Sociolinguistics (Semester VI)

Group Assignment

Topics:
Mixture of varieties (Code-switching, Code-mixing, Borrowing
and Accent).

Submitted to:
Mam Hira Saleem.

Submitted by:
Department: BS English Literature – Semester VI
Session: 2021-2025
Names:
▪ Syeda Rida Zahra 2125116091
▪ Aamna Naveed 2125116001
▪ Javera Ahmed 2125116043
▪ Laiba Ijaz 2125116052
▪ Nazra Noor 2125116069
▪ Zamra Azhar 2125116103
Contents:
Code-Switching
Definition and Overview ………………………….………………….….. Syeda Rida Zahra
Reasons and Types of Code Switching ………............................................. Aamna Naveed

Code-Mixing
Introduction, Definition, MLF Theory and Types of Code Mixing …….… Javera Ahmed
Forms of Code Mixing, Factors that influence Code Mixing
and Difference between Code Switching and Code Mixing ……………..…. Laiba Ijaz

Borrowing…………………………….…………………………….…….. Nazra Noor

Accent ………………………………………………………………….… Zamra Azhar
 Code-Switching
Overview and Definitions
Introduction
Code means a dialect or language that a person chooses to use on any occasion. Code means a
system used for communication between two or more parties. People may switch from one
code to another and thereby create a new code in a process known as code-switching.

Code-switching is a linguistic strategy of bilingual or multilingual speakers that is used to make

switches between two or more languages depending on audience, setting and purpose.

CODE-SWITCHING, is the inevitable consequence of bilingualism (or, more generally,

multilingualism). Anyone who speaks more than one language chooses between them according
to circumstances is in practice of code-switching.
In community multilingualism the different languages are always used in different
circumstances, and the choice is always controlled by social rules. Typically one language is
reserved exclusively for use at home and another is used in the wider community.

Keeping in view, linguistic division of labour, each individual could be expected to switch
codes (i.e. languages) several times in the course of a day.

Use of Code-switching:
Bilingualism or more generally multilingualism calls for the employment of code-switching in
communicative exchange within a community. People who are multilingual or belong to
multilingual backgrounds use code-switching in their conversations most commonly verbal,
rarely written. The question arises “Why should a whole community bother to learn three
different languages, when just one language would do?” A simple answer to that could be: each
language has a social function which no other language could fulfill. These social functions are
more or less arbitrary results of history, but they are no less real for that. In the Indian village
Kupwar, where three languages are used in order to maintain the caste system.

Definitions
Ben Rampton defines code-switching as:

“Code-switching is a linguistic phenomenon in which speakers switch back and forth

between two or more languages or language varieties in the context of a single conversation
or utterance” (Rampton, 1995).
“Code switching is a communicative skill,which speaker use as a verbal strategy in much the
same way that skillful writers switch styles in a short story.”(Gumperz and Hernandez-Chavez
1972:98)
According to Yua (1997),
“within a single communicative exchange the use of more than one language is called code-
switching.”
According to Titone (1991),

“Code-switching may take a variety of forms: a set of utterances in one language is followed by
a set of utterances in the other, one single utterance in one language is followed by one single
utterance in the other”.
It can be called the

“juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two
different grammatical systems or sub-systems” (Gumperz, 1982, p.59)

Code switching in bilingual speaker: bilinguals’ grammar rules

The choice of language is controlled by rules, which members of the community learn from their
experience, so these rules are part of their total linguistic knowledge.

Example:
African speakers switch code between AAVE [African-American Vernacular English]
and SAE [Standard American English] in the presence of whites or others speaking SAE.
It is advantageous for Blacks to have code-switching competence as it is the way success is often
measured in institutional and professional settings. (George B. Ray, "Language and Interracial
Communication in the United States: Speaking in Black and White." Peter Lang, 2009)

Functions of Code-switching:
Code-switching performs several functions (Zentella, 1985).
⚫ People may use code-switching to hide fluency or memory problems in the second language
(but this accounts for about only 10 percent of code switches).
⚫ Code-switching is used to mark switching from informal situations (using native
languages) to formal situations (using the second language).
⚫ Code-switching is used to align speakers with others in specific situations (e.g., defining
oneself as a member of an ethnic group).
⚫ Code-switching also 'functions to announce specific identities, create certain meanings, and
facilitate particular interpersonal relationships' (Johnson, 2000, p. 184)
(William B. Gudykunst, Bridging
Differences: Effective Intergroup
Communication, 4th ed. Sage,
2004)
Is Code-switching an “identifiable phenomenon”?
The tendency to reify code switching as a unitary and clearly identifiable phenomenon has been
questioned by [Penelope] Gardner-Chloros (1995: 70), who prefers to view code switching as a
'fuzzy-edged concept.' For her, the conventional view of code switching implies that speakers
make binary choices, operating in one code or the other at any given time, when in fact code
switching overlaps with other kinds of bilingual mixture, and the boundaries between them are
difficult to establish. Moreover, it is often impossible to categorize the two codes involved in
code switching as discrete and isolatable." (Donald Winford, "An Introduction to Contact
Linguistics." Wiley-Blackwell, 2003)

Assumptions about Code-switching

A common and narrow assumption about code-switching is that people switch languages
because of gaps in their personal vocabulary. It is popularly believed that switching is a result
of incompetence rather than of a fine sense of the unique effects that it can achieve, switching is
often stigmatized. People say that those who switch 'can't speak properly' or 'make a mess' of
the languages they use.

