the continent.

However, in mushroom-rich areas such as the Cascadia bioregion of the northwest-

The Maoris ofNew Zealand grind
the dried bodies ofcaterpillars in-
ern U.S. I southwestern Canada or the northeastern U.S., most Indigenous cultures seem to have
fected byCordyceps robertsii as avoided the abundance of gourmet Chanterelles, Boletes, and Morels in their area.
a pigment for tattoos. Compared to the above areas of the world, the orally transmitted mycological knowledge of
many African cultures has barely been documented in a few regions. Tanzania is known to host
Termitomyces, Agaricus, Boletus, Pleurotus, Cantharellus, Macrolepiota, Ganoderma, and Geastrum
species. In the Kilimanjaro part of the country, puffballs are traditionally used for wound healing.
Mushrooms in Termitomyces, Pleurotus, Lentinus, Lenzites, Trametes, Ganoderma, Pycnoporus,
Coriolopsis, and Calvatia are used medicinally in Nigeria. There, the Yoruba tribe uses ground
Calvatia cyathiformis and Daldinia concentrica as a douche to treat leucorrhoea. In Burkina Faso,
ashes of Parkia biglobosa are applied to the chest of children with respiratory distress. And in Mali,
the Dogon associate mushrooms with stomach lining and drum skins, the latter of which they rub
with mushroom ash to give the instrument "voice:' 56
Some of the most culturally important fungi in Africa, the Middle East, and Mediterranean
regions are desert truffles from the genera Terfezia, Delastreopsis, Balstonia, Delastria, Leucangium,
Mattirolomyces, Phaeangium Picoa, Tirmania, and Tuber. Known in North Africa as nabat al radh,
asqal, bidat el ardh, and banat ober, and in the Arabian Peninsula as al-kamaa or al-fag'a, these
edible and medicinal fruit bodies are revered by cultures in many countries, including Morocco,
Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Bahrain, Kuwait, South
Africa, and Botswana. The Khoisan people (a.k.a. Bushmen or San) of South Africa eat truffles
(which they call kuuste or n'xaba) from the genera Kalaharituber, Eremiomyces, and Mattirolomyces.
The Khoisan also believe that truffles counteract the effects of poisoned arrows in shot animals.
Hunters even keep a piece of kuuste with them as an antidote in case they are accidently wounded
by a poisoned arrow. 57
In the Old World, various cultures across Eurasia and Eastern Europe developed deep relation-
ships with fungi. Slavic, Baltic, Catalonian, and Italian regions have particularly rich histories with
mushrooms and truffles, each hosting cultural practices that are adamantly continued today. Up to
80% of Czechs and Slovaks spend at least one day per year gathering mushrooms. The contemporary
Czechoslovakian pianist Vaclav Halek transcribed and recorded many songs that mushrooms sang
to him; his album, The Musical Atlas of Mushrooms, can be found online for free. 58 The Romanians
hold such a strong relationship with fungi that they have over 1,100 common names for various
mushrooms. Romanians even denote a person's "mushroom passion" with a specific term, razh.
However, this mycophilia did not travel across the entire European continent, as evidenced by the
relatively mycologically devoid history of the United Kingdom.

Terfezia truffles such as these

are a traditional delicacy in
the Middle East and Africa.

68 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
OF THE HYPHOSPHERE 69
70 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
Mycoligarchs No More
The fungal cultivation skills used today have a rich history that spans the Earth. The origin of cul-
When mushrooms are around,
tivating mushrooms seems to have been in China around 600 CE, when Auricularia polytricha was there'll be war around.
first cultivated by So. Two hundred years later, Han first cultivated Enoki. Some accounts attribute -RUSSIAN PROVERB

the development of Shiitake to the Japanese around 200 CE. However, it seems that the Chinese
were actually the first to pioneer this practice around 1000 CE. According to writings by Zhang
Shau-Cheng, Wu San Kwung developed Shiitake cultivation during the Chinese Sung Dynasty (960-
1127 CE) in the Lung-Shyr Village of the mountainous Lung-Chyuan County in Zhejiang Province.
As the legend goes, Wu San Kwung frequently hunted wild mushrooms in the forested high
mountains surrounding his village. One day, Kwung discovered that broken tree limbs produced
what he called shiangshyuhn ("nice-smelling mushroom'') and that if he cut the logs, the mush-
rooms would grow larger and in greater number. But if the mushrooms would fail to appear, he
would become angry and beat the logs vigorously, stimulating the growth of more mushrooms.
Eventually, the cultivation process was further refined until, in 1313 CE, Wang Cheng wrote down
a Shiitake cultivation protocol in the Book of Agriculture. Cheng described cutting holes in maple
(Acer), sweetgum (Liquidambar), or chestnut (Castanopsis) logs and then burying them in soil for
one year. Afterward, the logs were to be covered with branches, leaves, and soil, and frequently
watered with kitchen wastewater. A few hours after watering, a wooden club was then used to
beat the logs and encourage fruit bodies to appear, a process known as jingshiang ("shocking the
mushroom''). The practices of cutting, inoculating, soaking, and shocking logs still lie at the core
of Shiitake cultivation today.
The importance of Wu San Kwung's contributions to Chinese agriculture was never forgotten.
During the Ch'ing Dynasty, two major temples were built to honor the man, one in 1739 and an-
other in 1875. There are also small temples dedicated to Wu San Kwung in almost every mushroom Wolfiporia extensa was first
growing village. And every year from July 16 to 19 on the Chinese calendar, there is an all-day cultivated in 1232 by Zhou,
and a Ganoderma species
celebration to give thanks to the legendary mycological figure. 61 was first intentionally grown
Compared to this rich history, Western cultures took a rather long time to recognize the value by Wang in 1621.
of mushroom cultivation. The first European country to practice mushroom growing was France,
beginning around the late 1600s. By 1707, mushrooms were being intentionally grown in French
gardens. In 1729, the Italian botanist Pier Antonio Micheli was the first person to describe fungal
spores, marking the birth of modern mycology. 62 Nearly seventy years later, Agaricus mushrooms
began being cultivated in the limestone caves outside of Paris where temperatures and humidity
levels were easy to control. These early practices were simple, with non-pasteurized horse bedding
and other composted materials serving as the substrate and mycelium from previous crops used as
the inoculum. With such non-standardized practices, results were often unpredictable and the art
of mushroom cultivation in the West developed slowly.
Around the turn of the 20'h century, protocols rapidly improved. In 1891, New Yorker William
Falconer published the first book on mushroom growing. 63 And in 1900, Richard Falck determined
how to cultivate Pleurotus ostreatus, initiating the transition from compost-based substrates to
simple agricultural wastes. In 1903, Louis F. Lambert developed the first pure culture brick spawn
for Agaricus production. By 1917, cultivators in Pennsylvania had begun developing strains from
spores. 64 In the US, the Agaricus industry flourished in Long Island, Central Massachusetts, Chicago,
Michigan, California, and especially southeastern Pennsylvania. This same year, the mycologist
James W Sinden at Pennsylvania State University discovered that sterilized wheat grain made a
more robust spawn substrate than the composts that were being used up to that point. Today, grain
spawn is a pivotal element in nearly all mushroom cultivation processes.
By the 20'h century, the evolution of mycology was rapidly increasing. In parallel with the in-
dustrial revolution, this early era of the mycological revolution set the stage for the unprecedented As early as 1905, various spe-
cies from the genera Pleurotus,
human-fungal relations being defined today. In 1919, the pharmaceutical company Ffeizer~ de- Coprinus, Agaricus, Armillar-
veloped practices for mass-producing citric acid by growing Aspergillus niger in large vats of sugar ia, Calvatia, Lycoperdon, and
water, a practice known as submerged fermentation. After the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Tricholoma were actively be-
ing cultivated in the U.S.
Fleming in 1928, this same liquid-based practice was used to mass-produce a wide variety of fun-

OF THE HYPHOSPHERE 71
 THE SUBMERGED FERMENTATION OF INDUSTRIALIZED FUNGI

The liquid cultivation practices pioneered in the early part of the 20'" century are still practiced today to create a range of com-
pounds that directly influence modern life. Of these, 39% are used in detergents, 14% are for textile processing, 12% are amylases
used in starch processing, and the remaining 35% are used in food, health, and various other industries.
In the textile industry, fungal cellulases are used to remove loose clothing fibers and create "stone-washed" denim. Tricho-
derma reesei produces up to 40 grams of cellulases per liter of culture medium.'''' Fungal proteinases are used for a wide variety of
textiles, including in the removal of fur during leather production. And when clothing becomes soiled, fungal proteinases, Ii pases,
amylases, and cellulases are used to brighten clothes by removing broken fibers that scatter light and dull the cloth's color. Many
stain removers use the lipase produced by Aspergillus niger to cleave water-insoluble fats and oils into water-soluble glycerol and
fatty acids.
In the medical industry, fungal products include the antibiotics penicillin (the common penicillin precursor 6-aminopenicil-
lanic acid [6-APA] is produced by Penicillium chrysogenum) and cephalosporin (produced by Cephalosporium acremonium). The
immune suppressant cyclosporine, created by Tolypocladium inflatum, is used to avoid organ rejection in transplant patients.
The fungus Aspergillus terreus releases mevinolin, a chemical that forms the basis for cholesterol-reducing statin drugs such as
Pravastatin, Simvastatin, and Lovastatin. These three drugs are among the top ten selling pharmaceuticals worldwide, with com-
bined sales valued at US$5 billion in the late 1990s. Aspergillus terreus, Penicillium citrinum, and Pearl Oyster also create statins.
Mortiere/la species produce the polyunsaturated fatty acid arachidonic acid (ARA), which is used for lowering blood cholesterol,
thereby minimizing the effects of cardiovascular diseases. ARA is also found in breast milk and is added to infant formula due to
its importance in brain and retina development.'''
Various compounds derived from Ergot (Claviceps purpurea) are used in low doses to cause vasodilation, lower blood pres-
sure, and decrease smooth muscle contraction. More specifically, ergometrine is used to assist in third stage labor and reduce
post partum bleeding These compounds are largely obtained from highly productive fungal strains that were developed by
forced mutation. Despite the fact that these alkaloids can be synthesized, extraction from fungal cultivation still proves to be
the most cost-effective means of producing these chemicals. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been genetically modified to produce
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive compound in Cannabis sativa,''" and opioids. 00 In the coming years, the production
of these and other bioactive compounds are likely to become increasing derived from this workhorse micro fungus. 10
The chemical transformations performed by fungi and/or their enzymes can be applied to produce compounds that would
otherwise be difficult, impossible, or prohibitively expensive to synthesize. Fungi can also be cultivated to synthesize complex
nanoparticles faster than some chemical synthesis methods, a field of research known as myconanotechnology. In essence, aque-
ous metallic salt solutions are introduced to the fungus (e.g. Aspergillus fumigatus or Fusarium semitectum), which then synthesiz-
es the nanoparticles internally and/or externally by using its own proteins. Fungi and/or their enzymes are also used to modify
pharmaceutical steroids during manufacturing .
Apart from the more commonly recognized forms of fungal food production such as beer, bread, fermented foods, and
mushroom cultivation, fungal products influence the food industry in a variety of ways:
ETHANOL: The ethyl alcohol produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation has arguably been the single most
important fungal metabolite used by humans throughout history. Found in alcoholic beverages, this combusti-
ble fungal product is, by volume, most commonly used as a rather unsustainable alternative to petroleum based
fuels. Fermentation of cane sugar in Brazil is the biggest source of ethanol fuels.
CITRIC Acm (CA): Along with ethanol, the citric acid created by Aspergillus niger is by far one of the most abundantly
manufactured fungal metabolites in the world. In 2007, global CA production was nearly 1,600,000 tons, with
over half being produced in China. CA is used in the production of beverages, foods, cosmetics, pharmaceutics,
and various chemicals.
AMYLASES: Amylases hydrolyze starches, converting them to sugar. Fungal amylases are used to sweeten foods and
create high-fructose corn syrup.
CHEESE PRODUCTION: In place of animal -derived rennin (chymosin), vegetarian cheese is commonly produced using
rennin derived from yeasts (e.g . Kluyveromyces lactis) and/or Aspergillus niger that have been genetically modified
to express the gene for bovine rennin.
BREWING: In beer production, fungal a-amylase, proteinases, and glucanases are often used to improve barley
extraction during the mashing process that precedes fermentation.
FRUIT JUICE AND WINE CONDITIONING: Fungal pectinases from A. niger are commonly used to help pulp and peel fruits
and vegetables and to clarify wine or other alcoholic drinks.
BAKING: Xylanases produced by fungi can increase dough volume by increasing the amount of available sugar for
yeast.

