REDUCTION

Words that bear information (notional parts of speech) are usually stressed in
sentences and sense groups. Form words help to link notional words in an utterance
and are usually unstressed. In unstressed positions their weak, or reduced, forms are
used.

Reduction is a phonetic process of weakening, shortening or disappearance of

sounds in unstressed positions.
Reduction affects form words (articles, particles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary
and modal verbs, personal, possessive, reflexive, relative pronouns and the word
‘some’ meaning ‘indefinite quantity’. These words have two forms: strong and weak.

There are three degrees of reduction:

- Quantitative reduction (shortening of a long vowel)

e.g. he [hi: - hi – hə]

- Qualitative reduction (changing of the quality of a vowel)

e.g. can [ kæn – kən]

- Zero reduction (omission of a vowel)

e.g. I’m [aim]

The following cases should be remembered as the traditional use of strong forms:

a. Prepositions have their strong forms in the sentence final position or when
followed by an unstressed personal pronoun.

e.g. What are you looking at? [ æt ]

I’m listening to you. [tu:]

b. Auxiliary and modal verbs are in their strong forms at the end of a sentence or
sense-group and in contracted negative forms. In both cases the verbs are stressed.

e.g. Are you free? – I am. [ æm]

I can’t come. [k α: nt]

c. The verb ‘to have’ in the meaning of ‘to possess’ is used in its full form whether
stressed or unstressed. The verb ‘to do’ is not reduced when used for emphasis.

e.g. I have a brother. [h æ v]

Do tell me a bout it. [ du: ]
d. The demonstrative pronoun ‘that’ is never reduced while the conjunction ‘that’ is
always weak.

e.g. I know that. [ ðæt]

I know that you are ill. [ ðət ]

Exercise 23

In the conversation that follows, the words ‘a’ and ‘the’ are not there. Put in the
missing articles. Comment on all the weak and strong form words. Practise reading
the conversation.

‘a’ and ‘the’ are nearly always weak!

: Do you have children, Shirley?

: Yes, son and daughter.
: Oh that’s nice, what do they do?
: My daughter jenny’s music teacher, and Michael, my son, is at college – he wants to
be a pilot!
: Oh, lovely!
: Yes…
: Do they live at home?
: Michael lives with me, but Jenny lives in London – she’s married with two children.
: Oh! So you’re grandmother!
: Yes, she has girl and boy too – Rebecca and Thomas.
: Oh, lovely – how old are they?
: Girl’s seven and boy’s two – do you want to see photo?
: Oh yes… Ah… aren’t they beautiful!

Exercise 24

Match the parts in A and B to make full sentences. Comment on weak form words.

a. I’m going out 1. to see the manager.

b. They’re waiting 2. to buy a newspaper.
c. My daughter’s studying 3. to go out with her boyfriend.
d. My brother’s going 4. to meet some friends.
abroad
e. We’re going to the 5. to work.
airport
f. She’s getting ready 6. to become a doctor.

Exercise 25
Listen to the dialogue, write it down and practise reading it, paying attention to the
weak forms.

Exercise 28

Listen to the speaker and complete the sentences below. Transcribe them and be
prepared to comment on the weak form words.

a. ________ bank opens _________.

b. He goes _________ seven ________.
c. This office ________ half past two.
d. we get up _________ o’clock.
e. Her plane ______ two fifteen.
f. The programme _________ about _________ thirty.
g. The film _________ at half _________.
h. My train _______ about ________.

Exercise 29

Listen to the conversation. Fill in the missing prepositions and practise reading the
conversation with a partner.

Boss: Hello. Can I speak ___ Miss Moneypenny?

Secretary: Speaking.
Boss: Hello, M here. I’m phoning ___ the Ritz. I’m looking ___ James Bond.
We had a lunch appointment ___ twelve. Is here there?
Secretary: I’m sorry, sir, but he’s gone ___ Budapest.
Boss: I was afraid ___ that. Where exactly?
Secretary: He’s staying ___ the Hotel Royal.
Boss: Why didn’t he listen ___ me? He’s just asking ___ trouble.
Secretary: He’s only staying there ___ a couple ___ days.
Boss: All right. Contact him and tell him ___ me he’s a damn fool. Oh, and you
can tell him I’m waiting ___ his call.
Secretary: Yes, sir.

Exercise 30

Fill in the missing words. Are they weak or strong? Practise the dialogues.