Merits of Code-Switching

The study of a large corpus of data from a member of a bilingual, code-switching community
will often show the speaker using the words for a concept from both languages. Witty, quick,
elegant shifts between codes are often appreciated in the speech community. Proficient
bilinguals or bidialectals who switch codes consciously or unconsciously achieve particular
social, political, or rhetorical effects. They are able to draw on a bigger linguistic pool than
they would be if they and their interlocutors were mono dialectal or mono-lingual.

Types and Reasons of Code Switching

John Joseph Gumperz, American linguist and academic, defined code-switching as:

'the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two
different grammatical systems or subsystems'

Gumperz' idea was that code-switching is essentially when a person changes between two
different languages or language varieties within a single verbal exchange.

Types of Code-Switching
Situational code-switching is when a bilingual or multilingual person or community
switches between different languages or language varieties to fit the requirements of
different social contexts. An example from Sauris village highlights situational code switching:
In the village of Sauris, located in northern Italy, situational code-switching is observed among
its residents. This phenomenon arises due to the linguistic diversity within the community, where
individuals speak multiple languages depending on the social context.
Within the family setting, German is predominantly spoken. This choice reflects the intimate
and domestic nature of family interactions. In informal settings within the village, residents use
Saurian, a local dialect of Italian. This language is reserved for casual conversations among
community members and represents a sense of local identity and belonging.
However, when engaging with outsiders or in more formal settings such as school, church, or
work, standard Italian is employed. This choice of language indicates the broader societal
context and adherence to formal communication norms.

The decision to switch between these languages is governed by social rules and norms that
individuals learn through their experiences within the community. These rules become ingrained
in the linguistic knowledge of community members, shaping their language choices in various
situations.

As code-switching is an integral aspect of bilingualism or multilingualism, involves choosing

between languages based on circumstances. Despite the availability of a common language like
standard Italian, communities maintain multiple languages due to the social functions each
language serves, symbolizing different community identities or social distinctions. For instance,
using standard Italian at home in Sauris would feel inappropriate, similar to wearing a suit, while
speaking German in the village would be like wearing beach-clothes in church. This highlights
the importance of social distinctions preserved by maintaining multiple languages within
bilingual communities. Overall, the example of Sauris demonstrates how language choice is
influenced by situational factors and social norms.

Metaphorical code-switching is when a bilingual or multilingual person or community

switches between different languages or language varieties with the purpose of discussing a
subject that would normally be categorised in a different conversational context than the
current one.
Holmes also defined metaphorical code-switching as ‘code-switching for rhetorical reasons’
as code-switching can often be used to grab the listener’s attention or attempt to persuade an
audience.
An example by Blom and Gumperz from Norway highlights metaphorical code switching.
Blom and Gumperz's example from Hemnesberget, Norway, shows a diglossic situation that how
bilingual speakers strategically choose between standard Norwegian (Bokmal)as the high variety
and the local dialect (Ranamal)as a low variety based on the context of their interactions. In
Norway, clerks at the community administration office used standard Norwegian (Bokmal) for
official affairs and the local dialect (Ranamal) for informal matters like greetings and inquiries
about family affairs. In the community administration office, clerks seamlessly switch between
the two languages depending on whether the conversation pertains to official matters or informal
ones. When residents approach the clerk's desk, they initiate greetings and discuss personal
matters in the dialect, while conducting official business in the standard language. This
demonstrates how speakers manipulate language norms to navigate social interactions, reflecting
a conscious choice to adapt their linguistic behavior to suit the situational context. By using
language metaphorically in this manner, speakers assert agency over their communication and
challenge the notion of rigid adherence to societal language norms.
Other types of code switching includes inter-sentential, intra-sentential, intra-word code
switching and tag switching.
Inter-sentential code-switching happens either at the beginning or end of a sentence and is
most common with fluent bilingual speakers. For instance:
(Main tu Yahan hoon. What happened?)

Are we going to Chez Jule’s pour dîner? (English + French)

Translation: Are we going to Jule’s place for dinner?

Intra-sentential code-switching happens in the middle of a sentence. The code-switch happens

fluently (meaning there are no hesitations or interruptions) and the speaker is often unaware they
have done it.
(Hum Kya Keh Rahy Hein, he never bothered about it.)