72 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
 Aspergillus oryzae

Food i us ry
Trichoderma viride Textile, pulp,
paper industry,
Trichoderma reesei dehydrated foods,
brewing

Trichoderma viride Textile, pulp,

and paper
Trichoderma reesel industry

Aspergillus phoenicis Starch processing

industry

Textile industry,
Chemical industry biosensor

Beverage and Textile, pulp, and

Trametes versico/or
food industries paper industries

Food industry Food and

detergent
industry
Health industry Trichoderma reesei Food industry

Food, detergent,
and leather
Human and industries. Meat
animal health tenderizer, and
industry for cheese
manufacturing

Cryptococcus spp. Food industry

Food industry
Chemical industry

Fuel industry Food industry,

and cheese
Beverage and manufacturing
food industries
Trichoderma reesei
Textile, pulp,
Trichoderma konignii paper, and bakery
industries

Health industry Starch syrups,

dextrose, foods

Confectionary
industry

Treatment of Ethanol assay

diabetes
Kluyveromyces lactis Dairy industry
Phosphate
liberation Brewing

O F TH E H YPHOSPH ERE 73
 gal medicines and economically important enzymes. At the same time, mycological heavy hitters
At least 60 countries cultivate
like Alexander H. Smith and Arthur Buller were actively revising fungal biological models and
mushrooms. China, the United
States, Netherlands, France, taxonomic schemes, helping set the high standards for naming fungi followed by professional and
and Poland are the top five amateur mycologists today. This was also the era of untold numbers of mycologists and mushroom
producers. Mexico, .Chile, and
Brazil constitute over 85% of
cultivators endeavoring around the world to decipher the complexities of fungal biology and ecol-
the mushroom growing indus- ogy. Many of these superheroes are remembered online in the great halls of CyberTruffle's Fungal
try in Latin America.74 Valhalla. 65
By the second half of the 20'h century, fungal cultivation had become such an elaborate prac-
tice that small-scale growers found it challenging to compete with industrialized operations. With
their big budgets, large mushroom farms were able to adopt the expensive equipment and intense
cleanliness practices that were increasingly touted in the industry. And with emphasis still largely
placed on Agaricus species, the mushroom market was relatively small and fiercely competitive.
At the time, there were few places to study mushroom cultivation (or mycology in general),
leaving those interested in learning to cultivate at a loss for where to take up the trade. Beginners
were often met with vague or misleading information from professional growers. And as the de-
cades progressed, the few cultivation manuals that were readily available tended to be intimidating
due to their insistence on impeccable standards, complex commercial procedures, and expensive
equipment. The net effect was a limited spread of mycological knowledge beyond a small percent-
age of society, and a widespread false perception that mushroom cultivation must be difficult and
expensive. Unfortunately, such barriers to accessing mycology have remained seeped into Western
culture to this day.
It wasn't until the cultural reintroduction of psychoactive fungi in the mid 1950s that mush-
room cultivation began to return to its homegrown roots. By the 1960s and 70s, counter culture
desire to cheaply cultivate illegal psychoactive species led several writers to produce small books
translating industrial practices to kitchen-scale techniques. Eventually these innovations were ap-
plied to non-psychoactive mushrooms with great success. In effect, this covert community of illegal
mushroom growers directly helped release the skills of cultivation from the grips of the mycoli-
garchs, opening the Western world to low cost, yet highly effective mushroom cultivation practices.
This precedent continued to expand in the underground throughout the 20'h century. However
it wasn't until the advent of the internet that access to mycology and fungal cultivation became read-
ily available to anyone with a computer and modem. The web forums Mycotopia and Shroomery71
have been especially pivotal in this democratization of mycology, thanks to their cataloging of an
incredible number of innovative techniques, tools, terms, and tricks developed by anonymous grow-
ers. Of particular note, this community's elegant breakthroughs in liquid-based cultivation practices
over the last decade have created what I consider to be a complete sea change in how mushroom
cultivation can and should be done. As discussed in Chapter 8, these practices are so cheap, simple,
and effective that I do not doubt liquid-based cultivation will be instrumental to making the many
gifts of fungi accessible to people around the world in the near future.
It can only be speculated where fungi will lead us. Undoubtedly, the future will be so myco-cen-
tric that many facets of human activity will look unlike anything practiced today. Access to fungal
medicines will be widespread, while homemade, custom mycomedicines will become increasingly
common. Many of the "wastes" currently produced by human activities will be fungal based (e.g.
as mycelium-based products, described in Chapter 9) and/or used to cultivate mushrooms and
regenerate the environment. Pyrolyzed fungal tissue may even replace the graphite in lithium ion
batteries in the near future, creating a natural energy source with a significantly decreased toxic
footprint. 72 As our understanding of fungal communication systems is further refined, human
telecommunications and robotics systems may be developed that incorporate the intelligence of
fungal epigenetic response and/or slime mold growth patterns. 73 Perhaps in the future, ecologists
and naturalists will use technology to connect with Common Mycelial Networks spanning whole
ecosystems and, through them, learn how disturbances are being addressed in the environment as
well as where further recovery efforts are in need of greater protection. However, these and other
potential means for working with fungi will only become common in the West when the many
unexamined assumptions about these incredible beings are thoroughly exposed and overcome.

74 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
To Fear Fungi
Of all the impressions fungi have left on human cultures, one of the most inexplicable is the wide-
The dream-wish rises like a
spread fear, or mycophobia, placed onto the Queendom. Why have so many cultures ignored the
mushroom out of its mycelium.
healing qualities of mushrooms? It can't simply have been, as some historians argue, because some -SIGMUND FREUD
mushrooms are poisonous. Most traditional cultures were and are masters of their environment,
able to delineate between thousands of plant species. Deadly plants outnumber fatal mushrooms,
and can even look like edible plants. 75 Likewise, it could not have been due to the inconsistency of
mushroom hunting. Many plant crops are ephemeral, inconsistent, or otherwise hard to access.
Hunting animals is a laborious task, often taking days or weeks to complete. Conversely, patches
of easily identifiable mushroom species (e.g. Lion's Mane, Chanterelles, Chicken of the Woods) can
produce annual crops, making them a reliable source of high quality food for even casual foragers.
And if a given culture observed the mycophagy amongst other animals, it would have been clear
that fungi are a valuable food.
Is it, then, that mycophobia is some sort of ancestral fear, woven into the human genome
like the trepidation that follows snakes and spiders? Considering how many cultures have indeed
thoroughly adopted fungi, the answer to this question seems to be "No:' But where does this fear
originate? Mycophobia must be a custom with a defined origin and rationale, otherwise, how could
it persevere for so long?
Surprisingly, mycologists and historians rarely acknowledge the fact that, for no substantial
reason, some cultures have chosen to fear a common element in their environment. Mycophobia
is simply accepted as inconsequential, an acceptable trend-at least, as it is perceived by historians
coming from their own fungi-fearing culture. On the other hand, I find the degree to which certain
societies fear fungi not only intriguing but, upon deeper analysis, reflective of that culture's relation-
ship with the world-a more cryptic and darker expression of human-fungal relations.
Observing decomposing mushrooms, one could propose, as many have, that mycophobia is
merely an outgrowth of a culture's avoidance of death. Indeed, fungi have long been connected with
the underworld, often being placed amongst other organisms in an etheric, indefinable state. Mush-
rooms have been called a "superfluous air" exuded by rotting substances and, as the 13'h century
philosopher Albertus Magnus described them, the result of rotting, not the cause of it. The Roman
philosopher Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) stated mushrooms were made noxious by the breath of
subterranean serpents exiting their dens. In ancient Arabian texts, fungi were seen to be half-alive,
somewhere between mineral and plant, just as 16'h century herbalists claimed mushrooms existed
between animate and inanimate states. Even the origin of the word "fungus" denotes this morbid
association, coming as it does from the Latinfunus (corpse) and ago (I make). He wha tills the fairies' green
Arising from the chthonic realm, fungi were often seen as bridges between the lands oflight and Nae luck again shall hae:
And he wha spills the fairies' ring
dark. And wherever they would appear overnight in circles of bright, white mushrooms, humans Betide him want and wae.
would claim spirits had been at play. To many cultures, in entering these fairy rings one risked Forweirdlessdays and weary nights
being carried to the land of pixies, potentially to never return. In the Netherlands, fairy rings are Are his till his deein' day.
But he wha gaes by the fairy ring,
the resting place of the Devil's churns and in Ireland they are made wherever the Devil spills milk Nae du/e nor pine shall see,
while making butter. In Germany, hexenringe ("witches' rings") are produced on the eve ofBeltane And he wha cleans the fairy ring
by witches under high revelry. And in the Philippines, they are connected with diminutive spirits, An easy death shall dee.
-TRADfllONAL ScornsH RHYME
just as Celtic and Scandinavian cultures claim they are the dance floor of spririts, fairies, and elves.
The Blackfoot say the rings are created by the dancing steps of buffalo, while to the French rands
de sorcieres ("sorcerers' rings") have long been considered sacred. Some legends assert that the only Fairy rings of Lepista sordida
way to safely investigate a fairy ring is to run around it nine times, so as to hear the fairies dancing can grow 2 mm a day, or 0.75
m per year. At more than 0.5
underground. A 20'h century English tradition states this must be done clockwise under a full Moon; miles (600 m) in diameter and
to go the opposite direction would enable the fairies to catch the runner. nearly 800 years old, a fairy
ring of lnfundibulicybe geo-
tropa (Clitocybe geotropa)
--- -- - - ~
~--
....,.
in France is thought to be the
·- -=- oldest ring in the world. Other
- .- =::::-
- ~ ~ - --· ~ - . ~. . -·
--- fairy rings in the Midwest U.S.
may be over 600 years old.

OF THE HYPHOSPHERE 75
 If a culture also connected fungi to crop blights, associations with loss, illness, and death
were undoubtedly reinforced. The Romans feared wheat rust so strongly that dogs were sacrificed
to Robigus, the god of agricultural disease, during the festival of Robigalia in hopes of reducing
fungus-producing rains.
However, this connection may also be historically uncommon-a more recent creation of
monoculture farming practices framed through pre-existing biases. Take for example, the so-called
Irish Potato Famine of the mid 1800s and its associated mass emigration. Though often attributed to
a "fungal" 76 blight, this saga in Irish history was not due to the failure of potato crops but to the theft
of the many other vegetables and meats that the Irish produced by troops of British colonizers. While
potato crops were wiped out at this time due to heavy rains and the infection of Phytophthora infes-
tans they brought, the loss was only a small percentage of the country's self-sufficient food system.
And yet, contemporary mycophobia has enabled this lie to seep into history books unquestioned,
effectively perpetuating a fungal fear while covering up a forgotten assault on the Irish people. 77
Adding to the negative conceptions of fungi are the more recent attempts at their weapon-
ization. The Soviet and U.S. militaries have done extensive biological weapons research into the
delivery of fungal blights, most notably with Wheat Stem Rust (Puccinia graminis var. tritici, or
''Agent TX") in the Air Force's anti-crop program. Fusarium oxysporum has also been investigated as
a mycoherbicide against the culturally important crops of coca, cannabis, and opium poppy crops. 78
Meanwhile, the idea that some day humans or Nature will develop a Cordyceps-like fungus that
turns humans into the walking dead hangs as a frightening fungal ability that no other organism
seems capable of possessing.