1. How long are you here ___?

Only ___ another couple ___ days.
 2. My brother’s working ___ Macdonald’s this summer.
Oh, what’s he working ___?
___ a cook!

3. Where’s the other half ___ that bottle ___ whiskey?

You left it ___ the bottom ___ the stairs.

4. Would you like ___ come back ___ my flat ___ a drink?
I’d love ___!

Exercise 32

Rewrite the following sentences using contractions where possible. Listen and check
your answers. Repeat the sentences with the speaker.

We use contractions in conversations and informal writing. Here are some rules for
contractions:
1/ There are no contractions in affirmative answers: Is he French? - Yes, he is.
2/ The only contraction with nouns and names is “’s” (from ‘is’ or ‘has’): Mary’s
arrived. ( not: The children’ve arrived.)
3/ The only contraction with non-personal pronouns ( e.g. what, who, here, that, etc.)
is “‘s”: Where’s the ball? ( not: Where’ve you been?)
4/ There are no “’s” contractions with wh-questions ending I the word ‘it’: What is
it?
5/ The contracted form of ‘am I not’ is ‘Aren’t I’: Aren’t I going with you?

1 You should not eat fatty foods.

2 She cannot speak Italian very well.
3 A You have not read it, have you?
B Yes, I have.
4 There is a bus stop opposite the library.
5 Sean would like to be an astronaut.
6 I am right, am I not?
7 It will be the biggest city on earth.
8 What are your names?
9 Who is it?
10 I did not use to watch much TV as a child.
Exercise 33

Listen to the dialogue and fill in the correct verb forms (affirmative or negative): can,
could, was, were.

: My mother’s parents, Thomas and Frida, _____ a strange couple. There ___
married nearly twenty years. They _____ very rich, but they _____ very happy.
: Why?
: Frida _____ English… she _____ speak English very well.
: Where _____ she from?
: Berlin… Germany.
: _____ Thomas speak German?
: Well, he _____ speak many languages, but he _____ speak German.
: That’s strange! And what about your mother? _____ she speak German?
: Well, she _____ understand it very well, but she _____ really speak it.

Practise saying the dialogue line by line paying attention to the pronunciation of these
verbs.

Exercise 34
If the stress and sound s are said incorrectly, it is often difficult to hear the difference
between can and can’t in connected speech.

Exercise 35

Do you [ʤu] or [ʤə] Were [wə]

They’re [ðeə] Weren’t [w ε :nt]
We’re [wiə] or [wə] I’m [aim] or [ æm]
You’re [juə] or [jə] I’ll [ail] or [ æl]
be [bi] We’ll [wil]
Being [biiŋ] Have [həv] or [əv]
been [bin] Haven’t [hævnt]
Was [wəz] They’ve [ðeiv] or [ðev]
wasn’t [ w znt] We’ve [wiv]
Study the table below. Learn the weak forms of auxiliary verbs and their contractions,
then practise saying them in the sentences that follow.

a. Do you really like Beethoven?

b. You weren’t I when I called.
c. They’re leaving this Wednesday.
d. She’s just being difficult.
e. I was worried about you.
f. I’ve been waiting for you to phone.
g. We’re dealing with the problem.
h. I haven’t said a word to anyone.
i. I’m afraid we were too late.
j. I’ll have finished typing it by lunchtime.
k. They’ve never been happy together.
LINKING

In connected speech words are not separated from each other. To achieve this, the
following rules should be observed:

1. A word ending in a consonant blends with the initial vowel of the next word, no
glottal stop should be heard.

e.g. as a rule

2. The letter ‘r’ is sounded at the end of a word if the next word begins with a vowel
sound. But there is no linking [r] between two words separated by a pause.

e.g. nearer and nearer

He paused there, and then spoke again.

3. Between the word final [i] and the initial vowel of the next word an extra [j] sound
can be heard to link them.

e.g. the apple [ ðijæpl]

4. Between the final [u] and the initial vowel of the next word an extra [w] sound can
be heard to link them.

e.g. go and do that [gəuwəndu:ðæt]

Mark the links in the following phrases and sentences:

a. free entrance
b. blue eyes
c. no understanding
d. The awful aunty is here in a new outfit.
e. The doctor advised me to eat only apples.
f. The author is an ugly individual who earns a lot.
g. A new Austin is too expensive for us to afford.
h. He and Hugh Appleby are thirty-eight years old.
Exercise 36

Exercise 37

Look at this famous book, play and film names and mark the links. Repeat the names
with the speaker.

Practice the linking in the following names.