Intra-word code-switching is when the switch happens within a single word:

'beefesque' (meaning 'beef-like/ similar to beef', where the 'esque' suffix comes from French but
the root word 'beef' is English).

Tag Switching is kind of switching involves the use of a tag or a tag question from language B
while speaking in language A. For example:

(Main Khana Kha Chuki Hoon Tum Bhi Kha Lena Okay?)
(Main yeh kabhi nahi kru’n gi, no way)

According to sociolinguist Janet Holmes (2000), there are several reasons why
people code-switch:
One of the most common reasons people code-switch is to create a sense of identity and
belonging among individuals and social groups. Adopting our speech to sound more like the
people around us can make us feel like a part of the community and more comfortable in the
social or cultural environment. If a Scottish person were to meet another Scot on their travels,
they might both feel their Scottish accent and use of Scottish dialect getting a little more
prominent. Another key reason people code-switch is to allow for successful communication
and to ensure others understand them.
The word 'Wi-Fi' (/waɪ-faɪ/) is pronounced ‘wee-fee’ (/wiː-fiː/) in several countries worldwide.
A person who is aware of this may change their pronunciation when travelling in certain
countries, i.e., by switching from one linguistic code to another to ensure they’re understood.
Another reason of code switching is to fill lexical gaps. People may switch to another language
when there is no word for what they want to say in the language they are speaking. Most
languages cannot be directly translated, and there are often words that exist in one language with
no translation in another language.
The French word Flâner means to wander aimlessly with no final destination. There is no direct
translation for Flâner in English, so a French person speaking English may code-switch and use
it rather than explain its meaning in English. Sometimes ideas and concepts are better expressed
in one language over another because of the amount of vocabulary available.
Also people code switch in order to exclude others. When two people are having a conversation
and are perhaps saying things they shouldn’t, they may code-switch and talk in another shared
language to hide what they are saying. For example :

A Pashto speaking couple living in Punjab might speak in Pashto language when they
don’t want anyone else to know what they are saying.

People can switch code in order to change register. We can also use code switching to describe
an individual's change in language style and register within a language. Register refers to the
way people use language differently depending on their social setting. For example, think about
how you talk to your friends compared to how you would speak to a headteacher or a boss,
for example. You would likely code-switch from an informal register to a more formal register.

Code-Mixing
Definitions and Types of Code-Mixing
Introduction
Code mixing is the mixing of two or more languages or language varieties in speech.

Code mixing is similar to the use or creation of pidgins but while pidgin is created across groups
that do not share a common language, code mixing may occur within a multilingual and bilingual
society where speakers share more than one language.
The ability to speak in two languages makes code mixing occur when a bilingual society mixes
word(s), phrase(s), and clause(s) together from one language to another in one sentence.
Hundreds of million people all over the world routinely use two or more languages in their daily
lives Even Pakistan has many languages like Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi, and Pashto. People often
mix words from these languages when they talk. This mixing is called "code-mixing". The fact
that people can use more than one language encourages them to mix code whenever they speak.
In the multilingual community, the speaker tends to mix from one language to the other, which is
commonly called code-mixing.

For Example In Sialkot, people speak three languages: Punjabi (their first language), Urdu
(the national language), and English (the official language).

People in Pakistan often speak multiple languages, including their first language, national
language, and official language (English), which has a significant impact on their
communication. English is frequently used in formal and informal discussions
. People of the bilingual community use two languages: Urdu, their national language, and
Punjabi in Punjab, which is their mother tongue. In contrast, people of multilingual communities
use three languages simultaneously.

The most dominant language used in Punjab is English, an academic, business, trade, and
government language of people. Code-mixing has become a global phenomenon, making it
fascinating to study and analyze.
People mix languages for various purposes, such as sometimes; people use Code Mixing because
they want to show closeness with a particular group or to demonstrate their power and
knowledge. For example, a politician might speak in Pushto to connect with the audience and
then use English to show their expertise.
Code-mixing occurs in both verbal and non-verbal communication. In non-verbal
communication, examples include texts like newspapers, magazines, novels, articles, scripts,
and movie scripts. In verbal communication, commercial advertisements are a prime example.
According to Wikipedia, commercial advertisements are TV programs paid for by organizations
to market products or services. English is commonly used in commercial
advertisements nowadays.

Rasul and Kauser’s research on Code-Mixing in Pakistan:

Children often mix and switch between Urdu and Punjabi languages when talking to others,
including friends, family, and parents. This happens because they are exposed to both languages
from a young age, making them bilingual.
Children often take words (like nouns and verbs) from Punjabi and use them in their Urdu
sentences, which they learn from listening to others around them.
Children who mix and switch Urdu and Punjabi languages are often thought to have uneducated
or illiterate parents, who usually disapprove of this language mixing.

