and equipment (screwdriver, digging tools)
• Designated work areas (such as ‘earth-free zones’)

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 11

Isolation

The electrical work must be carried by proving the system is dead, this is done by isolating the
supply of power to the equipment. Isolation is done to:

• Break the circuit

• Physically securing the isolation.
• Using label or tag.

For example, switching off the power supply to an equipment, then using a Lock out system –
pad lock to secure the isolation, and displaying a tag with details of the worker and the nature of
work.

Locating Buried Services

Striking buried services can be avoided with the use of SSoW, in addition with cable avoidance
tool.

• Obtain necessary information about the underground services, arrange copies of plan,
however plans alone are not sufficient to identify and locate
services before starting work, it gives basic information about
the presence of underground services.
• Prior to start the work the position of buried services should
be pinpointed using locating device – Cable Avoidance Tool e.g.
Hum detectors detects the electromagnetic field radiated by
live electricity cables.
• Once detected the work should be carried out carefully digging
by hand tools. (spades & shovels).
• The located underground services should be clearly labelled
for easy visibility, consideration must be given to supporting
the cables beneath.

Work Near Overhead Power Line

Overhead power lines are bare and uninsulated which has potential to arc if any conductor is
found close to the proximity. Prevention can be achieved by:

• Isolate power supply when working near overhead

power lines, if practically not then sleeve low voltage
power lines.
• Use SSoW and PTW to control access to the proximity.
• Use sign boards, barriers, and goal posts to ensure
plant and vehicles maintain a safe distance.
• Use banksmen to control manoeuvring.
• Use non-conducting work equipment – wooden ladder
or fibre ladders.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 12

Emergency Procedures Following an Electrical Incident
Though we have all precautions, workers should know procedures to deal with any electrical
incident that may be foreseeable.

• Assess the situation carefully before approaching the casualty.

• Isolate the power supply and prove dead before approaching casualty.
• Do not touch the casualty as he may be still receiving enough voltage, which puts rescuer's
life at risk.
• Summon for help, include medical support.
• Remove casualty from the power circuit using a dry wooden log / timber or non-metallic
items.
• Check breathing
- If casualty breathing, place him on recovery position
- If not breathing, start CPR – cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
• Treat any minor burns
• Treat for physiological shock

Inspection and Maintenance Strategies

Any equipment which is faulty must be removed from its usage, must be replaced immediately.
Frequent inspection and maintenance of all electrical equipment including portable electrical
equipment, cables, cords, sockets should be done are regular intervals to ensure its integrity.

Effective maintenance of portable electric equipment can be achieved by a combination of:

• checks by the user.

• formal visual inspections by a competent person.
• where necessary a combined inspection and test, also known as a portable appliance test (PAT),
by an electrically competent person.

User Checks

The person using the electrical equipment should be encouraged to check for signs of physical
damage. These checks can be done either pre use or during the use to ensure that the equipment
in sound condition. For example:

• Damage to the cable, fraying or cuts.

• Damage to the plug or connector, e.g. the casing is cracking, or the pins are bent.

• Inadequate joints, including taped joints in the cable.

• The outer sheath of the cable is not effectively secured where it enters the plug or the
equipment. Evidence would be if the coloured insulation of the internal cable cores were
showing.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 13

• The equipment has been subjected to conditions for which it is not suitable, e.g. it is wet or
excessively contaminated.

• Damage to the external casing of the equipment, loose parts or screw.

These checks are also applicable for extensions, leads and sockets. Any fault should be reported
to the management and the equipment taken out of use immediately. The management must
ensure that the equipment is not used until it is repaired.

Visual Inspection and Tests

The visual inspection is carried out by a competent person. The formal visual inspections should
be carried out at regular intervals. The period between inspections can vary considerably,
depending on the type of equipment, the conditions of use and the environment.

For example, equipment used on a construction site or in a heavy steel fabrication

workshop will need much more frequent inspection than equipment such as computers in
an office.

As part of the visual inspection, you should consider whether:

• the electrical equipment is being used in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
• the equipment is suitable for the job.
• there has been any change of circumstances.
• the user has reported any issues.

The visual inspection should include the checks carried out by the user and, where possible, will
include removing the plug cover and checking internally that:

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 14

• there are no signs of internal damage, overheating or water damage to the plug.
• the correct fuse is in use and it’s a proper fuse, not a piece of wire, nail etc.
• the wires including the earth, where fitted, are attached to the correct terminal
• the terminal screws are tight.
• the cord grip is holding the outer part (sheath) of the cable tightly.
• no bare wire is visible other than at the terminals.

Combined Inspection and Tests

The visual inspection must reveal most potentially

dangerous faults. However, some faults, such as loss of
earth integrity (eg broken earth wire within a flexible
cable), deterioration of insulation integrity, or
contamination of internal and external surfaces, cannot
be detected by visual examination alone. Such faults can
only be reliably detected by a combined visual inspection
and test.

This should be carried out periodically to back up the

checks and inspections and is likely to be justified:

• whenever there is reason to suppose the equipment

may be defective and visual examination can not Portable Appliance Test Meter
confirm this.
• after any repair, modification, or similar work.
• at periods appropriate to the equipment, the manner and frequency of use, and the
environment.

Frequency of Inspection and Testing

There is no legal requirement to determine the frequency of testing, however the frequency of
inspection and testing is determined by the judgement of the user of the equipment. This will
depend upon the

• Risk factors

• Type of equipment

• Work environment

• Age and condition

• Manufacturer’s recommendations

• Use and physical abuse.

• Accident history

• Maintenance history.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 15

Records of inspection and testing

Records must be maintained for the electrical equipment, including the testing carried out, these
records can be used as a management tool for monitoring the effectiveness of the maintenance
plan.

The records can include faults found during inspection, which may be a useful indicator of places
of use or types of equipment subject to a higher than average level of wear or damage. This will
help monitor whether suitable equipment has been selected and highlights the trends in damage
to the safety of the equipment.

Labels can indicate that the equipment tested is satisfactory, the equipment passed the test and
safe to use, the date of next test due.

Advantages and Limitations of Portable Appliance Testing

Advantages Disadvantages

• Detects faults not visible to eyes. • Proof of Safety only at one time

• Early detection / remove of faulty • Items missed and remain untested

equipment.
• Does not prevent misuse of equipment.
• Complying with legal requirements.
• Cannot be used to test certain type of
• Reduce accidents equipment.

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 16

References

http://solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/c3bf5e3b-e724-406b-94be-beb619bef3e6/1/E1.pdf
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/hsr25.pdf
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg231.pdf
https://www.hsa.ie/eng/Topics/Electricity/Dangers_of_Electricity/Electricity_in_the_Workplace/
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg139.pdf
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/hsg85.pdf
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg236.pdf

POSHE V2 | Unit IG2 – Element 11 – Electricity 17

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