In 54 CE, Emperor Claudius

was killed by his wife Agrip-
' pina the Younger when she
soaked a meal of Ceasar's Am-
anita (Amanita caesarea) in
the juice of the deadly Death
Cap mushroom (A. phalloi-
des), shown here. 96

Along the border of living and dying, mycelia sense and digest, interpret and destroy. More
visibly than the bacteria with which they work, the fungi walk between worlds, acting as custodians
of the darkness. Some species are so intimately tied to decay that they primarily live and fruit from
dead animal parts. These are the preteiphilous fungi, typified by the Corpse Finder mushroom (He-
beloma syriense). Once found fruiting from a buried box of baby's bones, this necrophilic fungus is
often used in forensic investigations to detect the corpse of murder victims. 79 lhe myco-corrosion of
fungi threatens every relic of history, from 35,000-year-old cave paintings in Lascaux, France, to all
glass, concrete, plastic, wood, ceramic, rock, and metal objects created today. The dry rotting fungi
Serpula lacrymans, Phellinus megaloporus, Coniphora puteana, Fibroporia vaillantii, and Meruliporia
incrassata can crumble human structures in a matter of years, just as various polypores regularly
destroy ships, mines, and bridges, and make 15-20% oflumber unsellable. With its preference for
corroding railroad ties, the Train Wrecker (Lentinus lepideus) has been suspected for causing major
derailments in the past. The USDA was so afraid of this fungus that the closely related Shiitake
mushroom was banned from importation until 1972. Today, the lichen Dirina massiliensis f. sore-
diata is rapidly dissolving limestone monuments in urban deserts, just as Coprinopsis cinerea can
degrade death-defying prosthetic hearts 80 and the Kerosene Fungus (Amorphotheca resinae) feeds
on jet fuel, causing planes to crash.

76 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
 In the end, fungi will destroy everything that humans have ever created. Driving monuments to
The af/atoxins produced by
the Earth, it is the fungi that will carry life through the cruelest acts that humans perpetrate against
Aspergillus flavus and A.
Nature and redefine spaces for plants, animals, and the wild to thrive. Fungi set the time limit on parasiticus are some of the
human productions, a law resisted by past civilizations that built their greatest monuments from most carcinogenic compounds
stone. To gain time, ancient people had to fight the unstoppable force of fungal decay. Thus, as the known on the planet. Aflatox-
in 8 1 induces liver cancer at
ultimate harbingers of death, fungi not only symbolize the impermanence of an individual, but also concentrations below 1 mg
the fragility of one's way oflife, with each hypha slowly decaying the hourglass of a culture's legacy. per kg of body weight. These
And, yet, though these realizations were likely had by many people of the past, mycophobia fungi grow on stored grains
and beans and are a major
cannot be dismissed as only the outcome of thanatophobia, the fear of one's death, or even the fear contaminant of coffee.
oflosing one's culture. Many past and present societies held a reverence for death, often embracing
it as a natural, integral, and sacred part of life. For the Haida people of southwestern Canada, this
was expressed in part by the burial of deceased shamen with figurines of Agarikon that were carved
into shapes meant to capture and protect the spirit of the departed. To risk or sacrifice one's life is
seen in many societies as a great honor, and the mark of emotional or spiritual maturation. Con-
fronting death directly and embracing its inevitability can be quite positive and can assist a person
in their self-development. To assume that a mycophobic culture was afraid of death in its exoteric
form may be erroneous, nothing more than the projection of a researcher's own beliefs and fears.
If it was not the physical acts of death and destruction that led to a fear of fungi, then perhaps
it was what death and the mushroom represented. Death is not just the loss of one's body, but
also the destruction of one's sense of self-one's ego. To face death is to humbly surrender one's
understanding of existence and, in effect, admit that one can never understand the universe in its

(Left) Dry Rot Fungus (Serpula

lacrymansJ rhizomorphs de-
grading masonry.
(Center) The Desert Puffball
(Podaxis pistillarisJ breaking
through asphalt. The similar
appearing Shaggy Mane (Co-
prinus cornatusJ is known to
do the same.
(Right) Lichens degrading a
tombstone.

entirety. Such an act is in direct contrast to the ego-based mind of everyday awareness that is con-
stantly working to confirm its assurances, often by avoiding what it does not understand. To those
incapable of facing the death of their ego, the mysterious mushrooms would readily be avoided for
their small reminders of life's unknowable secrets.
Maybe this is why so many ancient cultures only permitted the elite and priests to touch fungi,
so powerful was their wisdom. In contrast to the control systems of states and religions, access to
mysteries can be obtained through direct and personal means of working with fungi. As covered
in Chapter 12, this class-based segregation was likely also an attempt to cover up the knowledge
gained from psychoactive fungi, a power reserved for the elect and hidden from the unfit. If this
was the case, then to control the lessons of the fungi, the elite may have created an artificial fear
around them and intentionally limited access to their study.
As civilizations become increasingly complex, this fear of the unknown likely extended from
death to the mysteries of Nature. As author Leonard Shlain describes in his book The Alphabet Ver-
sus the Goddess, this may have occurred around the time writing systems first developed millennia
ago. In many cultures, as writing came to replace direct experience and symbolic thinking, a rift
arose that led to an increasing degree of disconnection between humans and the natural processes
in their environment. As a part of this, the logical, aggressive, and mechanistic modes of thinking
that writing requires came into prominence. And in return, the contemplative, symbolic, receptive,

OF THE HYPHOSPHERE 77
 and generative qualities oflife-what is known as the feminine principle, or yin-became increas-
ingly suppressed. 81
Looking at industrial cultures today, the yin state seems antithetical to the notion of civilization
as we know it. Modern civilization implies predictability and stagnation, but Nature is mutable and
ever-changing. Industry demands standardization and segregation-Nature curves and connects.
For the first civilizations that significantly distanced themselves from natural processes, these di-
chotomies would have caused a form of cognitive dissonance. One outcome of this would have been
attempts to control Nature's untamable wildness, a child-like demand for superiority meant to cover
up rising confusion and frustrations. As cultures became increasingly separated from Nature, this
internal and unspoken conflict in the human spirit would have led to a pervasive and unnamable
angst that could only be expressed through increased aggressions against the world. Under this
imposition, the unpredictable fungi became a target. Fungi are the antithesis of civilization, born
of wild mycelium that is free of social constraints and defiant of imposed hierarchies.
As mechanistic cultures became increasingly removed from the natural world, Nature became
a reminder of that detachment's debilitating effects. In contrast to the ease and comforts of civi-
lization, Nature is dangerous, a place where anyone lacking the skills to hunt animals or identify
plants can fall into unforeseen death traps. To the civilized, the wild reminds one of their fragility,
an unacknowledged weakness that the masculine mindset seeks to disavow. All reminders of this
vulnerability were to be covered by constant assertions of strength and power. To this fear fell the
death-tinged mushrooms and their ability to swallow one whole in the fairy ring of life's cycles.
Left unaddressed, these fears sunk deep into the mindset of increasingly abstracted civiliza-
tions. As demands for performance, conquest, and stimulation drowned out the yin in Nature, the
stillness that fungal observation requires became increasingly removed from life. The internal self
was lost in the extroversion of the ego, leading to a fear of being alone, the ridicule of introversion,
and the loss of Nature-based spirituality. As an outcome, mycophobia was entrenched as not only a
fear of the mystery that fungi harbor, but also of the state of being required to align with that mystery.
Thus, to fully address and overturn a fear of fungi, a mycophobic culture must overturn the sup-
pression of these qualities oflife. To be reconnected to fungi requires a full embrace of all that Nature
presents: positive and negative, light and dark, known and unknown. Through such a reintegration,
new cultures can be recomposed from the elements of the old and regenerated into a healthier form.
This applies to the whole of a culture, as well as to every individual invested in its redefinition.
Ultimately, the fungi represent not death, nor loss, nor decay, but the subsequent rebirth that
destruction offers, both physical and philosophical. This principle is expressed by many fungi.
In sites once devastated by burns or lava flows, the phoenicoid fungi of the Anthracobia are often
found rising like mythic birds of fire, only to later quickly die back and become the initial reserves
for seeds that give birth to an entire forest. 82 Beyond the edge of the solemn fairy ring, grass is
distinctly brighter, while inside this perimeter it is brown and dead due to having given its life to
the expanding mycelium. Expanding ever outward, fairy rings shine from the light of the recently
deceased and never grow back. To the ancient Egyptians, this duality was recognized through the
use of the lichen Pseudevernia fufuracea as both a stuffing for mummy corpses and as an ingredient
DARK AND WITCH-ASSOCIATED FUNGI
in bread, a pillar of their diet. 83
Bulgaria inquinans
Craterellus cornucopioides
For some cultures, this regenerative quality was recognized in the relationships between fungi,
Elaphomyces granulatus light, and life-providing fire, as found in the sacred fungal smokes and smudges noted earlier and
(Hexenpizet [witches' s sali- with the internal fire of bioluminescent fungi. More than 75 Basidiomycota and 1 Ascomycete
va] in Austria and Germany)
Exidia glandulosa
produce illuminating fruit bodies (e.g. Panellus stipticus and Xylaria hypoxylon), spores (Rorido-
(Black Witch's Butter) myces roridus), or "foxfire" rhizomorphs (Armillaria spp.). This cold light is due to the presence of
Geoglossum glutinosum luciferase, the same chemical responsible for the glow of fireflies and anglerfish from the deep sea.
Sarcosoma mexicana
Taphrina betulina
Other fungi seem to emit a more subtle light. When wrapped in black paper, the stinkhorn Phallus
(Witch's Broom) impudicus emits an invisible luminescence that can develop a photographic plate overnight. 84 Many
Tremella mesenterica other fungi likely also glow in ways that humans cannot perceive. Perhaps such associations underlie
(Witch's Butter)
Urnula craterium
the common name for the white jelly fungus Tremella nostoc, Sky Fall, and its long believed origin
from shooting stars.

78 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
 Fungal fire is also found to have a common connection with the creative powers drawn from
lighting, a fire in the sky. Plutarch (46-120 CE) said that truffles arose when the generative fluids In the Haida people's story of
the creation of woman, Fun-
in thunder mixed with heat and pierced the earth in a flash of lightning. 85 Likewise, Anthenaeus gus Man and Raven travel in
(c. 200 CE) wrote that the quantity and size of truffles were influenced by the number and force a canoe searching for female
of thunderclaps, a view still held by the Bedouin in the Negev desert. Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) genitalia.

called truffles vittium terre, and said that they are the product of lightning bolts. In the 1811 Chi-
nese text The History of Mushrooms, Ishiwara Gusha notes three fungi directly associated with
lightning: lei-ching t'an ("thunder-aroused mushroom''), lei-sheng chun ("thunder-peal mushroom''),
and lei chun ("thunder-mushroom''). And in New Zealand, the Maori word for "thunder" and "fe-
male ancestor" (whatitiri) was used in the name for Clathrus cibarius: tutae whatitiri. In the Latin
American language Quiche, Amanita muscaria is called kakulja ("lightning bolt"). 86 In the Mayan
creation story of the Popol Vuh three kinds of kakulja are mentioned: kakulja hurukan ("lightning
bolt one-leg"), chipi kakulja ("dwarflightning bolt"), and raxa kakulja ("green lightning bolt"). 87
Similar lightning-mushroom associations were made amongst people in Rome, Germany, Mada-
gascar, the Philippines, France (Boletus satanas and B. luridus), Italy (trun, "thunder-mushroom;'
for Lactarius sanguifluus and L. deliciosus), Iran (where mushrooms are born from the sky deity
Mama, "grandmother"), India (Phallus spp. and puffballs), Afghanistan ("earth meat;' for Morchella
spp. and gokluk for Coprinus comatus), Uzbekistan (qoza-qarni, "baby lamb's belly" for Morchella
spp.), Tajikistan (Xorc for Pleurotus fossulatus ), Tibet (ser sha, "yellow flesh"), Kashmir (kana-guch,
"ear-mushroom;' for Morchella spp. and hedur and henda for agarics), Luzon (payungpayungan ku-
logfor Termitomyces albuminosus), and Japan (raigan, "thunder balls;' for Omphalia lapidescens). 88
As this connection between fungi and creation deepened, so too did its association to fertility,
rebirth, and the feminine principle. For some cultures, this was symbolized through associations
with fungi and the honeybee, an insect long regarded as a symbol of immortality and resurrection.
Nordic legends stated that bees emerged from an enchanted, subterranean world that they shared
with fairies. For the Nordic people, bees possessed prophetic virtues and by watching their flight,
it was believed one could predict the future. In Scots Gaelic, the word for bee (beacan) also means
mushroom. 89 Across Ireland, there are beehive-shaped stone huts sunken into the earth-womb-like
chambers that have been used for centuries as sweat houses potentially during traditional rituals
that incorporated Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms. 90 In the Tassili plateau of northern Algeria,
the oldest representative art of mushrooms depicts a dancing human figure with the head of a bee
and a body radiating mushroom-shaped projections. To the ancient Egyptians, bees came from
sacred bulls, a relationship reminiscent of the psychoactive Psilocybe mushrooms that grow from
cow dung. For many cultures, the bee represented the Mother Goddess due to its ability to pollinate
plants and transmute nectar to sweet, fire-colored honey, just as fungi convert dead material to fruit
bodies and the soil that bears new life.

