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 1

Applied Numerical Methods with

MATLAB for Engineers and Scientists
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CHAPTER 2
2.1
>> q0 = 12;R = 50;L = 5;C = 1e-4;
>> t = linspace(0,.7);
>> q = q0*exp(-R*t/(2*L)).*cos(sqrt(1/(L*C)-(R/(2*L))^2)*t);
>> plot(t,q)

2.2
>> z = linspace(-4,4);
>> f = 1/sqrt(2*pi)*exp(-z.^2/2);
>> plot(z,f)
>> xlabel('z')
>> ylabel('frequency')

PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this Manual
may be displayed, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, or used beyond the limited distribution to teachers and educators permitted by McGraw-Hill for their individual
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 2

PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this Manual
may be displayed, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, or used beyond the limited distribution to teachers and educators permitted by McGraw-Hill for their individual
course preparation. If you are a student using this Manual, you are using it without permission.
 3

2.3 (a)
>> t = linspace(5,29,5)

t =
5 11 17 23 29

(b)
>> x = linspace(-3,4,8)

x =
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

2.4 (a)
>> v = -3:0.5:1

v =
-3.0000 -2.5000 -2.0000 -1.5000 -1.0000 -0.5000 0 0.5000 1.0000

(b)
>> r = 8:-0.5:0

r =
Columns 1 through 6
8.0000 7.5000 7.0000 6.5000 6.0000 5.5000
Columns 7 through 12
5.0000 4.5000 4.0000 3.5000 3.0000 2.5000
Columns 13 through 17
2.0000 1.5000 1.0000 0.5000 0

2.5
>> F = [11 12 15 9 12];
>> x = [0.013 0.020 0.009 0.010 0.012];
>> k = F./x

k =
1.0e+003 *
0.8462 0.6000 1.6667 0.9000 1.0000

>> U = .5*k.*x.^2

U =
0.0715 0.1200 0.0675 0.0450 0.0720

>> max(U)

ans =
0.1200

2.6
>> TF = 32:3.6:82.4;
>> TC = 5/9*(TF-32);
>> rho = 5.5289e-8*TC.^3-8.5016e-6*TC.^2+6.5622e-5*TC+0.99987;
>> plot(TC,rho)

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publisher, or used beyond the limited distribution to teachers and educators permitted by McGraw-Hill for their individual
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 4

2.7
>> A = [.035 .0001 10 2;
0.02 0.0002 8 1;
0.015 0.001 19 1.5;
0.03 0.0008 24 3;
0.022 0.0003 15 2.5]
A =
0.0350 0.0001 10.0000 2.0000
0.0200 0.0002 8.0000 1.0000
0.0150 0.0010 19.0000 1.5000
0.0300 0.0008 24.0000 3.0000
0.0220 0.0003 15.0000 2.5000

>> U = sqrt(A(:,2))./A(:,1).*(A(:,3).*A(:,4)./(A(:,3)+2*A(:,4))).^(2/3)

U =
0.3624
0.6094
2.5053
1.6900
1.1971

2.8
>> t = 10:10:60;
>> c = [3.4 2.6 1.6 1.3 1.0 0.5];
>> tf = 0:75;
>> cf = 4.84*exp(-0.034*tf);
>> plot(t,c,'s',tf,cf,':')
>> xlim([0 75])

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may be displayed, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the
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 5

2.9
>> t = 10:10:60;
>> c = [3.4 2.6 1.6 1.3 1.0 0.5];
>> tf = 0:70;
>> cf = 4.84*exp(-0.034*tf);
>> semilogy(t,c,'s',tf,cf,'--')

The result is a straight line. The reason for this outcome can be understood by taking the common
logarithm of the function to give,

log 10 c = log 10 4.84 − 0.034t log 10 e

Because log10e = 0.4343, this simplifies to the equation for a straight line,

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 6

log 10 c = 0.6848 − 0.0148t

2.10
>> v = 10:10:80;
>> F = [25 70 380 550 610 1220 830 1450];
>> vf = 0:90;
>> Ff = 0.2741*vf.^1.9842;
>> plot(v,F,'d',vf,Ff,':')

2.11
>> v = 10:10:80;
>> F = [25 70 380 550 610 1220 830 1450];
>> vf = 0:90;
>> Ff = 0.2741*vf.^1.9842;
>> loglog(v,F,'d',vf,Ff,':')

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may be displayed, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, or used beyond the limited distribution to teachers and educators permitted by McGraw-Hill for their individual
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 7

2.12

>> x = linspace(0,3*pi/2);
>> s = sin(x);
>> sf = x-x.^3/factorial(3)+x.^5/factorial(5)-x.^7/factorial(7);
>> plot(x,s,x,sf,'--')

2.13 (a)
>> m=[83.6 60.2 72.1 91.1 92.9 65.3 80.9];
>> vt=[53.4 48.5 50.9 55.7 54 47.7 51.1];
>> g=9.81; rho=1.225;
>> A=[0.454 0.401 0.453 0.485 0.532 0.474 0.486];
>> cd=g*m./vt.^2;
>> CD=2*cd/rho./A

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may be displayed, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, or used beyond the limited distribution to teachers and educators permitted by McGraw-Hill for their individual
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 8

CD =
1.0343 1.0222 0.9839 0.9697 0.9591 0.9698 1.0210

(b)
>> CDavg=mean(CD),CDmin=min(CD),CDmax=max(CD)

CDavg =
0.9943

CDmin =
0.9591

CDmax =
1.0343

(b)
>> subplot(1,2,1);plot(m,A,'o')
>> xlabel('mass (kg)');ylabel('area (m^2)')
>> title('area versus mass')
>> subplot(1,2,2);plot(m,CD,'o')
>> xlabel('mass (kg)');ylabel('CD')
>> title('dimensionless drag versus mass')

2.14 (a)
t = 0:pi/50:10*pi;
subplot(2,1,1);plot(exp(-0.1*t).*sin(t),exp(-0.1*t).*cos(t))
title('(a)')
subplot(2,1,2);plot3(exp(-0.1*t).*sin(t),exp(-0.1*t).*cos(t),t);
title('(b)')