In Pakistan, mixing and switching English words with other languages is a notable feature of the
current language scene. Urdu and English language mixing and switching are widespread in our
country, and similarly, Urdu is also mixed and switched with other local languages like Saraiki,
Sindhi, Punjabi, and Balochi.

As Rasul points out, even average educated or uneducated individuals use this language mixing
in their daily conversations.

Moreover, school-going children and even those who stay at home and can talk, mix and switch
Urdu and Punjabi languages in their utterances, as shown in the example below:

Kauser (2006) studied how often code-mixing happens in different FM radio programs.
Kauser's research found that code-mixing and code-switching occur in different ways in FM
radio programs, especially when looking at phrases. The ways this happens include:

Kauser research also shows how children mix and switch languages in their early speech, at
different levels. He collected data from conversations between children aged 2-5 years.
Example of this can be seen below:
Definitions
According to Suwito (2004: 60)

“Code mixing is the use of two or more languages by entering the pieces of one language to
another while the pieces of a language which are inserts, it do not have their function”.
While Trudgil (1992: 16) defines

“Code mixing is the process whereby speakers indulge in code-switching between

languages, even within sentences and phrases that are not possible to say at any given time
which language they are speaking”.

Matrix Language Frame (MLF) theory:

In 1993, Carol Myers-Scotton proposed the Matrix Language Frame (MLF) theory to explain
how bilingual speakers mix and switch languages.
The MLF theory says that bilingual speakers use one language (the matrix language) as the
main framework for conversation and add words or phrases from another language (the
embedded language).
The matrix language is usually the language the speaker is more comfortable with and provides
the grammar and structure for the conversation. The embedded language adds specific words
or phrases to the conversation.

For example, if someone is speaking mostly in English (matrix language) but adds some Urdu
words or phrases (embedded language), the MLF theory helps us understand how this
language mixing works.

Types of Code Mixing:

1. Congruent lexicalization:
This type of code-mixing involves using a word or phrase from another language that has the
same meaning as the intended word in the main language. It's like borrowing a word from
another language that has the same meaning as the word you wanted to use.
Example: "Let's go for Chai break" (Here, the Urdu word "chai" means "tea" and is used in an
English sentence, showing congruent lexicalization).
Congruent lexicalization is when two languages have similar sentence structures, so words
from either language can be used in the same sentence.
Think of it like building with blocks. The blocks (words) can be from different languages, but
they fit together in a similar way to make a sentence. This is different from switching between
languages or inserting a single word from another language. It's like creating a new sentence
using blocks from different languages.

To understand the structure of congruent lexicalization, imagine a tree-like diagram where

language labels (A, B) identify larger units of language like phrases or clauses, and small
units like individual words are labeled with letters like (a, b) these labels show which language
words come from.

2. Insertion:
This type of code-mixing involves adding a word or short phrase from another language into a
sentence in a different language. The added word or phrase keeps the grammatical structure of
the main language. It's like borrowing a word from another language and using it in a sentence.
Example: "Yeh Photo bhot achi hai" (Here, the English word "Photo" is inserted into a Urdu
sentence).

In this situation, a single constituent B (with words b from the same language) is inserted into a
structure defined by language A, with words a from that language.

3. Alternation:
This type of code-mixing involves switching between two or more languages within a single
conversation or sentence.
Bilingual speakers may switch languages depending on the topic, participants, or desired effect.
Alternation shows linguistic diversity and can reveal a speaker's cultural affiliations and second
language skills.
Example: "Aap ny presentation bana li hai because you have to present tomorrow" (Here, a
student switches from Urdu to English in a classroom conversation).

In this situation, a constituent from language A (with words from the same language) is
followed by a constituent from language B (with words from that language). The language of the
constituent dominating A and B is unspecified.

Three main styles of code-mixing and transitions between them can be seen below diagram:
 Forms and Factors that influence of Code-Mixing

Forms of Code Mixing:

1. Code mixing with individual words:
Code mixing can happen with just one word. A word is the smallest unit of language, made up of
one or more morphemes (smallest units of meaning).
Example: Using the English word "party" in a Urdu sentence, like (Mujhe party mein jana
hai - I have to go to the party).
2. Code mixing with phrases:

Code mixing can also happen with phrases, which are groups of words that function together as a
single unit. Phrases usually have more than one word and don't have a subject-predicate structure
like clauses do.

Example: Using the English phrase "fresh graduate" in a Urdu sentence, like (Hum ne naya
project shuru kiya hai jo ke fresh graduate ke liye hai - We have started a new project which
is for fresh graduates).

Factors that influence code mixing:

There are several factors that can influence code mixing. Some common ones include:

1. Bilingualism:
When someone is fluent in multiple languages, they may naturally switch between them during
conversation.
2. Social Context:
The setting and the people involved can influence code mixing. For example, code mixing might
be more common among friends or within certain communities.

