322 AIRCRAFT ENGINE COMPONENTS

heat-transfer coefficients can be either increased or decreased by the effects

of rotation.

Film Cooling
Film cooling from rows of holes has continued to receive a significant
research effort. As in the past, the work at the University of Minnesota
represents a logical sequence of research from which one may gain insight
into film cooling. References 58-61 report some of their work on film
cooling. In Ref. 58, film cooling data in an airfoil cascade are reported.
Using the same film cooling geometry reported in Refs. 14-16, film effec-
tiveness on the pressure and suction sides of airfoils was measured. It was
found that at the coolant flow ranges over which gas turbines usually
operate, the suction side has a higher film effectiveness and the pressure side
a lower film effectiveness than a flat plate. The use of a double row of holes,
as opposed to a single row, was investigated in Ref. 59. It was found that,
for a given quantity of coolant flow, the double row is superior. In Refs. 60
and 61, the effects of freestream turbulence on film effectiveness were
investigated. Both the turbulence intensity and scale were found to affect
film effectiveness in a complex manner that depends on the blowing rate. At
this point, it is not clear how this information on turbulence can be utilized
in a cooling design.
Heat fluxes in the presence of film cooling have been measured in the
same facilities used to measure the convective heat-transfer coefficients
reported in Refs. 40 and 41. Typical results are given in Refs. 41 and 62.
The film cooling results are reported in terms of the ratio of the heat flux in
the presence of film cooling to that without film cooling. This ratio of heat
flux values can be related to film effectiveness and overall cooling effective-
ness, but the necessary additional information is generally not precisely
known and must be assumed. Reference 62 discusses the problems involved
in establishing this relationship.
Analytical methods have been applied to the film cooling problem. An
example of this is given in Ref. 63 where the film effectiveness has been
calculated downstream of a row of holes. The results appear promising but,
as the authors point out, the numerical method deteriorates at the mass flux
ratios of practical interest ( > 0.5). With the current strong emphasis on
numerical methods, it is expected that improvements in this direction will be
forthcoming in the not too distant future.
Film cooling experiments on a rotating blade have been reported in Ref.
64. It was found that the suction surface film cooling behaved very much as
in a plane cascade, while the pressure surface was quite different. On the
pressure surface, the film cooling from a row of holes near the leading edge
skewed very strongly outward. Another work 65 by the same investigators
led them to believe that this skewing was caused by an inviscid effect of the
freestream flowfield. These observations indicate that future designs should
include considerations of the three-dimensional nature of the flow in the
airfoil rows.
Multihole film cooling has not proved to be a widely used cooling
method, except at the leading edges of airfoils. The problems of high cost
 TURBINE COOLING 323

and potential hole plugging mentioned in Sec. 5.3 have caused only limited
acceptance of multihole film cooling. At the leading edge, where it is
commonly used, larger holes ( = 0.020 in.) relieve these problems. The use of
larger holes represents a heat-transfer compromise, one accepted because
there are few alternatives at the leading edge.
Even though leading-edge film cooling is an important problem area, only
a limited quantity of data has been published on it. Reference 66 reports
data on a leading-edge type of configuration in terms of the ratio of heat
fluxes with and without a film. Therefore, the data must be treated with the
same caution discussed above. Also, the ratio of hole diameter to cylinder
diameter suggests that the data are most applicable to leading edges with
very small holes.

Aerodynamic Effects of Cooling

There have been several investigations to determine the effects of the
trailing-edge discharge of coolant on the base pressure of turbine airfoils.
Reference 67 is representative of these works. In Ref. 67, it was found that
base pressure first increased, reached a maximum, and then decreased with
coolant flow. In the range of coolant flow tested (and of interest to the
cooling problem), the base pressure was always above that with no coolant
flow. This increase in base pressure tends to improve the aerodynamic
performance of turbine airfoils.

End Wall Cooling

End wall heat transfer has received considerable attention. Reference 68
reports experiments to measure the heat-transfer coefficients to the first
stator-type end wall regions in plane cascades. The effects of Reynolds
number, Mach number, inlet turbulence level, and boundary-layer thickness
were all measured. A large quantity of data was generated and placed into a
computerized data base. Reference 69 reports flow visualization studies of
the same geometry tested in Ref. 68. Reference 70 reports data of a similar
nature in a rotor blade configuration with incompressible conditions and a
fixed Reynolds number and turbulence intensity. Only the inlet
boundary-layer thickness was varied. These investigations identified the
effects of an inlet horseshoe vortex, which were to create a local region of
high heat-transfer coefficients near the leading edge. The effect of the
horseshoe vortex as it passed downstream was not very strong in the rest of
the passage, however. Another feature was a region of high heat-transfer
coefficients just downstream of the trailing edge. It was also found in Ref.
70 that the heat transfer to the suction side of the airfoils near the end walls
was strongly affected by the end wall secondary flows. Perhaps of equal
importance, it was also observed that the pressure surface behaved very
much like a two-dimensional flow all the way to the end wall.
The data of Refs. 68-70 were gathered for the purposes of gaining greater
insight into the heat-transfer phenomena and for providing data to check
calculation procedures. Some understanding has been gained, but numerical
procedures to compute three-dimensional flowfields and the resulting heat-
324 AIRCRAFT ENGINE COMPONENTS

transfer coefficients have not yet been well developed. Some attempts have
been made to make such computations, but without conclusive results.

Thermal Barrier Coatings

Airfoils with thermal barrier coatings are considered to have great poten-
tial for future applications. These are airfoils fabricated in a conventional
manner with the exception of a thin layer ( = 0.015 in.) of a high-tempera-
ture insulating material. Generally stabilized zirconia is used. This material
can withstand very high temperatures and has a thermal conductivity less
than one-tenth that of conventional superalloys. Airfoils coated with zirconia
can run with much less cooling air at a given gas temperature or conversely
can run at much higher gas temperatures at a given level of cooling air flow
than uncoated airfoils. References 71 and 72 report some of the testing
performed with zirconia-coated airfoils.
Designing airfoils with thermal barrier coatings presents some unique
problems. Even when polished, the material has an inherent roughness,
thereby increasing both the skin-friction and heat-transfer coefficients.
References 71 and 72 are somewhat at odds with each other about the
magnitude of these effects, with the former indicating only a small effect and
the latter a large effect. The presence of a layer of thermal barrier coating
also tends to thicken trailing edges, and there is less doubt that this is
harmful to aerodynamic performance. One other factor is that the value of
the insulating capability depends on the heat flux levels. At sea-level takeoff
conditions where temperatures and pressures are high, the heat fluxes are
also high and the temperature drop through the insulation is high. At high
altitude, the temperatures may still be high, but the heat fluxes are lower
because of low pressures. Therefore, the temperature drop through the
thermal barrier coating is much less. Design of airfoils with thermal barrier
coatings must weigh all of these factors.

Conclusions
The most recent advances in turbine cooling technology have been toward
refinements of cooling methods already in use. Improved designs are result-
ing from these refinements, but much remains to be done before an
adequate understanding of turbine cooling will exist. At least one new
direction in turbine cooling has emerged in the concept of using a thin layer
of insulating material. If the materials should prove to be sufficiently
durable, they will allow great increases in turbine inlet temperature and
engine performance.

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