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may be displayed, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the
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 9

2.15 (a)
>> x = 2;
>> x ^ 3;
>> y = 8 - x

y =
6

(b)
>> q = 4:2:10;
>> r = [7 8 4; 3 6 -2];
>> sum(q) * r(2, 3)

ans =
-56

2.16
>> y0=0;v0=30;g=9.81;
>> x=0:5:100;
>> theta0=15*pi/180;
>> y1=tan(theta0)*x-g/(2*v0^2*cos(theta0)^2)*x.^2+y0;
>> theta0=30*pi/180;
>> y2=tan(theta0)*x-g/(2*v0^2*cos(theta0)^2)*x.^2+y0;
>> theta0=45*pi/180;
>> y3=tan(theta0)*x-g/(2*v0^2*cos(theta0)^2)*x.^2+y0;
>> theta0=60*pi/180;
>> y4=tan(theta0)*x-g/(2*v0^2*cos(theta0)^2)*x.^2+y0;
>> theta0=75*pi/180;
>> y5=tan(theta0)*x-g/(2*v0^2*cos(theta0)^2)*x.^2+y0;
>> y=[y1' y2' y3' y4' y5']
>> plot(x,y)
>> axis([0 100 0 50])
>> legend('15','30','45','60','75')

PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this Manual
may be displayed, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the
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 10

2.17
>> R=8.314;E=1e5;A=7E16;
>> Ta=273:5:333;
>> k=A*exp(-E./(R*Ta))

k =
Columns 1 through 10
0.0051 0.0113 0.0244 0.0510 0.1040 0.2070 0.4030
0.7677 1.4326 2.6213
Columns 11 through 13
4.7076 8.3048 14.4030

>> subplot(1,2,1);plot(Ta,k)
>> subplot(1,2,2);semilogy(1./Ta,k)

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may be displayed, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the
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 11

The result in (b) is a straight line. The reason for this outcome can be understood by taking the
common logarithm of the function to give,
⎛E ⎞ 1
log 10 k = log 10 A − ⎜ log 10 e⎟
R ⎠ Ta

Thus, a plot of log10k versus 1/Ta is linear with a slope of –(E/R)log10e = –5.2237×103 and an
intercept of log10A = 16.8451.

PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this Manual
may be displayed, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, or used beyond the limited distribution to teachers and educators permitted by McGraw-Hill for their individual
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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
pacified La Vendée by negotiating a treaty of amnesty with the
remaining Vendéan leaders at Montluçon, on the 17th of January
1800. A special effort was made to put the finances in order, and
Gaudin, who held office as Minister of the Finances throughout the
Consulate and the Empire, first proved his extraordinary powers. His
financial reforms may be roughly summed up by the mention of his
two most important measures. The decrees of the Directory in
favour of forced loans from the rich, which had been arbitrarily and
unfairly carried out, were abrogated and replaced by a general
income tax of twenty-five per cent. This established some justice in
the collection, which partly compensated for the heaviness of the
tax. The second measure was the appointment of receivers-general
of taxes in every department. These men had to give heavy security,
and were allowed a fair measure of profit in the form of a
percentage on what they collected. They were strictly supervised,
and the scandalous dilapidations which had signalised the period of
the Directory were made impossible for the future. Further, in order
to secure the support of the capitalists, the Bank of France was
founded under the guarantee of the State. Finally, the First Consul
decided to carry into effect the projects of the legal reformers of the
Constituent Assembly and the Convention. Their labours had made
possible the formation of a uniform code of law for France.
Bonaparte appointed a Commission, consisting of Tronchet, Portalis,
and Bigot de Préameneu, to examine the labours of their
predecessors, and with their help to draw up the admirable civil
code, which was afterwards known as the Code Napoléon.
In no respect was the administrative ability of the The Ministry.
Consuls better manifested than in the selection they
made of their ministers. It has already been noticed that Gaudin, the
greatest financier of France, was appointed Minister of the Finances.
Talleyrand and Fouché once more took possession of the portfolios
of Foreign Affairs and of Police, which they held for many years.
Their first Minister of the Marine, Forfait, did not remain long in
office, but his successor, Decrès, held that post from 1801 till 1814.
The same may be said with regard to the Ministry of Justice. Abrial,
the first occupant of this post, gave way to Regnier in 1802, but he
likewise remained in office till 1814. The Ministries of War and of the
Interior were more difficult to fill; Carnot soon resented the tone of
Bonaparte, and was succeeded by Berthier, afterwards Prince of
Neufchâtel, who had been Chief of the Staff to Bonaparte in Italy. La
Place, the great astronomer, had been appointed Minister of the
Interior by the Provisional Government in November 1799. He did
not show himself very efficient, and was succeeded by Lucien
Bonaparte, the First Consul’s ablest brother, in the following month.
He too failed to carry out the wishes of the Consuls, and was
succeeded in 1800 by one of the most distinguished administrators
of the period, Chaptal.
Of foreign affairs Bonaparte, as First Consul, The External
assumed the entire management; in internal Policy of the
matters he laid down the main principles indeed, Consulate.
but he allowed his colleagues some share in the
government. He found France once more at war, as she had been
before the Treaty of Campo-Formio, with Austria and England. But
another redoubtable enemy had been added in Russia. Fortunately
for France, for reasons which have already been indicated, the
Emperor Paul was profoundly dissatisfied with his allies. From an
unreasoning hatred for France, the Russian Emperor had now
altered his sentiments to one of profound admiration for the person
of the First Consul. Bonaparte was soon notified of this disposition at
the Court of St. Petersburg. He sent his most intimate friend, Duroc,
on a special mission to Russia, and the idea was already suggested
that Russia and France ought to be the arbiters of Europe. He
offered to recognise Paul not only as Grand Master of the Knights of
Malta, but as the sovereign of that island, and promised in every
way to forward Russian interests. In return, Paul, with his usual
exaggeration, declared Bonaparte to be his dearest friend,
surrounded himself with his portraits, drank publicly to his health,
and ordered Louis XVIII. to leave Mittau. The Russian ambassador in
Paris, Kolichev, on behalf of his master, proposed that Bonaparte
should take the title of King of France, and make the crown
hereditary in his family. Next in importance to the commencement of
good relations with Russia, was the First Consul’s effort to make the
King of Prussia his declared ally. For this purpose he sent Duroc also
to Berlin. But Frederick William III. was a different type of monarch
from the Emperor Paul; he could not so readily alter his policy.
Personally, he too admired the First Consul, and regarded him as the
restorer of order and as a monarch in embryo; but, in spite of his
admiration, he refused to comply with the wishes of Bonaparte, as
he had rejected the propositions of the Directory, and insisted on the
maintenance of his consistent attitude of strict neutrality. The last
point to be noticed in the foreign policy of Bonaparte was his
attitude towards the Pope. He not only allowed the body of Pope
Pius VI. to be removed from Valence to be buried at Rome, but he
recognised the new Pope, Pius VII., although he had been elected at
Venice under Austrian influence: he even offered to restore him to
his temporal dominion at Rome, and promised to enter into
negotiations with him with regard to the re-establishment of the
Catholic Church in France.
With the two great enemies of France, Austria The Campaign of
and England, the First Consul had no desire to Marengo. 1800.
treat. Though unable to strike at England, owing to
the weakness of the French navy, he could yet attack the Austrians
in two quarters. Two powerful armies were prepared, the one the
Army of the Danube, which was placed under the command of
Moreau, and the other the Army of the Interior, soon to become
famous as the Second Army of Italy. Of all the conquests in Italy
made by the French in 1796 and 1797, only Genoa remained in their
possession. Masséna, fresh from his victories in Switzerland, had
taken command of the besieged army. His defence is one of the
most famous in history, and does no less honour to the general than
his victory at Zurich. Bonaparte desired to relieve Genoa; and he
resolved not to advance along the coast, as he had done in 1796,
but by crossing the Alps, and descending upon Piedmont, to cut off
the Austrian army occupying that province.
 In the month of May Bonaparte crossed the Great Saint Bernard
Pass at the head of 40,000 men, and fell at once on the Austrian
flank. He was too late to relieve Genoa, which surrendered on the
4th of June, when but few of the soldiers were still able to stand,
but he was in time to close the retreat of the Austrians upon
Lombardy. On the 9th June 1800 General Lannes defeated the
Austrian advanced guard at Montebello, and Bonaparte then barred
the road from Alessandria to Piacenza. General Melas, though not
yet joined by the troops which had taken Genoa, had a larger army
than Bonaparte; on June 14 he forced his way out of Alessandria,