3. Cultural Identity:
Code mixing can be a way for individuals to express their cultural identity or connect with their
heritage.
4. Language Proficiency:
Code mixing can occur when someone is more comfortable expressing certain ideas or emotions
in one language over another.

5. Borrowed Words:
Sometimes, certain words or phrases from one language are borrowed and used in another
language, leading to code mixing.
 Difference between Code-switching and Code-Mixing

1. Definition:
Code switching: Alternating between two or more languages or language varieties in a single
conversation.
Code mixing: Blending words or phrases from different languages within a sentence or
conversation.
For example, in code switching, someone might say, "I'm going to the market. Kya tum bhi
aaoge?" (Will you also come?) Here, the speaker switches from English to Hindi for the second
sentence.

In code mixing, someone might say, "I bought a new shalwar kameez for the wedding. It
looks so beautiful!" Here, the speaker incorporates the term "shalwar kameez" from Urdu while
primarily using English.

2. Frequency:

Code switching: Happens more frequently and involves a complete shift from one language
to another.
Code mixing: Occurs less frequently and involves incorporating words or phrases from
another language while primarily using one language.
Example:

Code Switching:
Person A: Hey, how was your day at work?

Person B: It was good. I had a meeting with my colleagues in English, but then we switched to
Urdu for a casual conversation during lunch.

In this example, Person B code switches between English and Urdu multiple times throughout
the day, depending on the context and the people they are interacting with.
Code Mixing:

Person A: What did you have for dinner last night?

Person B: I had biryani with a side of raita. It was delicious!

In this example, Person B code mixes by incorporating the Urdu words "biryani" and "raita" into
their primarily English conversation. This code mix occurs sporadically and is not as frequent as
code switching.
3. Intent:

Code switching: Often used deliberately to convey social identity, establish group
membership, or show a shift in social context.
Code mixing: Can be unintentional or spontaneous, occurring naturally when bilingual
individuals are more comfortable using certain words or phrases from another language.

4. Structure:

Code switching: Follows grammatical rules and structures of each language being used.
Code mixing: May not strictly follow the grammatical rules of either language, resulting in a
blend of linguistic elements.
Example :
Code Switching:
Person A: Hey, do you want to grab some coffee after class?

Person B: Sure, let's go to that new café in the mall. Wahan ka coffee bohot acha hai! (The
coffee there is really good!)

In this example, Person B code switches by seamlessly transitioning from English to Urdu
within the same sentence. The structure of the conversation remains intact, with both languages
being used fluently.
Code Mixing:

Person A: Did you watch the latest episode of that TV show?

Person B: Haan, I watched it last night. It was bohot entertaining!

In this example, Person B code mixes by incorporating the Urdu word "bohot" (meaning "very")
into their primarily English sentence. The structure of the conversation remains predominantly in
English, with occasional Urdu words added for emphasis or flavor.

5. Social Factors:

Code switching: Influenced by social factors such as the language proficiency of the
interlocutors, the topic of conversation, or the formality of the setting.
Code mixing: Can be influenced by the familiarity and comfort level of the individuals using
multiple languages.
Example:
Code Switching:
Person A: Hey, wanna go out for dinner tonight?
Person B: Sure, let's go to that new Italian restaurant. I'll call and make a reservation.

In this example, Person B code switches by using English during the conversation. The social
factor for code switching could be influenced by the formality of the situation or the need to
accommodate the language preference of the person they are speaking with.
Code Mixing:

Person A: How was your day at work?

Person B: It was acha. I had a productive meeting with my colleagues and we discussed the new
project.
In this example, Person B code mixes by incorporating the Urdu word "acha" (meaning "good")
into their primarily English conversation. The social factor for code mixing could be influenced
by the comfort level with both languages, the desire to add cultural or personal expression, or the
influence of the social group they belong to.

Borrowing

Borrowing
A 'borrowing' is a form that has spread from one linguistic variety (the 'source') into another
variety (the 'target' or 'replica'). In this sense it is nearly synonymous with 'loanword,' but a
borrowing is often really a stem (smaller than a word) and may be a phrase (larger than a word).
According to Thomason and Kaufman, borrowing is the incorporation of foreign features into a
group's native language by speakers of that language: the native language is maintained but is
changed by the addition of the incorporated features.

To properly define it we can look at its definition in ‘The Glossary of Sociolinguistics’ by Peter
Trudgill:
“The process whereby bilingual speakers introduce words from one language into another
language, these loan words eventually becoming accepted as an integral part of the second
language.”