War and Peace

Out of Africa
Death on the Nile
Alice in Wonderland
The Wizard of Oz
Close Encounters of the Third Kind
A Clockwork Orange
Laurence of Arabia
Cat on a Hot Tin Roof
Kiss of the Spiderwoman
 Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom
Venus and Adonis
First among Equals
Death of a Salesman.

Exercise 38

Listen to the sentences and complete them, transcribe them and mark all the links.
Practise reading them.

a. What a ______________!
b. It was an ____________.
c. The weather was ____________!
d. He got into their ____________.
e. She speaks ____________ and __________.
f. It was an ______________!
g. She lives in a __________.
h. I’ll phone for an _________!

Exercise 39

Practise saying the names quickly in pairs.

Names ending in the sound [ə] are linked with an extra [r] sound. With names which
already contain [r] the final [ə] is elided and the [r] and the linking [r] merge when
speaking at speed.
e.g. Sarah and Sheila [ sεərənd ∫i:lə]

A. B.
Maggie – Susie Kennedy - Cleopatra
Cathy - Charlie Plato - John Lennon
Bobby - Billy Diana - Albert
Tommy - Lizzie Mary - Minnie (Mouse)
Johnnie – Andy Yoko Ono - Aristotle
Linda – Hannah Antony - Ferdinand
Laura – Sarah Mickey - Joseph
Romeo – Juliet

Exercise 40
Put down the sentences you hear on the tape; practise reading them, inserting the
extra [j] and [w] sounds to link the words, where possible.

Exercise 41

Listen to the dialogue. Mark the linking r sound. Practice the dialogue.

Exercise 42
ASSIMILATION

Assimilation is a phonetic process as a result of which one of the sounds becomes

fully or partly similar to the neighbouring sound.

Assimilation can affect different characteristics of a sound, and its types are
numerous. Some of the most frequent types are:

1. Alveolar [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z] are replaced by their dental variants when
immediately followed by the interdental [θ] or [ð].

e.g. tenth, on the desk

2. The sonorants [m], [n], [l], [w], [r], [j] are partly devoiced when preceded by the
voiceless consonants.

e.g. rush – crush, got wet

3. Consonants followed by [w] become slightly rounded.

e.g. twin, swift

4. In a cluster of two plosives, when the positions of the organs of speech are the
same for both consonants, the first plosive loses its plosion.

e.g. bookcase, that child

5. When the positions of the organs of speech are different, the first plosive has an
incomplete plosion.

e.g. talked, good book

6. When a plosive is followed by the syllabic [n] or [m] the nasal plosion is produced.

e.g. shipmate, escape noisily

7. When a plosive is immediately followed by the sound [l] the lateral plosion is
produced.

e.g. black, settle, it lasts

8. In rapid speech ‘do you’ often becomes [d u].

e.g. Do you know his name? [ʤu nəu hiz neim]

Exercise 43

Listen to the phrases, put them down, work out their meanings, explain the difference
in the way they sound.

Exercise 44

Listen and cross out the unpronounced plosive sounds in the following sentences,
comment on all the other cases of assimilation there are in them.

Exercise 45

Listen to the dialogues and write in B’s answers. Pay attention to the pronunciation of
the questions ‘Do you …?’
Exercise 46
Revision Exercise

Every other line in this poem is in transcription. Do the same to the first lines in each
verse. Be prepared to comment on all the cases of reduction, linking and assimilation.
Prepare model reading of the poem.

Flatearther

Cried Uncle Sean, ‘The earth is flat!

[ai riəli jæm kwait ʃuər əv ðæt]

And just to prove I tell it true

[ail w ɔːk frəm hiə tə kætmænduː]

Somewhere the earth is bound to stop,

[ðen ɔf ði jeʤ ail ʃuəli drɔp]

He left at five and got as far

[əz dʌblin bei jən mikiz bɑː]

‘Twas five to twelve he staggered out,

[rɔkiŋ ən rɔ:liŋ ɔ:l əbaut]
 At sea-wall’s edge his feet they tripped
[ən daun əpɔn ðə bi:tʃ hi ipt]

He lay there thinking he was dead,

[ðen traijʌmf æʃt intuː hiz hed]

‘I’m right! I’m right!’ yelled Uncle Sean

[rimuːviŋ frəm hiz biəd ə prɔ:n]

Which proves that when one’s had some drinks,

[wʌn kæn bili:v ʤʌst wɔt wʌn θiŋks]

/Jack Randle/
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