and drove back the French columns which occupied the village of
Marengo. The battle was practically lost by the French, when Desaix,
who had been detached to the left with 6000 men, fell upon the
Austrian flank. Desaix was killed, but the vigour of his attack
practically cut the Austrian army in two. The dragoons of Kellermann
completed the victory, and General Melas signed the Convention of
Alessandria, by which he surrendered Genoa, Piedmont, and the
Milanese to the French, and promised to withdraw the Austrian
garrisons from all cities to the west of the Mincio. Bonaparte then
attended a Te Deum sung in honour of his victory in the cathedral of
Milan, and returned to Paris, leaving the Army of Grisons, under the
command of General Macdonald, to follow up the Austrians.
While Bonaparte was winning the battle of Campaign of
Marengo, and reconquering Italy by a single blow, Hohenlinden.
Moreau was again face to face with his old
opponent, the Archduke Charles. The French advance was very slow.
Fierce battles were fought at Engen, Mœskirchen, and Biberach in
May 1800, and by the close of the summer Moreau had his
headquarters at Augsburg, and his advanced guard at Munich. The
slowness of Moreau’s progress dissatisfied the First Consul, as did
the want of success of the Archduke Charles dissatisfy the court of
Vienna. Augereau was sent with 20,000 men to the assistance of
Moreau, who was ordered, in spite of the severity of the winter, to
continue his advance; and the Archduke John was appointed to
succeed his brother, and ordered to take the offensive. The crowning
event of this winter campaign was the great victory of Hohenlinden,
which was won by Moreau on the 3d of December 1800. The
Austrians lost the whole of their baggage and artillery and 12,000
prisoners.
The First Consul from Paris ordered Moreau and The Winter
Macdonald to advance into the home districts of the Campaign of
House of Austria. Moreau accordingly pushed along 1800.
the Inn, the Salz, the Traun, and the Ens, driving
the disorganised and discouraged Austrians before him until he was
within twenty leagues of Vienna. Macdonald, at the same time,
crossed the Splügen Pass in spite of the avalanches, and penetrated
into the Tyrol, thus turning the Austrian forces on the Mincio and the
Adige. On arriving at Trent, Macdonald turned to the right and was
joined by Brune, who had occupied the territory of Venice, and the
united French army marched upon Vienna. Under these
circumstances, with Italy lost, and Vienna threatened from two
quarters, the Emperor Francis sued for peace, which was concluded
at Lunéville on the 9th of February 1801.
The Treaty of Lunéville was more important from The Treaty of
its destruction of the old Holy Roman Empire than Lunéville. Feb. 9,
as the treaty of peace between France and Austria. 1801.
From the latter point of view the Emperor Francis
once more, as in the Treaty of Campo-Formio, recognised the Rhine
as the limit of France. In Italy the Cisalpine Republic was once more
constituted with the Adige as its frontier, Modena was to be
compensated with the Breisgau, and Venice was again left to the
House of Austria. Tuscany was taken from its Austrian Grand Duke,
and erected into a kingdom of Etruria in favour of the Prince of
Parma, a relative of the King of Spain, and Piedmont was annexed to
France; but the King of the Two Sicilies was allowed to retain his
dominions, and the Pope was restored to all his possessions except
the Legations of Bologna and Ferrara. The Cisalpine Republic was
reorganised, and granted a Constitution on the model of that of the
Year VIII., in which Bonaparte was appointed First Consul. The
Ligurian Republic was maintained, with the alteration that its Doge
was nominated by France instead of being elected. The result of the
new arrangements in Northern Italy was that both France and
Austria had a foothold by their occupation of Piedmont and Venice,
with the Cisalpine Republic as a buffer between them. The principle
of secularising the German bishoprics was also again recognised in
the Treaty of Lunéville, and the actual manner in which it should be
carried out was referred to a special commission, whose conclusions
were not adopted till 1803. The principal result of the treaty in
Austria was the retirement of the minister Thugut, who was
succeeded as State Chancellor by Count Louis Cobenzl, the
diplomatist, who had negotiated the treaties both of Campo-Formio
and of Lunéville.
The admiration of the Emperor Paul for Murder of the
Bonaparte increased daily, and it was the Russian Emperor Paul.
Czar, not the French First Consul, who proposed an 23d March 1801.
invasion of India across Asia, in order to strike a
blow at the English power in the East. Indeed, the English had taken
the place of the French in the mind of Paul, who, not satisfied with
forming once again the Neutral League of the North, determined to
send his best troops against them. The Emperor’s proposition was
that one expedition should consist of 35,000 Frenchmen and 35,000
Russians, under the command of Masséna. This column was to go
down the Danube, and then up the Don to a point whence it would
be but a short march to the Volga. It was then to proceed down the
Volga to Astrakhan, thence across the Caspian Sea to Astrabad, and
then to march by Herat and Kandahar to the Punjab. Another
column was to move by Khiva and Bokhara, and to invade India by
the north of Afghanistan. These grandiose plans were not entirely
accepted by Bonaparte, and the death of the Emperor prevented an
attempt being made to see if they were practicable. The madness of
Paul had steadily increased during his short reign. His nobility
disapproved heartily of his war policy, both against France and later
against England; his adoption of the Neutral League and its policy
had done much to ruin the wealthy nobles of Northern Russia by
forbidding the exportation of Russian commodities on English ships.
To the discontent of the nobility, of the politicians, and of the
capitalists must be added the fears of the courtiers. Even the heir to
the throne, his eldest son Alexander, perceived that the rule of the
maniac could not be borne much longer. It is hardly necessary to
particularise all the causes of his unpopularity; it is enough to say
that his behaviour was that of a madman. Certain courtiers, of
whom the leaders were Count Pahlen, a Livonian nobleman;
Benningsen, a Hanoverian general; Plato Zubov, the last favourite of
the Empress Catherine, and his brother Nicholas, and the Prince
Jachvill, determined to put an end to the tyranny of the Czar. In the
night of the 23d of March 1801 he was attacked by these
conspirators and ordered to sign an act of abdication; he refused;
the lamp went out, and the Emperor was struck down and strangled
by an unknown hand among his assailants.
When Bonaparte first entered office he The Neutral
recognised that England was a more formidable, League of the
because a less approachable, enemy than Austria. North. 1800–1.
Knowing that the French navy was unable to meet
the English, he hoped to counterbalance the maritime
preponderance of England by a league against her commerce.
Owing to the long period of war, nothing was to be gained by
solemn decrees forbidding the importation of goods into France, it
was necessary to strike through the neutral nations. The three great
commercial seats of English trade were the Levant, the Baltic, and
Portugal. The failure of the expedition to Egypt proved that it was
impossible to destroy the English trade in the Levant, and Bonaparte
therefore resolved to strike in the other two directions. Acting mainly
through the Emperor Paul, the Armed Neutrality of the North, or the