(Lefi) The mycelial strikes of

fire in the sky.
(Right) The cold light of biolu-
minescent fungi is produced
by the compound luciferase.

OF THE ffYPHOSPHERE 79
 In other cultures, mushrooms have also been connected to the toad, itself an amphibious
and at times hermaphroditic creature91 of water and Earth, and thus a symbol of fertility and the
Mother Goddess. In some Balto-Finnish dialects the word sampo stands for "mushroom" as well
as "toad:' The Delaware tribe of North America believed that mushrooms grew from frog spawn,
while in Mesoamerica, Centeotl was the patron of fertility and took the form of a frog. Here, frogs
were considered spirits of rain. In Welsh, inedible fungi are called caws llyffant ("toad's cheese") and
bwyd-y-llyyfant ("toad's foot"). Despite the fact that toads are rarely seen in Ireland, the Gaelic name
for wild fungi is bolg losgain ("frog's pouch"). Similar connections are found in countries around the
world, including Denmark (paddehat, "toad's hat"), Norway (paddehatt, "toad's hat"), Sweden (pug-
gehattar, "toad's hat"), France (kabell toussec, "toad's cap;' and escabeau de crapaud, "toad's stool"),
Netherlands (paddestoelen, "toadstools"), Slovakia (iabaci huby, "toad-mushrooms"), Ukraine
(zhabjachyi hryb, "toad-mushrooms"), Sudan (hegba-mboddoh, "toadstool"), Nigeria (korowal-pa-
bi, "toadstools"), India (rote putka, "toad soul-plant"), Japan (gama-no-koshikake, "toad's stool"),
Basques (xapo-perretxiko, "toad mushroom;' and amoroto, "toad-like thing" for Amanita muscaria),
and Guatemala (holom ixpek, "toad's head"). 92
In many countries, especially in Europe, mushrooms and toads were directly linked to female
witches and their knowledge of herbs, potions, and magic. Toads were often considered the famil-
iars, or spirit helpers, of witches. To alchemists, toads were said to hold special healing powers that
derived from a "toadstone" (crapaudina) in their heads. Up until the 19th century, English women
would gather fungi under the full Moon and cook them with a live toad and spring water to create
a love potion. 93
To the ancient Chinese, the toad was an embodiment of yin forces and thus intimately tied
to the Moon, itself a symbol of the darkness and internal contemplation of yin energy. In Chinese
mythology, the craters of the Moon do not form a "man in the Moon;' as commonly interpreted
by Westerners, but a rabbit and three-legged toad. This Moon-toad often appeared as a mythical
creature in ancient India, Nepal, and Japan. In China it was sometimes depicted with Reishi growing
from its forehead. 94 In ancient Greece, the toad was the emblem of Aphrodite, the goddess of sexual
passion who was strongly connected with Venus. And in Egypt, the toad-headed goddess Heket
(Heqet) was aligned with water, renewal, birth, conception, and fertility. She was the psychopomp:
guide for the recently deceased and wayshower to the land of the dead.
Heket may have served as the template for Hecate, the Greek crone goddess of crossroads,
mysteries, witchcraft, death, decay, and regeneration. Often portrayed as the torch-bearing Moon
goddess, Hecate bears a headdress of stars that light the way into the darkness of inner being. She
is triple-faced, giving her the ability to look in all directions and bring great vision derived from
a long life's wisdom. Her alternate is Baubo, a stomach-faced goddess referred to as a "she-toad:'
Also known as the Queen of Ghosts and Mother of Witches, Hecate brought the seeds of new life
out of the underworld and into the composting heaps of decomposing forms. It was she who led
Eleusian participants into the underworld. And on November 16th, the Night of Hecate during the
Mysteries, animal sacrifices would be performed and Hecate's Supper consumed, often featuring
honey and mushrooms as central elements.
Ultimately, to fear fungi, death, and the recompositions that they create is to suppress the gener-
ative female qualities that the Queendom represents. Much like the suppression of fungi, the global
oppression of women has long been noted and yet its origin remains unclear. To the psychoanalyst
Karen Horney, oppression against women was primarily born long ago from men's jealousy of the
womb's ability to create life. To Horney, attempts to keep women and Nature under control stem
not from a simple need to dominate, but from a desire to control the very act of creation. So it is
that we find the male-dominated, genetic-focused approach to modern mycology owing its origins
to the theft of knowledge from herb wives and witches of the past.
To the psychologist Carl Jung, the suppression of the feminine aspect in one's psyche-what
he referred to as the anima-invariably results in the conflation of its opposite: the masculine
principle, or animus. When affecting the majority of individuals in a whole society, this imbalance
Hecate, the triple-faced Moon
would subsequently lead to the creation of an animus-dominated culture, one that is predominantly
goddess.
violent, aggressive, and non-emotive. Such cultures would outwardly be deterred from developing

80 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
a deep relationship with fungi. Rather, they would seek to hide, erase, and pave over any healing
Its father is the Sun, its mother
and regenerative reminders of Nature's abundance, an unnatural desire increasingly reflected in the
the Moon; the wind has carried
array of upheavals facing the world today. it in his belly; its nurse is the
For ancient people aware of the powers contained in the fungi, these children of darkness must Earth. Its power is complete
have been one of the grand symbols oflife's mysteries. Some cultures likely retained this connection, when it is turned toward the
Earth. It ascends from Earth to
as seems to have occurred to some degree with the Maori and Chinese. Conversely, much of this heaven, and descends again
memory seems to be lost among modern Western civilizations that have forgotten the importance to the Earth, and receives the
power of the higher and low-
of supporting their environment and facing the fallout of the world's dark ecologies. 95
er things. So will you have the
Grave imbalances always demand and bring about change, as fungi remind us. Perhaps this is glory of the whole world.
why mycology has started to obtain greater public awareness within the last decade. During some of -HERMES TRISMEGISTUS,
TABULA 5MARAGDINA
the most challenging times of recent centuries, it is now that humans are being offered the greatest
opportunities to ally with their long forgotten kin and find connections that lead to a new begin-
ning. Whereas the world has been so yang oriented for millennia, perhaps the increased awareness
around mycology is the outcome of an ancestral need in humanity to balance the qualities of life
and allow its creative capacities to thrive. Developing this relationship with fungi is possible, if not
deeply needed, but only when one takes the time to observe them, contemplate, and learn.

When the Moon is at the full

Mushrooms you may freely pull.
But when the Moon is on the wane
Wait ere you think to pluck again.
-TRADIT10NAL RHYME OF Es5EX, BRITAIN

OF THE HYPHOSPHERE 81
 Fungal HERstory: How Women Shaped Mycology
By Mara Penfil and Fern Katz
The study of mycology first formed in the wombs of women. Though the knowledge was shared with
every child as they matured, it was often the women of history who carried on the responsibility
of harvesting wild fungi to feed and heal their families. By practicing and maintaining these skills
throughout many generations, women around the world possessed the richest and most compre-
hensive understanding of the taxonomy, biology, and ecology oflocal fungal diversity. Women were
the original and primary ambassadors to the world of fungi. 97
It is only in the last few centuries that the study of fungi has become dominated by men.
The founders of modern mycology, Carolous Clusius ( 1526-1609) and Franciscus Van Sterbeek
( 1630-1693 ), were perhaps the first instigators of this shift. However, their knowledge did not come
from personal experience. Most of their research came from conversations with folk-women in the
marketplaces of Eastern and Central Europe. Here, these early authors would talk with the women
knowledge-keepers directly in an effort to gather traditional mycological information, and then
rebrand it as their own work. 98 The famous biologist Carl Linnaeus ( 1707-1778) was also known to
learn about fungi and plants directly from herb-wives and medicine-women of the marketplace. 99
Many studies, outlined in detail by Frank Dugan in his book, Conspectus of World Ethnomy-
cology, indicate that these men were just a few of the many seekers who sought mycological, and
more broadly botanical and medicinal, knowledge from women. 100 Dugan writes,
"Recognition of such interactions between famous (and nearly always male) pioneers
in science and medicine and lay folk reflects the rather recent tendency for the historians
of science to credit the achievements of peasant farmers and working people in laying the
foundations of science ..." 101

During the European Renaissance (14'h-l 7'h century), the scientific library continued to add
information gathered from women knowledge-keepers. 102 In these works, the culinary benefits of
fungi were often emphasized, as were their medicinal applications. Simultaneously, the practice of
medicine throughout Europe was shifting from its traditional roots to an official state recognized
profession. This shift began a prohibition against the unauthorized practice of medicine-much
of which was done by traditional practitioners, such as the impoverished women from whom the
medical knowledge was gathered. In time, women who chose to continue to treat patients in tra-
ditional ways-or who were merely suspected of doing so-were labeled as witches and accused
of placing curses on people. And, for some reason, these women were commonly associated with
mushrooms, a link that was frequently perpetuated through folklore. 103 For example, Baba Yaga
was a female witch who, in Baltic and Slavic contexts, was regularly connected with mushrooms. 104
Masked as a cleansing of evil spirits, the witch hunts that plagued Europe and parts of North
America in the l S'h- l 7'h centuries not only displaced women from their traditional roles, but
slaughtered them en masse, with current estimates counting the death of tens of thousands of
women around Europe. As these women were lost, so too fell an immeasurable amount of undoc-
umented fungal and botanical knowledge. 106
A century after the end of the witch hunts, women were still not allowed to formally enter
Both men and women were scientific fields, including that of mycology. One famous account is of Beatrix Potter ( 1866-1943 ),
targeted during the witch
hunts, although the mortal- the author of the children's book Peter Rabbit. Before becoming an author, Potter was known for
ity rates for women are sig- her deep love for fungi. Early on in her life, Potter created many beautiful and accurate mushroom
nificantly higher-in certain monographs 107 that are still used today to help others with identifying species. She also wrote, "On
places, up to 95% of those
murdered were women. the Germination of the Spores of the Agaricineae;' which she submitted to the Linnean Society in
1897. However, as a female, the Society did not allow her to present her paper, and instead it was
presented by a man. Recently, Potter's paper has been re-evaluated and recognized for its historical
value.
The pivotal discovery of the use of agar-agar for microbiology and mycology work is also
credited to a female scientist. In 1881, Fanny Hesse suggested the use of agar to her lab partner and

82 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
husband Walter while they were working as lab assistants for the infamous "father of microbiology;'
The link between women,
Robert Koch. When the use of agar was found to be superior to other gelling agents, Koch claimed
witches, and mushrooms
the discovery as his own and put it to use to further both scientific research as well as his career. 108 can still be found lingering in
Neither Fanny nor Walter were given any recognition for this discovery, while Koch's name rose mushroom taxonomy today.
to fame. It was not until recently that the Hesses' were given the credit they deserve for their dis- An old folklore tells the story
that, inside the homes that a
covery of uses for this ingredient, which has significantly contributed to many of the advances in witch had placed a curse, the
mycological studies over the last century. orange jelly fungus Witches
Butter (Tremella mesenterica)
Flora W Patterson (1847-1928) was the first female plant pathologist to work for the United
would mysteriously appear. 105
States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and later went on to become the Department's Mycolo-
gist in Charge of Mycological and Pathological Collections. Just two years prior to her employment
with the USDA in 1895, Patterson had attempted to complete her studies at Yale University. To her
dismay, Yale was not admitting female students at that time, so she attended Radcliffe College and
received formal mycological training while working as an assistant in Harvard University's Grey
Herbarium. During her nearly three decades with the USDA, Patterson identified many novel fungal
infections while also developing a means for successfully eradicating several detrimental blights. 109 How many Hfathersn of science
Moreover, Patterson expanded the U.S. National Fungus Collection by over 90,000 specimens, an are recognized in modern
effort that benefits the scientific community to this day. 110 During her career, three other female history? And in contrast, how
many ·mothers"?
mycologists were hired to work with her.
Though women in many countries today have the freedom to work in scientific fields, their
presence is still in the minority. There are currently no statistics on how many women practice in
the field of mycology, but looking at science more broadly, only 30% of the world's researchers are
women. 111 Despite making up nearly half of the U.S. workforce and half of the college-educated
workforce, women in the U.S. hold fewer than 25% of jobs in STEM fields (science, technology,
engineering, and math). 112 Only 11 % of the top academic science positions are held by women in Throughout the 18'h and 19'h
the European Union, and women are awarded less than 3% of the Nobel prizes in the sciences. 113 centuries, women were com-
monly depicted in art with, or
Possibly at the heart of this is the perception that women do not have the skills for science, an
foraging for, mushrooms. This
unfounded stigma that is perpetuated and spread throughout many modern cultures. One recent relationship is still made by
study examining this subtle phenomemon of oppression found that 67% of Europeans and 93% of artists of today and artwork
portraying these themes can
Chinese respondents do not believe that women are cut out for the sciences. 114 Even Tim Hunt, a be found in abundance online.
Nobel Prize-winning biochemist, has stated that women cause "trouble" in the lab. 115

"Universal Veil" by Tiffany

Bozic. 36" x 46" acrylic on
maple panel 2014 (original in
color). Printed with permission.