For example, ‘restaurant’ was originally a French word but is now an integral part of the English
language and is known and used by all speakers of English whether or not they are bilingual in
French. It is also pronounced by English speakers according to the rules of English and not
French pronunciation.
Loan words which are still in the process of being assimilated into another language may
continue to be pronounced, as well as speakers are able, according to the rules of the original
language, such as coup d’éfat in English.
Grammatical constructions and speech sounds may also be borrowed from one language into
another.

Difference between code switching and borrowing

In extreme cases, the difference between borrowing and code-switching (see Code-switching:
Overview) is clear. The word 'money' is a thirteenth-century borrowing from French, but few
modern speakers of English would be aware of its foreign origin. At the other extreme, a pair of
bilingual speakers might converse for a while in pure English, then shift abruptly into French for
a ten-minute stretch— because French seems more appropriate to a new topic, because they do
not want an eavesdropping English monolingual to overhear them, or for some other reason. In
other words, a borrowing is (ideally) a historically transferred form, usually a word (or lexical
stem), that has settled comfortably into the target language, while code-switching is (ideally) a
spontaneous, clearly bounded switch from sentences of one language to sentences of another,
affecting all levels of linguistic structure simultaneously.

Key Factors Influencing Borrowing Decisions

Borrowing is usually the result of the following factors:

1. Language Contact:
When speakers of different languages interact frequently, they naturally pick up words from each
other. This is especially common between languages spoken in close geographical proximity,
like Moroccan Arabic and Spanish (e.g., /sswirti/ for "luck").

2. Colonization:
When a powerful nation colonizes another, the colonizer's language often influences the
colonized language. The dominant language becomes a source of loanwords, enriching the
vocabulary of the subjugated language.
3. Traditional motivation/ Lexical Gaps:

Languages borrow words to fill gaps in their own vocabulary. This is particularly common in
fields like technology, medicine, and business, where new concepts emerge requiring new words.

4. Immigrant Communities:
Until the early-twentieth century, immigrants to the Americas could, if they wished, obtain
unoccupied farmland and recreate in the New World the towns they had left behind. Since then,
immigrants have formed ethnic neighbourhoods or small kin-based networks, usually in large
cities.
Types of borrowing
According to Bloomfield (1933) there are 3 types of lexical borrowing.

1. In dialect borrowing, borrowed features come from within the same speech-area (as,
father, rather with [a] in an [ε] -dialect),
2. In cultural borrowing, the borrowed features come from a different language, e.g,
spaghetti from Italian to English. Cultural borrowing is not necessarily one-sided, and
intensive contact between speakers of both languages is not a prerequisite.
3. When speakers of different languages come into more intensive contact, borrowing
“extends to speech-forms that are not connected with cultural novelties”. This is called
intimate borrowing and it is generally one-sided: borrowing goes predominantly from
the upper language to the lower language, that is from the culturally, politically or
economically dominant language speakers to the speakers of the less prestigious
language.

According to Haugen (1950), linguistic items are borrowed and adapted in terms of morphemic
importation and substitution:

4. Loanwords: Loanwords are words that are taken from one language into another and
adapted phonologically and morphologically (i.e, pronunciation or spelling adjustments).
(e.g., "sushi" in English).
5. Loan-blends: These words are formed by combining two parts of words from the donor
and the host language. For example, “spork" from "spoon" and "fork".
6. Loan-shift: In this case, the host language borrows only the meaning of the words and
form words for the borrowed meaning. The host language substitutes the word with
another but maintain the same meaning. For example, the English word "whirlwind" is a
loan shift from the Norwegian "wervelwind." While both words refer to a strong, swirling
wind, the meaning of "wervelwind" literally translates to "throwing wind" in English.
The English version incorporates the concept of whirling motion not explicitly present in
the original Norwegian term.
Sometimes words or expressions are translated into another language, as in French lune de miel
meaning `honeymoon' (lune means `moon' in French and miel, `honey'). This type of borrowing
is known as a calque (itself borrowed from French!), or a loan translation. Grammatical
structures may also be borrowed.
A distinction has sometimes been drawn between an established borrowing and a nonce
borrowing, with the latter characterized as a less-frequently-used item, restricted to bilingual
speakers, and not integrated into the host language (Weinreich, [1953] 1968; Poplack, Sankoff
and Miller, 1988). The distinction between nonce borrowing and code-switching involving a
single vocabulary.
Major periods of borrowing
Following are some major periods of borrowing