Neutral League of 1780, was re-established between the Baltic
powers of Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark. The real intention
of Paul and of Bonaparte was to exclude English commerce entirely
from the Baltic; but for the second time the Baltic powers nominally
made themselves the guarantors of the rights of neutrals. They
protested against the right assumed by England to search neutral
ships, and to confiscate as contraband of war all the goods of
belligerent powers found in them, and also against the prohibition
against neutral ships trading between different enemies’ ports. The
Emperor Paul, like the Empress Catherine twenty years before, made
himself the patron of the Neutral League.
The English government naturally refused to Battle of
accede to the demands of the Neutral League, and Copenhagen. 2d
when the Baltic was closed to them an English fleet April 1801.
was ordered to force the blockade. This fleet was
placed under the command of Sir Hyde Parker, with Nelson as
second in command. On the 30th of March 1801 the fleet sailed
down the Sound, in spite of the Danish batteries at Elsinore, and on
the 2d of April Copenhagen was bombarded and a large part of the
Danish fleet destroyed. This victory, and still more the death of the
Emperor Paul, caused the dissolution of the Neutral League of the
North, and Bonaparte had to adjourn for some years his schemes for
the annihilation of English commerce.
In the Iberian peninsula the designs of Bonaparte Spain and
against English trade were more successful. Spain Portugal. 1800–1.
still remained the ally of France in spite of the
sufferings that alliance had brought upon her, but Treaty of Badajoz.
Portugal had hitherto continued the faithful friend of England.
Through Portugal English goods entered Spain and the south of
France, and Bonaparte resolved to put an end to the neutrality of
Portugal. For this purpose, in the year 1800, he despatched his
ablest brother, Lucien Bonaparte, as ambassador to Madrid, with
orders to negotiate with the Prince Regent of Portugal. The terms
offered were that the Portuguese ports were to be closed to English
trade, that special commercial advantages were to be given to
French merchants, that French Guiana was to be extended to the
river Amazon, and that a portion of Portuguese territory was to be
ceded to Spain until Trinidad and Minorca were recovered by the
latter power. The Prince Regent of Portugal rejected these hard
terms; Spain declared war in the beginning of 1801, and 22,000
veteran French soldiers, under the command of General Leclerc,
Bonaparte’s brother-in-law, were sent to the assistance of Spain. The
campaign was a very short one. The French troops never came into
action; but the Portuguese were twice defeated in pitched battles,
and lost some of their fortresses. The Prince Regent sued for peace,
and a treaty was signed between Spain and Portugal at Badajoz on
the 6th of June 1801. By this treaty the city and district of Olivenza
were ceded to Spain, and, by a subsequent arrangement, the limits
of French Guiana were extended to the river Amazon. Bonaparte
was much disgusted with these treaties, and especially with the
continued refusal of Portugal to close her ports to English commerce,
and it was many months before he consented to ratify them.
England refused to recognise Portugal as an enemy; but an English
force occupied the island of Madeira, and the East India Company’s
troops garrisoned Goa.
When Bonaparte left Egypt he was unable, owing Campaign in
to the stringency of the blockade maintained by the Egypt. 1800–1.
English fleet, to take more than a few companions
with him. Kléber, who, as has been said, succeeded him in the
command of the French army, soon found himself confronted by a
powerful Turkish and Mameluke army. This army he defeated at the
battle of Heliopolis on the 20th of March 1800, after which success
Egypt again submitted to French rule. On the 14th of June 1800, the
very day on which his former comrade Desaix met a soldier’s death
at the battle of Marengo, Kléber was assassinated by a
Muhammadan fanatic in Cairo. Menou, the new French general in
Egypt, was in every way Kléber’s inferior, and concentrated the
French troops in the two cities of Cairo and Alexandria. Isolated
entirely from the mother country, and unable to receive
reinforcements or ammunition, the English government regarded the
French in Egypt as an easy prey. On the 19th of March 1801 a
powerful English army disembarked at Aboukir, under the command
of Sir Ralph Abercromby, and defeated the French before Alexandria
two days later in a pitched battle, in which Abercromby was killed.
Siege was then laid to Alexandria and Cairo, and both cities
surrendered to the English general, Lord Hutchinson, before the
arrival of a division from India, which, under the command of Sir
David Baird, had sailed up the Red Sea, marched across the Soudan
desert, and descended the Nile to Cairo in boats. As a result of these
operations, a convention was signed between the French and English
generals in Egypt on the 2d of September 1801, by which the French
garrisons evacuated all remaining posts, and were conveyed to
France in English ships.
Though neither Bonaparte nor the leaders of The Peace of
English political opinion believed it possible for a Amiens. 25th
permanent peace to be agreed to in the interests of March 1802.
their respective countries, the outcry of both the
English and the French people against the prolonged war made it
necessary for their rulers to conclude some kind of a truce. Pitt had
in 1801 gone out of office, and his successor Addington, afterwards
Lord Sidmouth, declared in favour of a peace policy. The treaty,
which is known as the Peace of Amiens, was really nothing more
than a truce. Only a very general agreement was come to, and many
essential points were left undecided. Both nations needed a rest,
and neither government looked upon the Peace of Amiens as
affording a permanent solution of their differences. Many loopholes
were left, which were certain to afford pretexts for renewing the war
to both contracting powers, and of these the most notable was the
question of the possession of Malta.
Far more important than the temporary Peace of The
Amiens was the reconstitution of Germany, which Reconstitution of
was finally accepted by the Diet at Ratisbon on the Germany.
25th of February 1803. The Holy Roman Empire
which had lasted so many centuries ceased to exist. The ancient
division of the Empire into circles was abolished, and the three
colleges which formed the Diet were profoundly affected. Instead of
the eight electors, three ecclesiastical and five lay, that formerly
existed, ten electors, one ecclesiastical and nine lay, were created.
The Archbishops of Cologne and Trèves, whose states being on the
left bank of the Rhine were absorbed into France, lost their electoral
dignity. The Archbishop-Elector of Mayence was retained as Arch-
Chancellor of the Empire, and he received as his dominions the
Bishopric of Ratisbon, the Principality of Aschaffenburg, and the
County of Wetzlar. The nine lay electors were the five princes who
had formerly enjoyed the dignity, namely, the Electors of Bohemia,
Brandenburg, Saxony, Bavaria, and Hanover, and four new Electors,
the Margrave of Baden, the Duke of Würtemburg, the Landgrave of
Hesse-Cassel, and the Grand Duke Ferdinand, brother of the
Emperor, and former Grand Duke of Tuscany, who was appointed
Elector of Salzburg. By this new arrangement, and by the abolition of
two-thirds of the ecclesiastical electorate, the majority in the College