OF THE HYPHOSPHERE 83
 Despite the gender-based barriers that persist to this day, many women can be found work-
Math and science originally
ing in the field of mycology, whether in higher education, innovative businesses, or as a part of
come from the goddess tradi-
tions ofancient Egypt. In Egyp- community-based organizations. Kathie Hodge of the Cornell Plant Pathology Herbarium focuses
tian mythology there were the her work on fungal biodiversity, aiming to expand our collective knowledge of fungal species,
goddesses Ma'at and Seshat
who together, along with the .
especially in relationship to fungal pathogens of insects. Hodge is also the founder of the Cornell
God Thoth, represented the Mushroom Blog, which she uses to demystify molds and mushrooms in the public eye and teaches
foundational concepts and her students to do the same. Sue Van Hook, chief mycologist of New York based company Ecova-
principles that are still known
in these fields today. Ma'at
tive Design, uses her skills in taxonomy, cultivation, and education to help the company develop
was the Goddess of truth, jus- sustainable alternatives to plastics for packaging and building materials. Giuliana Furci, a Chilean
tice, and divine wisdom who environmental and fungal activist, is the mastermind behind the Fungi Foundation, an organization
brought the universe into or-
der from chaos at the begin-
that promotes fungal conservation in Chile. With the central notion that fungi are critical to the
ning of creation. Her name is outcome of conservation at large, Furci and her team are committed to the protection of fungi by
the root of the word •mathe- advocating for change in public policy around the world. Chido Govera, founder of the Future of
matics.n Seshat was the God-
dess of wisdom, knowledge,
Hope Foundation in Zimbabwe, Africa, is committed to empowering young orphans and women in
and writing. She was a master her region by offering mushroom cultivation education and support to those interested in starting
in the areas ofarchitecture, as- their own mushroom farms.
tronomy, astrology, building,
mathematics, and surveying.
Since before the founding of modern mycology by men like Carolous Clusius and Francis-
cus Van Sterbeek, women have maintained an in-depth and fertile understanding of the Fungal
Queendom. And though these are just a small sampling of the dedicated women mycologists in
the world, they are living proof that women continue to be critical holders and transmitters of my-
cological knowledge. Identifying influential women and projects like these in the public domain,
and within the context of our own lives, is essential for creating a mycelial network of support and
mentorship for the future generations of women within the global mycological community. People
of all genders and body types are encouraged to support the continued rise of women in a new era
of the fungal revolution.

To help strengthen the community of women in mycology, science, and society at large, we must
speak out against gender adversity in every facet of our lives. Outlined here are some ways that
you can take action:
GET INVOLVED with an organization like a local mycology club, a radical feminist group,
a political advocacy group, a sexual assault support group, or anything in between.
The role you take depends on your skills and comfort levels and it will likely change
over time. If organizations are limited in your area, consider starting one.
BECOME MEDIA LITERATE. The media heavily shapes how we view ourselves and the
world around us. Mass media poorly depicts women, and these harmful messages
become internalized by the consuming population. Mass media also has a prefer-
ence for highlighting white male experts in various fields of science and technolo-
gy, creating damaging stereotypes about who the practitioners of these fields are.
Being able to deconstruct harmful media messages is a great way to learn how to
reconstruct positive ones.
BREAK THE SILENCE and talk about your experiences with gender adversity. This can be
done in a number of ways, from conversing with a small group of people to utilizing
the broader outreach of media. ''" Sharing your story can help create the space needed
to heal and inspire others to release their stories as well. The strength of a united front
can fight oppression; no longer shall we be convinced to battle against each other to
rise to the top. Together, we can identify patterns of abuse in the home, the workplace,
on the streets, and anywhere else it exists. As the global campaign One Billion Rising' "
outlines, we must identify the patterns and intersections between gender violence
and inequality with poverty, racism, war, environmental destruction, capitalism, im-
perialism, and patriarchy in order to identify effective solutions to be put into action.
L1vE THE LIFE vou WANT ro uvE. Lead by example and pave the path for our children's
children to grow and follow.
KEEP MAKING TROUBLE because sometimes no one listens until you spill a little milk.

84 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
 Part II

CONN ECTIO N
 Chapter Four

SEEING FUNGI

Everyone has to seek nature for himself. -MASANOBU FUKUOKA

I wish it to be wholly understood what I have become of Nature and what Nature has become of me. If you
wish to understand me only passably, you must know how Nature found me and I found Nature during our
first encounter; then you will have the history and the exposition of my perceptions. -GOETHE

If you think you are a mushroom, jump into the basket. -RUSSIAN PROVERB

F or those who seek, so shall they find the fungi being. Regardless of the season or the extent
of human settlement, the molds, yeasts, mycorrhizal fungi, endophytes, saprotrophs, and
lichens of the world offer their presence in nearly all habitats and climates. Just as many
people and cultures have learned about the world from working with plants, animals, or landscapes,
so too can developing relationships with fungi offer novel means for inspiration. Silently and subtly,
they await discovery by all who pause to look.
Historically, humans have foraged for only a small number of edible and/or medicinal mush-
room species. But as the importance of the various types of fungi has become increasingly rec-
ognized in recent years, mycologists are now afforded a range of methods for discovering wild
fungi. At times, the most profound moments come not from tracking and naming one fungus or
another, or from the temporary thrill of finding a "choice" edible species. Rather, when the hunt
is deeply embodied, the seeker will be provided with a much more timeless perspective on fungi:
one filled with a constant appreciation for the multitude of their forms and habits. To draw toward
the fungi is to be drawn into their webs. The result is a hunter left not just with a unique means
for interpreting the world, but also a chance to realign to forgotten rhythms and rewild within the
entwined ecology of a place.

To Call a Mushroom by Any Other Name

One of the easiest means to experience fungi is by encountering their larger forms: the mushrooms.
Recognizing the numerous in-depth mushroom field guides that have been produced over the
decades, this chapter is not meant as a comparison to those fine works, but to lower the learning
curve for novice hunters.
The first step to hunting mushrooms is determining what species are likely to be fruiting in Written in 1245 CE, The My-
your current climate, region, and season. Local field guides are helpful here as they often have coflora by Chen Jen-yu dis-
regional fruiting windows for a given species, which can vary significantly between watersheds. In cusses the identification and
preparation of 11 mushroom
general, most edible species appear around the beginning of the cooler, rainier times of year, but species.
many edible, medicinal, and ecologically important species can be found year-round.

SEEING FUNGI 87
 Once you determine which species may be fruiting, the next question is to consider which you
desire to hunt. If you cannot choose just a few that are most appealing to you (or if they all appeal to
you), simply go out into the woods and fields to see what you find. If you're starting out, only pick a
small number of relatively distinctive species. This will help ease the identification process later on.
For a more focused approach, select a couple of species that you are interested in and then
locate an area that matches their preferred habitat. Common niches include pastures, fields, burned
areas, old growth forests, sparse woodlots, disturbed or compacted ground, melting snowbanks,
deserts, riparian zones, and sand dunes. Some species grow in several of these niches, while others
are endemic to very small zones. In wooded areas, the types of trees and other flora present have a
direct influence on the fungal diversity. Many mycorrhizal mushrooms are only found in association
with just one or several tree types. The elevation of your hunt matters, too. As a season progresses,
the required fruiting temperature for a species may move up or down a mountain, depending on
whether it's a spring or fall mushroom, respectively. The season of fruiting, plant associations, and
ideal elevation for mushrooms can all vary geographically.
A good local field guide or mentor is invaluable. Mycological societies are especially rich in
local hunting knowledge, including which local species are poisonous. Experienced hunters learn
the fruiting patterns oflocal species and often anticipate where and when to find their favorite fungi
fruiting. For those most attuned, this relationship can become a sort of sixth sense, a knowing that
they are out there. This process takes time and commitment, but its reward, like developing a solid
foundation for a long-term friendship, is in the nourishment that comes in the years that follow.

There are plenty of bold mush-

room hunters and plenty of WHAT ABOUT POISONOUS MUSHROOMS?
old mushroom hunters. But
there aren't a lot of old, bold To enter the mushroom hunt, one must always acknowledge the respect commanded by the
hunters. various toxic metabolites produced by fungi. A single misidentified poisonous mushroom can
-ANONYMOUS
lead to significant organ damage, complete liver failure, or death. However, this fate can readily
be avoided by learning to identify the fatal species before all others.
This does not mean one must learn to recognize every toxic species in their area, but to at
least recognize the genera that are responsible for most poisonings. Of the estimated 150,000
mushroom -forming fungi in the world, only around 400 are thought to be toxic. 1 In North Amer-
ica, only 1-2% of the approximately 5,000 mushroom species are significantly toxic and only
around 30 species are lethal. Most of these poisonous fungi are in the genera Amanita, Cortinarius,
Galerina, Gyromitra, and lnocybe.
There is no "rule of thumb" or magical way of knowing if a mushroom is poisonous. It is only
due to unfortunate experiences held by countless mycophagists that today we know which spe-
cies should not be eaten. Thus, before anyone eats a mushroom, they must be absolutely positive
All mushrooms are edible, but of its identification. This includes foreign mushrooms, which can look similar to familiar edibles
some only once. from one's home country.
-CROATIAN PROVERB
Caution should also be used when collecting mushrooms that are growing solitarily or in
scattered groups. Two mushrooms growing a few centimeters apart that look similar may actually
be from completely different genera. A classic example of this concurrence is with the psychoac-
tive Psilocybe mushrooms and the deadly poisonous Galerina fruit bodies. These mushrooms are
known to grow so close to each other that they touch! In this example, the quickest means for tell-
ing the two apart is with a spore print.) If you have any doubt that two mushrooms in a patch are
the same species, be sure to place them into individual bags and later identify each on their own.
The North American Mycological Society receives around 70 legitimate calls of human
mushroom poisonings per year and around 30 for animal poisonings. The most frequent form
of mushroom poisoning is not fatal but produces a serious bout of gastrointestinal (GI) distress.
Symptoms of such poisonings may appear within 20 minutes to 4 hours of ingesting the mush-
rooms and include cramps, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Hospitalization may be required in
Ancient treatments for con- severe poisonings, but in most cases treatment is largely supportive. Only about 1% of poisonings
suming toxic mushrooms
included various emetic con-
are fatal. See Appendix C for more information on deadly mushroom toxins and their common
coctions ofpungent mustards, symptoms.
bird dung, and vinegar.

88 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
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SEEING FUNGI 89
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90 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
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SEEING FUNGI 91
 When you find a productive patch, be sure to record its location and the date it was found.
HARVEST CALENDAR
Twelve months later, that secret mushroom garden may provide yet another bounty. These discov-
About 1,150 mushroom spe- eries and their subsequent annual flushes are the great rewards for all your initial searching and
cies in more than 85 countries
are conside.red edible, yet researching. Join your local mycological society to get a heads-up on the locales and nuances of the
only a small number are con- species in your region. And consider starting a Radical Mycology group so you can pool knowledge
sidered the most savory. ·The and resources and learn with others.
preceeding calendar shows
average time windows when
these more popular species
are fruiting in North America
and Europe.

MycoSchwag
What's a new cool hobby without a bunch of geeky paraphernalia and safety gear? Though mush-
room hunting is pretty inexpensive, the following equipment items are worth investing in.

0NTHEBODY
• BRIGHT, RIGHT CLOTHES: Mushroom hunting season often overlaps with the
hunting season of animals, so be safe! Multiple layers of non-absorbent clothing
and comfortable hiking boots are good options.
• COMPASS AND WHISTLE: Getting lost while mushroom hunting is the leading
cause of death related to the practice. If you are not familiar with how to use a
compass, learn before you leave.
NOTE TAKING MATERIALS: Waterproof and/or acid-free paper and fade-proof and/
or waterproof ink is ideal.
1ox-3ox HAND LENS: These low power magnifiers ~
are helpful for observing small identifying features • ~- .h
of mushrooms and lichens. They are also great for ~ ~
nerding out on how cool living things look up close.