1. Germanic period: Some Latin words were themselves originally borrowed from
Greek. It can be deduced that these borrowings date from the time before the Angles
and Saxons left the continent for England, because of very similar forms found in the
other old Germanic languages (Old High German, Old Saxon, etc.). The source words
are generally attested in Latin texts, in the large body of Latin writings that were
preserved through the ages.
2. Old English Period (600-1100): This mainly included Latin and Celtic. Many of the
places and river names are borrowed from these languages such as London, Carlisle,
Devon, Dover, Cornwall, Thames, Avon...)
3. Middle English Period (1100-1500): Most of Scandinavian words first appeared in
the written language in Middle English; but many were no doubt borrowed earlier,
during the period of the Danelaw (9th-10th centuries). Sometimes it's hard to tell
whether a given word came from French or whether it was taken straight from Latin.
Words for which this difficulty occurs are those in which there were no special sound
and/or spelling changes of the sort that distinguished French from Latin
4. Early Modern English Period (1500-1650): The effects of the renaissance begin to
be seriously felt in England. We see the beginnings of a huge influx of Latin and
Greek words, many of them learned words imported by scholars well versed in those
languages. But many are borrowings from other languages, as words from European
high culture begin to make their presence felt and the first words come in from the
earliest period of colonial expansion.
5. Modern English (1650-present): It was a Period of major colonial expansion,
industrial/technological revolution, and American immigration. So words from
languages like French, Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Flemish, German, Yiddish,
Scandinavian, Russian , Sanskrit , Hindi Dravidian, Persian, Arabic, Chinese,
Japanese, pacific islands, Australia, many African and American Indian languages.

Conclusion
Thus, borrowing is a natural and common process in language contact situations, and it has
played a significant role in shaping the languages we speak today.
 ACCENTS

“Accent” can be defined as follows:

A unique mode of pronunciation within a given language that is specific to a country,
region, or social class.
Accent in sociolinguistics:

In linguistics and sociolinguistics, accent refers to the way people or specific groups of people
sound when they speak. Accents are usually defined and recognised by geographical location.

For example, English speakers from the UK have a different accent from English speakers in the
USA. Within the UK, there are multiple accents, meaning someone from the South of England
will likely have a different accent than someone from the North.
People in the southeast of England often speak with the Received Pronunciation (RP) accent,
whereas people from Newcastle often speak with a Geordie accent.
Accents usually differ in terms of the pronunciation of words, vowels and consonants, and
prosodic features (the way speech sounds, including tone, pitch, and stress).
Example:

The RP accent pronounces the word down as /daʊn/, i.e., the middle vowel is an ‘ow’ sound.
The Geordie accent pronounces the word down as /duːn/, i.e., the central vowel makes a longer
‘oo’ sound.

Accent explanation
Traditionally, accents developed amongst groups of language users who lived in relative
isolation from other communities. People within a community typically sound similar because
they pick up each other’s slight language changes and adopt each other’s speech characteristics.
These characteristics eventually define the accent. Language changes will naturally develop over
time in each individual.
The most prominent accent differences are seen when there is a significant environmental barrier
between communities of people, such as a river or mountain range. These would have stopped
people from communicating and prevented a certain amount of accent levelling. (Accent
levelling = a form of standardisation where people lose their distinctive accents and start to
sound similar.)

Accents were further developed when people started moving around the world due to trade,
immigration, and colonisation. As people moved around, they brought their languages and
accents, which were adopted by locals and integrated into their language use. For example, in the
1930s, many Scottish steelworkers were sent to Northampton to work, causing the Scottish
accent to influence the Northampton accent.
Accents reflect the sociocultural history of people or places. For example, the standard
Australian accent reflects the London accent as this is where many settlers were sent to Australia
from.

How accents developed

No one is born with accents. Instead, they develop based on social influences. As we learn to
speak, we naturally imitate the people around us, such as our caregivers, picking up on their
speech patterns, including pronunciation, stress, and intonation.
Children pick up accents far quicker than adults, just like how they pick up language much
faster. This is because children’s brains have more flexibility than adults and can learn and adapt
much quicker.

Scientists believe that after the ‘critical period’ (the time frame in which children can quickly
learn new things – usually around puberty), our accents become ‘cemented’ and less likely to
change. However, like everything to do with language, nothing is completely fixed. Accents can
continue to change slightly for the rest of our lives due to factors like moving country, travelling,
occupation, and who we spend our time with.

Relation between language, dialect and accent

Language
↓↓↓↓
Dialect
↓↓↓↓
Accent

Language is the biggest term. It encompasses both the concept of dialect and accent. Languages
include English, Spanish, German, French, Chinese, and hundreds of other examples.

After that there is dialect. A dialect is a form of speaking a certain language. This can refer to a
specific form of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Often times, language refers to the
“standard” or official form of a language, while dialect refers to one of many “non-standard”
forms of a language.
Finally, there is accent. Accent refers to the way in which words of a given language are
pronounced. Thus, accent is merely a part of dialect. To return to the image above, accent is the
smallest category. It falls within the limits of dialect, while both terms fall within the limits of
language.

Accent examples
There are so many different languages in the world which all have their own dialects and
subsequently their own accents. English is considered as a lingua franca. We will focus on
English accents across a range of different countries.
English accents

English is a global language, and there are many different English accents. There are variations
of accents within each country, and there is no ‘standardised’ accent for any country. The most
used English accents are general American accent and general British accent.