of Electors passed from the Catholics to the Protestants. In the
College of Princes there was the same result, for by the
secularisation of the Catholic bishoprics the majority passed to the
Protestant rulers. More sweeping still was the alteration in the third
College—that of the Free Cities. Instead of fifty-two constituent
members of this College only six were retained, and their
maintenance was due to the intervention of France. These six cities
were Augsburg, Bremen, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Hamburg, Lübeck,
and Nuremberg. By these changes the constitution of the Empire
was entirely altered; but still more notable was the change in the
position of the various princes in Germany, for the tendency of the
secularisation of the ecclesiastical states was to diminish the number
of ruling princes and to increase the extent of their dominions.
The great war with France had shown the The
weakness of the Empire as an organisation, and Secularisations in
had also proved the advantages to the inhabitants Germany.
of the existence of large and powerful states. It
was, therefore, the already existing kingdoms which received the
greatest addition of territory under the new arrangements.
Nominally, the secularised bishoprics were intended to compensate
those German princes whose territories on the left bank of the Rhine
had been ceded to France; practically, the powerful states only were
increased. Austria, whose new possession of Venice in place of the
Milanese had been reaffirmed by the Treaty of Lunéville, only
acquired in Germany the Bishoprics of Brixen and Trent, but two
Austrian princes received independent states, namely, the Grand
Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand, who, as has been said, was given the
Archbishopric of Salzburg, with the title of Elector, and the Duke of
Modena, who received the Breisgau. Nevertheless, the power of
Austria was greatly weakened, for under the old arrangement the
ecclesiastical electors and the Catholic bishops had always been
partisans of Austria. Prussia was the country which profited the
most, though she had suffered the least in the war against France.
In exchange for part of the Duchy of Cleves, the Duchy of Guelders,
and the County of Moers, Prussia received the large and wealthy
Bishoprics of Hildesheim, Paderborn, Erfurt, and part of Münster,
together with a number of abbeys, of which the largest were
Herford, Quedlinburg, Elten, Essen, and Werden, and several free
cities. Hanover received the Bishopric of Osnabrück, to which the
King of England, as Elector of Hanover, had previously possessed the
alternate nomination. Bavaria was made into a powerful and
concentrated state. In exchange for the Palatinate, the Duchy of
Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), the Principalities of Juliers, Simmern and
Lautern, she received the Bishoprics of Würtzburg, Bamberg,
Augsburg, Freisingen, and part of Passau, together with a large
number of abbeys and free cities. Baden received the portion of the
Bishoprics of Spires, Strasbourg, and Basle, situated on the right
bank of the Rhine, the Bishopric of Constance, the cities of
Heidelberg and Mannheim, and many abbeys and free cities. Finally,
the Duchy of Würtemburg, in exchange for the Principality of
Montbéliard, received abbeys and free towns, which increased its
population by a hundred thousand inhabitants. It is not necessary to
describe the various accessions granted to the Princes of Hesse-
Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, and the rest; but, it may be noted
that the Prince of Orange, the former Stadtholder of Holland,
received the Bishopric of Fulda. These changes remodelled Germany,
and in the result were most prejudicial to France; for instead of
there existing a series of buffers in the shape of small and weak
states, France was brought almost directly into contact with Prussia
and Austria.
 At the same time that the ancient federal Holy The
Roman Empire was reconstituted, the ancient Reconstitution of
federal Republic of Switzerland was likewise Switzerland.
reorganised. The reasons which had induced the
Directory to intervene in Swiss affairs still existed; the revolutionary
party which opposed the federal idea, and desired to form a united
Switzerland, remained in direct opposition to the supporters of the
former government of the cantons. It was essentially the question of
government which divided the two parties, and there was no
suggestion of restoring the feudal system, or the privileges of certain
towns and certain cantons over others. The breath of the French
Revolution had swept away political inequalities as completely in
Switzerland as in France. Soon after the Treaty of Amiens, Bonaparte
withdrew the French troops from the new Helvetic Republic. Civil
war, as he expected, recommenced, and the Helvetic Government
was driven from Berne by the federalists. Bonaparte therefore
despatched an army to restore order, and summoned the leading
Swiss statesmen to Paris. To them he propounded a new scheme of
federal government, which was accepted, and the Act of Mediation,
which was promulgated on the 19th of February 1803, established
the new Constitution, and recognised the First Consul as Mediator.
By the Act of Mediation Switzerland was divided into nineteen
cantons, each of which had its own local government and special
laws and taxes. The thirteen old cantons were maintained; six of
them were democratic—Appenzell, Glarus, Schwyz, Unterwalden,
Uri, and Zug; seven were oligarchical—Basle, Berne, Friburg,
Lucerne, Schaffhausen, Soleure, and Zürich. The six new cantons
added by Bonaparte comprised five territories which had formerly
been subject; the Pays de Vaud and Aargau were made independent
of Berne; Thurgau was separated from Schaffhausen, and Ticino
from Uri and Unterwalden, and the canton of Saint-Gall was formed
out of certain districts formerly belonging to Appenzell, Glarus, and
Schwyz; finally, the Grisons, which had hitherto been an
independent mountain republic, was declared a canton of
Switzerland. Geneva had some years before been added to France
as the Department of the Leman, and the Valais was now declared
independent—a preliminary step to its ultimate annexation by
France. The Federal Diet was to consist of twenty-five deputies, two
from the six largest cantons, Aargau, Berne, the Grisons, Saint-Gall,
the Pays de Vaud, and Zurich, and one from each of the others. The
Diet was to meet every year in the capital of a different canton, and
the Landamman of that canton was for that year the President of the
Confederation. The Federal Act once more declared the entire
abolition of feudalism, and of all privileges of birth, etc., and forbade
for the future all internal customs duties. Bonaparte proclaimed that
he would not allow the interference of any other power in
Switzerland, and took the title of Mediator of the Confederation of
Switzerland.
It has already been stated that Bonaparte desired The Concordat.
to stand well with the Catholic Church, and had 1801–2.
recognised the advantages of a state religion. One
of his most important measures during the Consulate was to put an
end to the schism which had lasted since the promulgation of the
Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790, with the assistance of the
Pope, Pius VII. All the bishops elected under the Civil Constitution of
the Clergy, and most of those who had emigrated, sooner than take
the oath of allegiance to it, resigned, and the leaders of both
sections were nominated and instituted to different dioceses. A new
circumscription of sees was agreed to, and France was divided into