92 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
IN A FLAT-BOTTOM WICKER BASKET OR DRILLED-OUT BUCKET
PAPER/WAX PAPER BAGS: To ensure that edibles don't get mixed with deadibles
(a.k.a. toxic species), each collection should be stored in a separate bag. Plastic bags
should not be used as they tend to make mushrooms "sweat" and decay rapidly. This
is one reason why a basket or drilled bucket is used to carry collections. Baskets/
buckets also help the fungi spread their spores as you hike. Bring a variety of bag
sizes and more than you think you will need.
KNIFE AND SMALL PAINTBRUSH: For harvesting and field dressing mushrooms.
TROWEL: For digging up truffles or species with subterranean identifying features.
TACKLE BOX: For protecting and separating delicate species.
DENTAL MIRROR: For looking under mushrooms that you don't need to harvest
but want to identify.
CEREAL CROP FLOUR: For making an offering of thanks.

IN THE BACKPACK
FOOD AND WATER
EMERGENCY BLANKET
WATERPROOF RAINGEAR
FLASHLIGHT/HEADLAMP
SUNSCREEN
FIRST AID KIT
TICK REMOVAL TOOL
BEAR SPRAY
BINOCULARS: For determining if that thing over there is a mushroom. Or, hey,
what kind of bird is that?
FIELD GUIDES: Regional tree/plant guides are also helpful for identifying the part-
ners of mycorrhizal fungi.
PH AND MOISTURE METER: To determine the parameters of a mushroom's sub-
strate, especially if you wish to grow it later.

IN LAND, OF LAND

Crossing the border between forest and field, the senses soften into focus as heightened acui-
ty takes over the mind. The periphery expands, allowing the slightest accents in the forest floor
to exaggerate their rare forms glowing among shadow and foliage. Up and down, under and
through, the glance is always peering. This is the quiet hunt-a secret in the recesses not con-
sidered by others. Weaving, steps are taken cautiously, with precision, and in a meandering sim-
plicity that follows the undercurrents of mycelium woven through the soil, just as a dowser seeks
hidden waters.
Soon, the walking meditation becomes familiar-its antiquity felt as forgotten instincts of
survival passed down from tribes of gathering ancestors. Demanding nothing, the hunt is to ex-
plore, to listen, and integrate in Nature's temples. Singing overheard and rustling below, its webs
remind one of the twinned search of mystics and scientists for pattern in the heart of the wild.
The demands of civilization abandoned, the value of the land takes on greater emphasis.
Who has lived here? Who lives here now? How have I shaped and defended this land? In won-
dering, a chance to dialogue with the elders of a place is found. The answers come uniquely,
expressed through the lens of each individual's relationship to the land.
To seek the fungi is to travel deeper into Nature's moments in all places and to shape one's life
by the rhythms found. Woven in the world, equally built from its cycles of death and rebirth, and
intimately tied to its health and protection, fungi teach us to see the mycelium for the hyphae.
They see us; they know us. But it is up to each of us to decide how we will come to know them.

SEEING FUNGI 93
 LEGAL ISSUES

COMMON CONKS AND POPULAR POLYPORES

The legality of mushroom picking varies by location. In the United
States, many state and federal lands require permits or other forms
• of registration to forage, often with a daily or annual maximum
allowed per person. Many state and national parks prohibit mush-
room picking entirely. Illegal harvesting can incur fines of $200-500,
• even for picking one mushroom. If you wish to hunt on private prop-
• erty, be sure to ask for permission from the landowner. Offering to
• share a part of your harvest is an easy way to gain access to what is
likely to otherwise go unclaimed.
•
CRAMP BALLS •
THICK-WALLED MAZE POLYPORE • CHEMICAL REAGENTS: Not commonly carried. Melt-
THIN-WALL ED MAZE PoLYPORE • zer's reagent and 3% KOH (discussed later) are the
• most helpful in the field .
• • GPS TRACKING DEVICE: For obtaining and recording
the exact coordinates of a patch .
•
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE AREA

II
cajanderi RosYCONK • PHOTOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT: Photos of your hunts
F OMITOPSIS officinalis A GARI KON • aid in identification, increase one's bragging rights, and
pinicola RED BELTED CONK • help recall fond memories of forays gone past. Investing

II••
applanatum ARTIST'S CONK • in higher quality photography gear, especially a camera
G ANODERMA
lucidum RESIHI • with a macro setting/lens, is suggested for the devout
oregonense OREGON REISHI • hunter. In low light, use a tripod and long exposure
tsugae HEMLOCK REISHI • instead of a flash.
• CULTIVATION GEAR: To help increase species diver-
•
••II
G LOEOPHYLLUM saepiarium Rusrv G1LLED PoLYPORE
sity and/or redundancy, consider inoculating logs and
H ETEROBASIDION annosum ANNOSUM Roor Ror • stumps with edible, medicinal, or ecologically import-
/ NONOTUS
obliquus (HAGA • ant species. A small hand drill, palm inoculator, and
•

••
tomentosus WooLv VELVET PoLYPORE naturalized plug or sawdust spawn are best for inoc-
/ SCHNODERMA resinosum REs1Nous PoLYPORE • ulating logs, stumps, and snags. Be sure to only intro-
L AETIPORUS spp.
aa
•
•
• duce local species/strains and avoid unnatural concen-
trations of species that could result in an unforeseen
P HAEOLUS schweinitzii DYER'S PoLYPORE

•• long-term ecological disturbance.

SPORE COLLECTION GEAR: Pieces of aluminum foil

II
gilvus 0AK(ONK • stored in a small metal tin work well for this.
P HELL/NUS igniarius FALSE TINDER CONK • CULTURE COLLECTION GEAR: A variety of tools can
linteus BLACK HOOF MUSHROOM • be used to collect cultures of mushrooms in the field.
P HLEBIA tremel/osa

. a•
• This is especially helpful for cloning mushrooms that
P IPTOPORUS betulinus ..
a•
• are rare and should not be harvested in their entirety.

a•
• Plastic food storage containers carrying pre-hydrated

••
pini

...
P oRODAEDALIA

P YCNOPORELWS fulgens
cardboard can be used to collect cardboard cultures
immediately upon harvest. For mushrooms that are
S TEREUM spp
a•
• high in a tree, hollow pointed arrowheads that have
T RAMETES
versicolor

hirsuta
TURKEY TAIL

HAIRY TURKEY TAIL

•
• II been cleaned with alcohol can be shot with a bow and
retrieved to harvest a small tissue sample .
T R!CHAPTUM
biforme

abietinum
V10LET T ooTH PoLYPORE

V10LETToorH PoLYPORE
•
• II
T YROMYCES
caesius
chioneus

fr aq iii s
BLUE CHEESE POLYPORE

WHITE CHEESE PoLYPORE

RUSTY CHEESE POLYPORE _II •

•
•

94 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
Noting Nuances APPROXIMATE SPECIES (OUNT!
(AP AND STALK
Both veteran hunters and burgeoning mycologists rely on the benefits of taking thorough notes
during every foray. Noting a mushroom's habitat and fresh appearance in the field is important for
ensuring accurate identifications as some characteristics are easy to forget. Features such as color-
ation and scent can also alter dramatically in just a few minutes after harvesting. Notes ensure that
these changes are not overlooked. Likewise, photos cannot capture many identifying characteristics
and often cannot be used as the sole means for identifying a mushroom.
Note taking offers the hunter many benefits beyond identifying fungi. Observing and recording
information about each collection helps hone one's awareness of the subtleties of each specimen, and
Catathelasma
to ultimately develop the pattern recognition that underlies quick mushroom identification. Taking
good notes also encourages slowing down, looking around, and integrating a bit with the ecological Chlorophyllum

webs that fungi embed within, create, and sustain. Taking the time to note these relationships in all Chroogomphus

the species that you find-even those you're not planning to harvest-nurtures a relationship with
the fungi that is deeper and more intentional than one based solely on a "Can I eat it?" approach.
By experiencing and appreciating the complexity of such ecological dynamics, one can shift their
foray's emphasis toward the systemic relationships that fungi form and their various effects.
The notes you take in the field can be as detailed as you like. But, at a minimum, recording the
Coprinellus
following information is recommended to help ease identification later on. The best practice is to
number each collection's notes in the sequence of harvest, and place each collection in a unique Coprinopsis

bag labeled with the same identifying number.

HABITAT INFORMATION
• TIME AND DATE
• RECENT AND CURRENT WEATHER Flammulina

GPS COORDINATES Floccularia

• ELEVATION
• NEARBY PLANTS
• HABITAT (e.g. mixed conifer forest, grassy meadow, road side, etc.)
• SUBSTRATE (e.g. soil, wood, woody debris, buried debris, leaf litter/duff, other
mushrooms, compost, burned soil, or dung)
• SUBSTRATE QUALITY, PH, AND MOISTURE CONTENT

FUNGUS INFORMATION
• GENERAL MACROSCOPIC FEATURES OF THE FRUIT BODY (e.g. stipe, cap, and
hymenium characteristics)
NUMBER OF SPECIMENS
GROWTH HABIT (e.g. solitary, gregarious, scattered, or clustered) Laccaria

SCENT Ladarius
• TASTE (That is, the taste when a small piece of the fungus is chewed, held on the Lentinellus
tongue for a few seconds, and then spit out and the mouth rinsed with water. Never Lentinula
swallow any amount of an unidentified mushroom.) Len tinus
COLORATION AND ITS CHANGES DUE TO DRYING OR HANDLING
CHEMICAL STAINING (If you are using chemical reagents in the field.)
PRESENCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MYCELIUM AND/OR RHIZOMORPHS
UNUSUAL TRAITS (If a mushroom is growing off an uncommon substrate or in Leucoagaricus

unusual conditions, it might be a good candidate for cultivation experiments.) Leucocoprinus

Leucopoxillus

SEEING FUNGI 95
APPROXIMATE SPECIES COUNT:
CAP AND STALK
Species Lists
In some instances, avid hunters also take less rigorous notes of the species and genera that they can
identify on sight, as when on a casual hike. For each outing, a list is titled with the date, location,
and any other pertinent information about the site. Below this information, the species names are
listed as they are encountered. For mushrooms that are only recognizable to genus, the abbreviation
"sp" can be used, with additional "p"s added to track the number of unidentified species in a genus.
For example, Russula sp = one Russula species, Russula spp = two Russula species. Russula sppppp
would indicate that five unidentified Russula species were seen. Along with simply tracking the
diversity of fungi one encounters throughout their life, these lists also help build familiarity with
the fruiting cycles and fungal demographics for a given site, as well as the seasonal and geographical
range of a given species.

IDENTIFYING PLANTS

To increase the quality of notes and enhance general familiarity with fungal habitats, many hunt-
ers also learn to identify local fungi-associated plants, such as trees, orchids, and plants in the
Ericaceae that form mycorrhizal relationships. Most trees can be identified solely by the shape,
size, and arrangement of their leaves. The bark pattern and overall shape of a tree is also a helpful
identifier for many species.

Grinnell Journaling
If thoroughly documented and preserved, field notes can serve as a long-term record of a local
ecosystem, and be used as educational tools for future naturalists and mycologists tracking the
transformation of a place over time. As the world becomes ever more urbanized and the biological
sciences increasingly focus on the genetics of life instead of their field observation, the art of the
naturalist fades into obscurity. Today, 90% of the average American's life is spent indoors. 3 How will
losing connection to the features and creatures of a culture's land base affect future generations?
If the adults of tomorrow are unable to identify wild berries to pick in the summer, how will they
know which endangered plants to defend, let alone develop a reason for why defending a plant is
important to begin with? The world needs more naturalists, ecologists, biologists, botanists, and
mycologists with field experience and the desire to share their knowledge with future generations.
The act of documenting one's experience in the wild is a simple means to help retain a cultural
memory of an environment as the world moves into an increasingly technological tomorrow.
One of the most respected and refined formats for creating thorough field recordings was
developed around the turn of the 20'h century by the zoologist Joseph Grinnell. An ecologist ahead
of his time, Grinnell recognized the long-term need to document how species diversity and dis-
tribution patterns change over decades and centuries. To this end, Grinnell devised a method of
nature journaling that would create a written snapshot of an environment through the transcription
of field notes into a flowing essay that is well-organized. Most practitioners of the Grinnell system
still adhere to its original four-part protocol.