General American English accent vs general British accent

The main difference between the two accents is the pronunciation of the letter R.

The general British accent is considered non-rhotic, meaning the /r/ sound at the end of words
isn’t pronounced.

The word water is pronounced with an ‘uh’ sound at the end rather than an 'er' sound.
The general American accent is considered a rhotic accent, meaning the /r/ sound is
pronounced.
There is also a slight difference in the pronunciation of vowel sounds. For example, the British
accent uses the /ɒ/ (short ‘o’ sound) in words like shop and drop, whereas the American accent
uses the /ɑ/ sound, creating more of an ‘a’ sound.

There is no one accent for a country. Looking at the variations of the accents within the UK.
Accents in the UK

There are many different accents in the UK. Many linguists suggest this is the case because
many communities were separated by ‘borders’, either natural or political.
Received Pronunciation (RP)

RP is often considered the ‘standard’ way British people speak, and people who deviate from this
are considered to speak with an ‘accent’. It is important to remember that RP is an accent itself.
We all speak with an accent that is unique to us.
Many people consider RP to be ‘posh’ as it’s associated with official settings, such as private
education and news reporting. RP is the accent is most likely to be heard on TV and in films.
Estuary English
This is the accent used by those who live near the Thames estuary (river) in London. It is similar
to RP but is considered less ‘posh’ and more the ‘everyday’ accent of Londoners and people
living in the South East of England. Many linguists believe Estuary English to be a mix of RP
and Cockney (a London-based accent associated with the working class).
Cornish

The Cornish accent is used in Cornwall and the Southwest of England. One of the most notable
factors of the Cornish accent is that it’s a rhotic accent compared to most other UK accents,
which are non-rhotic. Rhotic accents pronounce the /r/ sound at the end of words like water and
tractor.

Scouse
This is the name given to the prominent accent used in Liverpool. The scouse accent is quite
nasal compared to other accents. Like other accents in the north of England, the /ʊ/ sound found
in words like book and put is pronounced as /u:/ (longer oo sound).

Geordie
This is the name of the accent (and dialect) used in Newcastle. One of the most prominent
features of the Geordie accent is the glottal stop ⟨ʔ⟩ and glottalisation of /p, t, k/. A glottal stop
happens when the throat closes, creating a pause in sound. For example, paper is pronounced
/peəpʔɐ/ and local as /loːkʔə/.
Scottish

Scotland has its own languages, but the most common language spoken now is Scottish English.
The basics of the Scottish accent have been influenced by Gaelic (the first language used in
Scotland and predominantly used in the Highlands), Scots phonology (a language that developed
in the Lowlands with its unique pronunciation), and English lexicon (vocabulary that travelled
across the border).
The main features of a Scottish accent include a slight trill (roll) of the /r/ sound and a glottal
stop on /t/ sounds.

Accents and identity

Accents can play a huge role in a person’s sense of identity, including their self-perception as
well as how others perceive them. Accents can reveal a lot about a person, such as their place of
birth, where they live, their socioeconomic status (class), and whether they’re a native or non-
native speaker of a language. Some people are very proud of their accents and the sense of
identity it gives them. In contrast, others try to change their accents to conceal parts of their
identity.
Accents and prejudice
Some accents are considered more ‘prestigious’ than others, and some are considered to have
‘low-prestige’. This perception of different accents is usually linked to class, but ethnicity and
race can also play a role in it.
Received pronunciation (RP) is often considered the most prestigious accent as it is associated
with private education, news reporting, and the royals. However, linguists state that accents are
just accents and don’t necessarily have anything to do with education level – these are just the
meanings and values society places on certain accents.
People with certain accents, such as non-native English speakers, often face prejudice and
discrimination because of their accents. They state that they are usually deemed less intelligent,
less educated, and as having poor language skills. In reality, someone who has learned a second
language isn’t unintelligent.
This prejudice can lead to harmful stereotyping, mass discrimination of whole groups of people,
and internalized discrimination (i.e., someone believing they’re not capable of something or
aren’t as intelligent as others because of their accent).

Non-native accents
Pronunciation and accent are often the most difficult parts of learning a new language. Most
people who learn a second language, especially in adult life, speak with an accent that differs
from the native speakers. This accent can usually be identifiable with the speaker’s native
tongue, e.g. a French person speaking English would be recognisable as French. Often non-
native English speakers face discrimination for their accent and will decide to work hard to try
and sound more like a native. On the other hand, others feel proud of their accent and identity as
a second language speaker.
Many linguists, such as Andy Kirkpatrick and Jennifer Jenkins, state that accent isn’t an essential
part of learning a language, only intelligibility is (the ability to be understood).
Other English accents include Australian accent, Welsh accent, Irish accent, Canadian English,
etc.