fifty bishoprics and ten archbishoprics. It was agreed by the
Concordat, which was signed between the Pope and the First Consul
on the 15th of July 1801, and solemnly proclaimed on the 18th of
April 1802, after being sanctioned by the Legislative Body, that the
First Consul should nominate all bishops, and the Pope should
institute. The government of the Consulate recognised the Catholic,
Apostolic and Roman religion as that of the majority of the French
people, and ordained that its public worship should be carried on
freely so long as the police regulations were observed. All
ecclesiastics were to swear fidelity to the government, which
promised to pay a suitable salary to all bishops and curés. In return,
the Pope promised that neither he nor his successors would lay any
claim to the ecclesiastical estates which had been alienated, and that
all such property should be held the indisputable possession of its
purchaser.
The recognition of the frontier of the Rhine by Internal
the Treaty of Lunéville and the Diet of Ratisbon Organisation.
largely increased the territory of France. The First
Consul proceeded to organise the additions on the The Prefectures.
bases laid down by the Constituent Assembly, Convention, and
Directory. Belgium was divided into nine departments. The Rhenish
territories, including the Palatinate, the Diocese of Trèves, etc., were
divided into four departments, of which the headquarters were Aix-
la-Chapelle, Coblentz, Mayence, and Trèves. Further south, the
Department of the Mont-Terrible, which had been formed by the
Convention out of the Republic of Mulhouse and the District of
Porentruy, was merged into the Department of the Haut-Rhin, and
the Principality of Montbéliard was united to the Department of the
Doubs. The Republic of Geneva, as has been said, formed the
Department of the Leman. Savoy was constituted as the Department
of Mont-Blanc, and the County of Nice that of the Alpes-Maritimes.
These were the recognised limits of France in 1801, and were
defensible on geographical grounds; but, on the 11th of September
1802, Bonaparte went further, and declared the union of Piedmont
with France. Instead of being amalgamated with the Cisalpine
Republic, Piedmont was divided into six departments, and the island
of Elba was detached from Tuscany and declared, like Corsica, to be
a French island. At the head of each department a Préfet was
appointed, to take the place of the national agents maintained by
the Directory. At the head of each subdivision, now called an
arrondissement instead of a district, was placed a Sous-Préfet, also
nominated by the supreme executive, and at the head of each
commune was the Maire, who was also nominated and not elected.
Préfets, Sous-Préfets, and Maires were assisted by nominated
councils in administrative matters, and appeals from their decisions
lay to the Council of State.
 Just as Bonaparte had built up the new Code of Education.
Law on the bases laid by the Legislative Committee
of the Convention, so, too, he made use of the labours of its
Committee of Public Instruction to establish a scheme of national
education. In every commune which could afford the expense, he
maintained the primary school established by the Convention; but he
feared to burden the National Treasury with the expense of schools
in the poorer communes, and preferred to leave their establishment
to local endeavour. In secondary education, he suppressed the
central schools of the Convention, and replaced them by twenty-nine
lycées, specially intended for the education of the middle classes.
For higher education, he founded ten schools of law and six of
medicine; he improved the Polytechnic School, and started a school
of mechanics, which became later the famous École des Arts et
Métiers. The key-stone of the whole educational system, the
foundation of the University, was, however, not laid till some years
later.
The great administrative reforms of Bonaparte Constitutional
made him as popular among all classes of the Changes.
population as his victories had made him in the
army. Not only in France, but throughout Europe, he was looked
upon as the restorer of order and good government. This sentiment
appeared most vividly at the time when a plot against his life was
discovered on the 24th of September 1800. This plot, which is
known as the Conspiracy of the Infernal Machine, is said to have
been the work of the Jacobin party; the explosion took place in the
Rue Sainte-Nicaise, too late to do him any harm, but it was used as
a pretext to exile the most vigorous republicans. So great was his
popularity, that rumours were already heard of making him monarch.
The first step in this direction was taken in 1802, when the Council
of State proposed that the primary assemblies should be summoned
to decide whether Bonaparte should not be made First Consul for
life. In May 1802 this proposal was laid before the people, and was
carried by more than 3,500,000 votes to 8000. Some slight changes
were made at the same time, of which the most important were that
the First Consul was enabled to nominate his successor, that the lists
of candidates for public functions were replaced by electoral colleges
appointed for life, and that the Senate was given the right to
dissolve the Tribunate and the Legislative Body.
The First Consul clearly understood that the Bonaparte’s
Peace of Amiens was not likely to last, and that war Colonial Policy.
would soon break out again with England. He knew
that England derived much of her influence from her navy and her
colonies; he therefore spared no efforts to restore the French navy,
and to make France once more a colonial power. His first essays in
this direction were to obtain Louisiana from Spain in exchange for
the kingdom of Etruria, formed in Italy for Prince Louis of Parma,
and the extension of the limits of French Guiana to the Amazon
extorted from Portugal. But his main project was to restore the
French power in the West Indies. Guadeloupe and Martinique and
the French Antilles had been restored to France by the Treaty of
Amiens, and the First Consul resolved to make them the starting-
point for the reconquest of San Domingo. This island had, as a result
of the policy of Sonthonax and Polverel, the proconsuls of the
Convention, been entirely lost to France; the planters and other
whites had fled; and the revolted slaves and mulattoes were masters
of the island. Toussaint Louverture, the leader of the negroes,
refused to hold any communications with Bonaparte, and the First
Consul therefore, as soon as the Peace of Amiens had opened the
sea, sent an expedition of 20,000 men against him, commanded by
his brother-in-law, General Leclerc. The island was reconquered by
May 1802; but the victorious army was practically destroyed by
yellow fever. Toussaint Louverture was taken prisoner and sent to
France: but nevertheless, as soon as war with England again broke
out, and the arrival of reinforcements was prevented by English
cruisers, the negroes rose afresh under new leaders and destroyed
the remnant of the garrison. It may be added that the French
Antilles were recaptured by the English in 1809 and 1810.
It has been said that the Treaty of Amiens was Recommencemen
practically only a truce, and that many points of t of the War
interest to the two nations were left undecided. Of between England
and France. 18th
these the most important regarded Malta. The May 1803.
English ministry positively refused to surrender this
island to the Knights of Saint John, under the protectorate of the
Emperor Alexander, which would leave it at the mercy of France.
Bonaparte demanded the evacuation of Malta with much insistance