THE FIELD NOTEBOOK

Similar to the pocket notebooks used for note taking on casual forays, Grinnel Field Notebooks
track shorthand information about every collection. However, rather than just noting information
about the fungus being observed, greater attention is paid to details of the environment, especially
in regard to the other visible flora and fauna. Other additional information that is often recorded
includes the route taken to the location, arrival and departure times, and notes on the blooming
and pollination patterns witnessed. Once a Field Notebook is filled up, it is kept for reference.

96 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
 APPROXIMATE SPECIES COUNT:
THE FIELD JOURNAL
NoN-CAP AND STALK
Once back from the field, the detailed notes from the Field Notebook are translated into a separate
journal as a short essay. Beyond noting what was witnessed, journal entries also include expla-
nations of how travel occurred, how the fungi were generally hunted, and other miscellaneous
acts. To make it easy to quickly find important information, the scientific names of species and
any other essential details are underlined. One side of each piece of paper is written on, while the
other side is used for drawing maps or sketches of the environment, or for attaching papers. Most
importantly, journal entries should be made within 24 hours as details of an excursion tend to fade
quickly. A Field Journal is used for one calendar year. At the beginning of each year, the old journal
is numbered, stored, and then replaced with a new one. "No Journal This Day, No Sleep This Night!"

THE SPECIES ACCOUNTS

The Species Account section of a journal records every instance that a given species is encountered
in a year. Each Species Account is titled with the name of the species and is filled with dated, short,
first person essays of each encounter. Things to note include the phenology (natural cycles in oc-
currence, such as climate and season), ecology, morphology, and distribution of the species. Species
Accounts help one learn the various habits of a species over time and across a range of habitats.
This information can be written in a separate section of the Field Journal or in a separate journal.

THE CATALOG
The Catalog is used to track all of one's collections. It assigns a number (starting with 1) to every
specimen that is picked up during field observations. Personal coding systems can be devised to help
track when and where a collection was made. The Catalog can be in a separate section of your Field
Journal or in a separate book. Each page is titled "Catalog:' Catalog collections tend to correspond
to numbered objects preserved in a personal or institutional herbaria, which are either placed in a
labeled container or tagged with corresponding information.

SEEING FUNGI 97
APPROXIMATE SPECIES (OUNT:
NoN-CAP AND STALK The Take
Conlophora To ensure that your hunts have the least amount of impact, mushrooms should be harvested in
Heterobasidion
a manner that both minimizes soil disturbance and encourages sporulation. Soil compaction is
one of the greatest threats to mushroom populations as it has been directly linked to declines in
lrpex
the distribution of several mushroom species in Europe. If you are hunting with a small group of
Merulius
people, try to walk in a single file line. Conversely, if you are with many other hunters, spread out
Phanerochaete to reduce trampling. When walking on steep slopes, follow deer trails where possible or descend
Phlebia diagonally to reduce erosion.
Poria The approach to collecting varies depending on the intention of use. If you are not sure of the
Serpula identity of the species you are harvesting, try to collect several specimens at various stages of growth.
Stereum
Many species have notable morphological changes (e.g. gill color, veil shedding, and cap features)
that occur in age. Regardless of age or population of the species, be sure to collect the entire mush-
Bovisto
room, including any underground features such as a volva, subterranean stem, or rhizomorphs.
Ca/bovista
When harvesting mushrooms for consumption, it is best to field dress each fungus at the time
Calvatia
of harvest. For mushrooms, cut or scrape off the dirty stem bottoms and clean off the dirt with a
Geastrum small brush, your breath, and/ or your hands. If a species is known to have bitter gills, pores, or teeth,
Lycoperdon cut these off in the field and put them in a place where their spores might grow, so as to facilitate
Pisolithus a semi-natural inoculation.
Podaxis An ethical wildcrafting approach to harvesting is to only collect fungi that have dropped some
spores and to leave at least 25% of what you find for the next person (human or otherwise). If you
Rhizopogon
are harvesting a thin fleshed or tough mushroom that you wish to later culture, also try collecting a
Sc/eroderma
small piece of its myceliated substrate in case the fruit body proves challenging to clone. Place each
Vascellum collection in a separate bag inside your basket or, if it is to be cultivated, roll it into moist cardboard
Aleuria and place it in a sealed container.
Paxina

Peziza
The Basics of Field Guides and Keys
Aseroe
Once you have found some fungi and gotten them safely back to your tent, van, home, or lab, the
Clathrus
time has come to identify them. For mushrooms, the first step is to determine the species' general
Jleodictyon
form or "stature type:' Some species form belowground, or hypogeous, fruit bodies. These include
Lysurus the truffles and their look-alikes. Most of the known macro fungi, however, produce aboveground,
Mutinus or epigeous, mushrooms.
Phallus

Pseudocolus NON-CAP AND STALK

Crucibulum
In general, the more commonly encountered mushrooms that do not have a stereotypical "cap
Cyathus and stalk" form tend to be relatively easier to identify to genus than the cap and stalk mushrooms.
Mycocalia Many "non-cap and stalk" mushrooms tend to get overlooked by most beginners due to the fact that
Nidula many are inedible or, at the least, not as "choice" as the more popular species. However, this does
Nidularia not imply that these fungi have little value for humans or other people. Many species in this group
Clavaria
play critical ecological roles, have very long or unusual lifestyles worthy of appreciation, and/or are
highly medicinal. Non-cap and stalked mushrooms tend to fall into the following broad groups:
Clavariadelphus

Clavulina
POLYPORES AND BRACKETS: Woody, leathery, or fleshy fruit bodies. Often shelf-
like or hoof-shaped. If a stalk is present, it is generally off-center. Often found
Cordyceps
growing off of wood, but may be on the ground. Spores are produced in round or
Geoglossum
maze-like tubes that are not easy to remove.
Ra maria STALKLESS AGARICS: Shelf-like, fleshy fruit bodies. Spores produced on delicate
The/ephora gills. Typically found on wood.
Tremellodendron JELLY: Gelatinous or rubbery blobs of various shapes. Generally found on wood,
Trichoglossum though some species are terrestrial.
Xylaria CRUSTS: Crust-like and not gelatinous. Often on wood.
PUFFBALLS AND EARTHSTARS: Round to pear-shaped fruit bodies. Interior filled

98 RADICAL MYCOLOGY
 with a powdery spore mass at maturity.
APPROXIMATE SPECIES COUNT:
STINKHORNS: Phallic, net-, or basket-shaped fruit bodies that arise from an egg or NoN-CAP AND STALK
vulva. Often containing or coated in a stinky spore slime.
• BIRD'S NEST: Tiny cup-like forms filled with egg-shaped spore pods. Gyromitra
CORALS AND CLUBS: A mixed bag of ground-dwelling, club-shaped, and/or Helve/la
branching fungal forms. Morchella
Cup FUNGI, MORELS, AND LOOK-ALIKES: Ascomycetes that come in a variety of
Verpa
brain-like, lobed, cupped, or saddle-shaped forms.
Leucanglum
TRUFFLES AND LOOK-ALIKES: Lumpy, ball-, or blob-shaped. Fruiting under-
Me/anogaster
ground or rising to the soil surface at maturity. Spores produced internally and
spread by animals. Terfezia

Tirmania

CAP AND STALK MUSHROOMS Tuber

Compared to the above group, learning to identify a "cap and stalk" mushroom to species can be a
bit more daunting for the beginner due to the large number of species in this category. Further, the
gilled cap and stalk mushroom category (the agarics) is perhaps the most overwhelming group of
all the Basidiomycete mushrooms due to its large number of genera. Some agaric genera are also so
large that it can be quite challenging to identify a mushroom in that genus to species. Good examples
of this challenge are with the genera Russula (ca. 700 species) and Cortinarius (ca. 2000+ species).
However, as the cap and stalk mushrooms contain many of the more commonly eaten fungi, this
group is where most people begin to hone their identification skills.
AGARICS: Cap with gills. A central stalk may or may not be present. Spore print
can be easily obtained.
VEINED: Similar to agarics but with blunt ridges/veins instead of well-defined gills.
BoLETES: Cap with tubes or pores on the underside that are often easy to remove.
A central stalk is usually present. Fruiting body is fleshy and not tough. Spore print
can be easily obtained.
TOOTHED: Spores produced on tooth-like structures.

Once you have determined a mushroom's stature type, one of the first steps toward identifying
its genus may be to take a spore print. This is especially true for the agarics, as the spore color of
these fungi can quickly help narrow down the potential options for a given mushroom's genus. To
take a spore print, place a piece of the mushroom's spore bearing structure (typically located on
the underside of a cap) facing downward on top of a piece of paper. Most mushrooms have colored
spores, making white paper a good choice. A heavy deposit of white spores is often visible even
on white paper. However, to more easily view the lighter and whiter spores of some species, black
paper can be used. If you do not have an idea of what the spore color is, use a microscope slide,
which can be placed over white or black paper and/ or used for microscopic viewing of the spores.
Aluminum foil is another good option, as the neutral color allows for color analysis, and because it
is an excellent spore storage material. Cover the mushroom with a bowl to reduce drafts and allow
it to sit undisturbed for 4-24 hours. After that time, remove the bowl and mushroom piece to reveal
the color of the spore deposit.
In general, patience and practice are central to developing a greater ease in identifying mush-
rooms. Seasoned hunters are often able to quickly name the genus or even the species of a mush-
room using pattern recognition (though this may be a reflexive, unconscious process). For the
agarics, a good trick for identifying genera is to learn the defining combination of gill attachment,
spore color, habitat, silhouette form, and veil characteristics for each genus. Flash cards are quite
helpful in this process.
Once you have determined the genus of the mushroom at hand, the next step is to narrow in on
the exact species you are working with. How to go about this depends on the identification resource
you are using. Some guides are not very well arranged and are more like a collage of descriptions
and photos, requiring you to check the descriptions of each species in the genus. Well-organized

SEEING FUNGI 99
 guides offer dichotomous keys that walk you through a serious of yes/no type questions to ultimately
determine the proper species. If you do not have a field guide handy, the keys to many genera are
free online. The Pacific Northwest Key Council offers free online mushroom identification tools. 4
Regardless of your identification resource, it is recommended to compare descriptions between
several resources to be absolutely positive of your identification. The descriptions offered in guides
can vary based on the attention to detail given by an author. The best guides include macroscopic as
well as microscopic features. If you are not positive of an identification, do not consume the fungus!

Macro Mushroomery
Once you have narrowed down your candidate species, the next step is to confirm that every feature
in the species description in your field guide(s) matches your collection. For many mushrooms, this
can be done by viewing the fungus' macroscopic features. Typically, these include the following:
CAP: Diameter, shape, side and top view, color changes due to age, bruising or dry-
ing, universal veil remnants, margin features, taste, odor, or other surface features.
VEIL(s): Presence or absence, evanescence or persistence, texture (membranous,
fibrillose, glutinous, or granular), shape, color, and location and pattern of rem-
nants.
GILLS: Attachment to stalk, spacing, thickness, appearance, forking, color and color
changes, and the appearance and characteristics oflatex (milk).
STIPE: Attachment to cap, length and diameter, shape, quality of interior, color and
color changes, surface features, taste, and odor.

For some trickier species, a drop or two of a chemical reagent may need to be placed on the
mushroom's tissue to see if an identifying color change occurs. Meltzer's reagent is commonly used
for this purpose. With Meltzer's, a color change to blue-black is called amyloid, a red-brown color
change is dextrinoid, and a lack of color change is inamyloid. All Russula and Lactarius as well as
some Amanita species have amyloid spores. Lepiota species have dextrinoid spores. To make Melt-
zer's reagent, dissolve 20 grams chloral hydrate, 0.5 grams iodine, and 1.5 grams potassium iodide
in 20 milliliters of warm water. Three to five percent potassium hydroxide (3-5% KOH) is another
common reagent. Other reagents are used as well, but are generally for more obscure species. 6

100 RADICAL MYCOLOGY

Mycroscopy
When a mushroom's readily visible features aren't enough to confirm its identity, checking the fun-
gus' microscopic features is often the last step to finishing the name game. This is especially true for
certain genera such as Conocybe and Galerina, which contain many species with nearly identical
macro features. Even if you don't need to check the micro features of a fungus to confirm its identity,
peering into the tiny world of fungal forms can be pretty bizarre and engaging in its own way. To
begin, you will need to get the right kind of microscope to match your needs.