as one of the conditions of the Treaty of Amiens; but the English
government in reply pointed to the annexation of Elba, Parma and
Piacenza, and Piedmont, and the interference in Switzerland, as also
being breaches of the treaty. The First Consul was also very
exasperated at the personal attacks made on him in the
irresponsible English press. He failed to understand that by the
English law the government could not prevent the publication of
libels against him, and regarded their refusal to punish the libellers
as personal insults to himself. The French ambassador in London
prosecuted Peltier, the chief libeller, before the Court of King’s Bench.
He was brilliantly defended by Sir J. Mackintosh, and only ordered to
pay a small fine. A public subscription was raised to pay his fine and
costs, and the First Consul regarded this as adding a further insult to
the injuries he had received. In truth, both governments felt that
war was inevitable, and in May 1803 the rupture was complete. The
English navy began to seize the French trading vessels, and the First
Consul, as a reprisal, arrested all the English travellers he could find
in France, and ordered Mortier to occupy Hanover.
The First Consul entered upon a fresh war with Position of
England with a light heart, for he believed that she Foreign Affairs.
would be unable to obtain any allies. Austria was
exhausted by the terrible wars she had undergone, and the State
Chancellor, Cobenzl, held that she needed time to recuperate.
Prussia persisted in her attitude of strict neutrality; Haugwitz was
dismissed from the Secretaryship of State for Foreign Affairs as
being too French in his sympathies, after the occupation of Hanover,
and was succeeded by Hardenberg, the maker of the Treaty of
Basle. Spain was Bonaparte’s faithful and hopeful ally; and Russia,
the most formidable of the continental powers, inclined to his side.
The attitude of the Emperor Alexander at this period was of the
greatest importance. Educated by a Swiss publicist who sincerely
loved France, La Harpe, the Emperor of Russia was inclined to
admire the results of the French Revolution and the French people.
His sentiments for the person of Bonaparte were nearly as full of
enthusiastic admiration as those of his father, the Emperor Paul. He
made the French ambassadors at St. Petersburg, Duroc and
Caulaincourt, his personal friends, and wrote letters to Bonaparte
expressing his feelings. But the Emperor’s relatives, especially his
mother, with his ministers and his courtiers, were opposed to France
and in favour of a close alliance with England, or at the very least of
the maintenance of strict neutrality. England practically commanded
the Russian trade, and war with England meant the loss of the only
market for Russian raw material, the consequent impoverishment of
the Russian people, and the ruin of the Russian capitalists.
Nevertheless the Emperor Alexander was an autocrat, and Bonaparte
counted upon his friendship even though he could not secure his
alliance.
On the outbreak of war the numerous French The Plot of
exiles in England offered their services to the Pichegru and
English Government. It is significant of the change Cadoudal.
which had come over the state of affairs that,
instead of endeavouring to raise a counter-revolution, they proposed
to attack the person of the First Consul. The leaders of the new plot
were Pichegru, now a declared royalist and partisan of the Bourbons,
and Georges Cadoudal, the celebrated Chouan leader. Both had the
audacity to go to Paris and to enter into relations with General
Moreau. Moreau, though he resented the lofty position of Bonaparte
and refused to serve him, would be no party to an assassination,
more especially an assassination which would restore the Bourbons,
and Cadoudal and Pichegru had to act with the assistance of certain
French noblemen and some former Chouans. A plot was formed to
murder the First Consul on the road from Malmaison to Paris, but it
was discovered by the French police, and Bonaparte in terror
ordered the gates of Paris to be closed as in the most terrible days
of the Revolution, and proclaimed the pain of death against all who
sheltered the conspirators. After some daring adventures the leaders
were seized; Georges Cadoudal was executed; Pichegru was
strangled in prison; and Moreau, who was condemned to two years’
imprisonment, was allowed to go into exile in the United States. The
French noblemen implicated were treated with more leniency, and
the lives of their two chiefs, Armand de Polignac and Charles de
Rivière, were spared.
The discovery of this plot against his life, which Execution of the
was undoubtedly fostered by the Bourbon princes, Duc d’Enghien.
made the First Consul determined to wreak his 21st March 1804.
vengeance against that unfortunate family. Being
unable to seize the persons of the pretender, Louis XVIII., and his
brother, the Comte d’Artois, who resided in England, he carried off a
young Bourbon prince, the eldest son of the Prince de Condé, who
was quite innocent of the conspiracy of Pichegru. The Duc d’Enghien
was at this time living at Ettenheim in the Grand Duchy of Baden. He
was arrested there by French soldiers, contrary to all international
law, and taken to Vincennes. He was at once tried by a military
commission as an émigré who had borne arms against France, and
was condemned to death. The sentence was immediately carried out
in spite of the demands of the young prince for an interview with the
First Consul. This execution was a great political mistake. Bonaparte
expected that it would terrify the Bourbon princes, but it reacted to
his own prejudice. The Court of Saint Petersburg went into
mourning; the King of Prussia, who had at last almost resolved to
make an alliance with France, began to negotiate with Russia; the
royal family of Austria looked upon the execution as a pendant to
that of Marie Antoinette; and the English Government made use of
the horror caused by it to endeavour to form a fresh coalition
against France.
Directly after this tragedy, which proved that Bonaparte
Bonaparte was practically an absolute monarch, he becomes Emperor
decided to take upon himself the rank of Emperor of the French.
18th May 1804.
of the French. The Senate offered this title to the
First Consul at Saint-Cloud on the 18th of May Francis II.
1804, and the people ratified it by a majority of becomes Emperor
more than 3,500,000 votes. By the senatus of Austria.
consultum which made him Emperor the office was
made hereditary to his direct descendants. As he had no children he
was given the power to adopt, a power which it was undoubtedly
expected would be used in favour of his step-son, Eugène de
Beauharnais. A few months after the Corsican soldier of fortune was
declared Emperor of the French, the last Holy Roman Emperor,
Francis II., resolved to rid himself of what was now but an empty
title. The new Constitution of the Holy Roman Empire had destroyed
the imperial authority by depriving it of the votes of the ecclesiastical
members in the Diet, and increasing or consolidating the dominions
of the principal German states. Francis II. acknowledged the new
order of things. On the 11th of August 1804, he erected the Austrian
dominions into an hereditary empire, and on the 7th of December
following, five days after the coronation of Bonaparte as the
Emperor Napoleon by the Pope at Paris, the last Holy Roman
Emperor proclaimed himself Emperor of Austria under the title of
Francis I. This then was the result of fifteen years of revolution, the
disappearance of the ancient figure-head of Europe, and the creation
of a new Empire founded on the power of the sword.