DISSECTING/STEREO MICROSCOPES
Relatively inexpensive and low powered, these scopes are meant for close observation of macro-
scopic features. They are quite helpful for identifying lichens and wowing out on mushrooms in
general, but they aren't going to get close enough to measure spores or view other minute features.

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPES (SEMs)

Unlike light microscopes, which use photons to produce an image, SEMs spray a field of electrons at
an object and translate the time it takes for those electrons to hit the object and bounce back into a
three-dimensional rendering. To ensure that the reading is accurate, the sample must be completely
dried and sputter coated with an ultra thin layer of metal. As such, SEMs are not commonly used
for identification purposes. However, SEMs are ideal for research projects as they are able to reach
incredible magnification levels of up to 500,000x. SEMs can cost upwards of $250,000. So if you
are able to access one through a local university or other institution, be sure to take advantage of
such a rare opportunity. Alternately, check out the work of DIY engineer Ben Krasnow, who has
built a simple SEM for $1,500. 7

An SEM a( a public college in

Washington state. The small
stage for the microscope is
behind the door on the upper
portion of the machine.

SEEING FUNGI 101

 COMPOUND MICROSCOPES
THE LANGUAGE OF DESCRIPTIONS

A challenging but unavoidable These multi-lens scopes are those most commonly used by mycologists. For information on prop-
aspect of identifying mush- erly preparing, calibrating, using, and storing a compound microscope-as well as basically ev-
rooms is the need to learn an
erything you need to know about microscopic mushroom features-refer to the book How To
array of unique adjectives used
by mycologists to describe the Identify Mushrooms To Genus III by David Largent. Nicer compound scopes achieve at least l ,OOOx
subtle features of fungi. While magnification and cost several hundred dollars. A nice, simple model is the Amscope B- lOOms.
some field guides offer de-
The more expensive the scope, the better the image quality it achieves.
scriptions that are easy for a
beginner to understand, many
books are rather technical in
THE TEN DOLLAR MICROSCOPE
their details. This can be a bit
off-putting at first, but in time This simple yet incredibly effective design was developed by Kenji Yoshino to turn any smart phone
such terms quickly become an
integrated aspect of one's note into a microscope. 8 At its core, this DIY microscope relies on the refraction oflenses taken from
taking and research practice. laser pointers to magnify the image in a smart phone camera. Similarly, many people have good
As it currently stands, this lan- results simply lining up a hand lens with the lens on a smart phone.
guage barrier is one of the un-
avoidable hurdles to accessing
mycology that simply must
be overcome by any Radical
Mycologist wishing to gain a
complete understanding of the
fungi in all their forms.

The $10 Microscope is com-

prised of two lenses, a stage,
wingnuts, plexiglass slides,
compression springs, and a
little LED light.

Spore Stature
Once you've obtained or made a microscope, the next step is to observe and measure the mush-
room's spores. The eyepiece of most compound scopes have marker lines that need to first be
calibrated with a stage micrometer to determine their length at each magnification. If these lines
aren't calibrated, you won't know how to determine the relative length of these marker lines and
thus will be unable to accurately measure spores or other features. To load spores, scrape some off
of a spore print onto a slide. If the spores are dry, they should be rehydrated with 70% isopropyl or
5-10% KOH to ensure proper measurements. Before loading the slide under the scope, add a drop
of water to the slide and drop a slide cover slip down to cover the spores, trying to avoid air bubbles.
The length, width, and shape of spores are some of the primary features observed. The standard
practice is to measure the size of 30 spores and then determine their average. This is tedious. A
faster method for achieving this goal is to take a digital photo of the spores through the microscope's
eyepiece (a variety of adapters and USB eyepieces exist for compound scopes) and then use the open
source programs Piximetre or ImageJ9 to quickly measure the spores. The spores of some species
also have projections, netting, or other types of ornamentation that are used for identification.

102 RADICAL MYCOLOGY

Squash Mounts
Other microscopic features require taking a thin cross-section from somewhere on the mushroom
body. The most common sections are taken as a top down view (cross-section) of the gills, as aver-
tical slice (longitudinal section) of the cap, or as a transverse section of the stipe walls. Using a new
razor blade, take as thin of a cut as possible of these areas. This is often easier with dry specimens
and when looking under a compound microscope. Once the slice is obtained, place it on a slide, add
a drop of water, and let a cover slip fall sideways over the sample. If the tissue is hard to see, chemical
stains can be used to aid in visualization. The stain Congo Red A ( 1%) is often used to stain hyphal
walls and Phloxine A ( 1%) is helpful for dyeing the interior of hyphae. Diluted food coloring can
work too. Microscopic features of the cap that are typically observed in Basidiomycetes include:
BASIDIA: Shape, dimensions, number of spores per, and any chemical reactions.
CYSTIDIA: Location, shape, dimensions, pigmentation, ornamentation, contents,
and any chemical reactions.
GILL TRAMA: Types ofhyphae present and their dimensions, pigmentation, con-
tents, and overall arrangement.

Sometimes, these features are also checked to confirm an identification:

• CAP CUTICLE: Number of layers, morphology, chemical reactions, presence of
cystidia, or other features.
FLESH OF CAP OR STIPE: Types of hyphae present, pigmentation, chemical reac-
tions, and the presence and features of cystidia.
VEILS: Hyphal/cell types, pigmentation, and any chemical reactions.

Other microscopic features include clamp connections and the presence and coloration of
septa between cells. Ascomycete fungi bear a range of their own unique microscopic features.
These include the shape, size, and branching patterns of asci, paraphyses, conidia, ascospores, and •
conidiospores. Good field guides and keys will detail these nuances per species.

SEEING FUNGI 103

 What if I Can't Identify it?
If you are unable to identify a fungus with the tools at hand, several options for refining your ID
are as follows:
Run through the keys again. It's easy to make a mistake and end with the wrong
candidate.
Cross-reference the species' description with as many other books as possible.
If you think you know the family or genus of the sample, check online for the most
current key.
Take it to your local mycological society.
Post photos and your collection notes on www.mushroomobserver.org. This free
online community of amateur and professional mycologists is intended to ensure
the accurate identification of fungal species around the globe.
Preserve the specimen using the techniques below and send it along with your
collection notes and a spore print to an expert in the suspected genus. If it is an
unnamed species, you may have a chance at naming it!

104 RADICAL MYCOLOGY

Identifying Endophytes
Endophytic fungi can be rather easily observed within plant matter (especially leaves) using a light
microscope or, with the aid of a fluorescent dye, under a microscope equipped with fluorescence
optics. Identifying these fungi, however, is a bit more challenging. As discussed in Chapter 9, the
mycelium of many endophytic fungi can be cultured on agar plates rather easily, but most cannot be
identified from their mycelium alone. If the fungus forms conidia, identification to genus or species
may be possible; if it doesn't, genetic analysis will likely be required for identification. However,
genetic identification may not be 100% positive, due to the currently limited scope of understanding
surrounding endophytic fungi.

Identifying Slime Molds (Mycetozoa)

While not true fungi, slime molds can be studied using many of the same tools and techniques
covered in Radical Mycology. The Myxomycetes and Dictyostelids tend to live as single-celled or-
ganisms in damp areas, and will occasionally congregate when food supplies are limited to form
macroscopic spore-bearing structures. Once in these congregated forms, the clusters can often be
identified by their general appearance alone. These slime molds are covered in a number of dedi-
cated field guides. 14
On the other hand, the micro slime molds-the Protostelids-are so small that their identifi-
cation requires the application of some of the agar-based culturing skills covered in Chapter 8. In

SEEING FUNGI 105

 general, Protostelids can be coaxed from plant debris that has been harvested in the field, soaked in
sterile water for several minutes, and then placed into a petri dish filled with (low nutrient) wMY
agar. Within a few days, the slime molds tend to grow off of the plated plant material, at which point
the Protostelids can be more easily viewed under a compound microscope. The Eumycetozoan
Project at the University of Arkansas is one of the few research centers in the world studying slime
molds. For more information on this project, including free resources for identifying slime molds,
be sure to visit their website. 15

Identifying Arbuscular Mycorrhizae

Determining the presence and diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AM) can provide a variety
of insights into the health and regenerative state of an ecosystem. For example, certain genera of AM
are indicators of heavily tilled or polluted lands. Likewise, a diverse AM population can indicate
that a habitat has not been disturbed in several years. However, as AM do not produce macroscopic
fruiting bodies, their identification requires a unique set of tools and practices for isolating and
observing their spores and mycorrhizal structures.
The first step in this process is to collect soil cores from a vegetated area to a depth of at least
12 inches (30.5 cm). This depth ensures that the various fungal species living at different soil hori-
zons are accounted for. If possible, collect the soil several weeks after the local vegetation has gone
into hibernation for the winter or, alternately, after watering has been intentionally halted in the
height of summer. This will help ensure a heavy spore set by the fungus. Once harvested, the soil
is run through a series of metal sieves to filter out rocks, root fragments, and other large particles.
Scientific metal sieves sized 500 µm, 53 µm, and 38 µmare stacked and the soil is washed through
the sieves using water. After washing, the bottom sieve will contain the AM spores along with a
mixture of clay minerals.
To separate out the spores, this clay/spore mixture is then placed into a test tube filled with
layers of sugar water of increasing densities. Higher density sugar water is placed at the bottom and
successive layers are added on top to create a "sucrose gradient:' The bottom layer is 60% sucrose
(60 grams sugar, 40 milliliters water), and each subsequent layer decreases in concentration in in-
crements of 5% until a top layer of 20% sucrose is created. Once the gradient is created, the spore/
clay mix is carefully added so as not to mix up the sucrose layers, and the mixture is centrifuged
for two to three minutes. After centrifuging, the dense clay particles will have settled to the bottom
of the test tube and the spores will remain suspended in the middle of the tube. These spores can
then be removed from this middle layer with a pipette or syringe, and further washed on the 38 µm
sieve or directly plated on a slide for identification under a dissecting scope. To ensure that you are
looking at an AM spore and not another organism, look for a liquid droplet inside the spore and a
short protruding stalk. AM spores are identified based on their morphology, generally to genus. As
noted in Chapter l, identifying AM fungi to species is very challenging. Identifying characteristics
typically include the arrangement, shape, size, color, ornamentation, wall width, staining reactions,
contents, and developmental stages of the spores.
If the spore has germinated, hyphal structures produced in the soil and root tissue can also be
used to aid in ident,ification. To observe and identify root structures, you will first need to clean
and stain the roots. Ideal root samples are taken from finer, more fibrous root tips. Select one to
two grams of material and clean it for a few minutes in 10% KOH, and then autoclave the sample
at 15 psi for 15-20 minutes to "clear" the tissue. The cleared roots should then be stained. A simple
and safe way to do this is to place the freshly autoclaved root fragments in a mixture of 5 milliliters
of ink and 95 milliliters of household vinegar. After three minutes in the solution, the roots are
then washed in tap water that has had a few drops of vinegar added to it. Suggested inks include
red from Parker, Blue from Pelikan, and black from most companies. Alternately, mycorrhizal
structures (dead or alive) can be viewed within and outside of roots by being excited under the
blue and/or green light of an epifluorescence microscope. For extensive information on harvesting
and identifying AM fungi, visit the website for the International Culture Collection of Arbuscular
Mycorrhizal Fungi at West Virginia University. 16

106 RADICAL MYCOLOGY

Fungi for a Future
If a fungus is left to the winds of consumption or decay, its legacy can only extend to those few
animals and microbes that are afforded the luck to view its beauty or dine on its flesh. However, if
the experience of a mushroom sighting is preserved and shared, its impact on society can extend
from the few to the many and thereby provide a record of the fungus' character and, along with it,
a slightly deeper insight into the whims of each special species.
By preserving fungal collections, one is also preserving a degree of reverence for Nature in
general. The act of preserving a collection is an act of framing each intersection between human and
fungus as a small step toward a greater cultural and global understanding of the world's ecologies.
Thus, any preserved collection can serve to help shift dialogues that define the fungi by their degree
of edibility or "use" into opportunities for raising awareness around the beauty and significance of

SEEING FUNGI 107

 the fifth branch on the Mycelium of Life. For although the quality of each individual's human-fun-
gal-ecological relationship is so often defined by the number of species that one can name, when the
next several generations are considered, such bragging rights quickly fall by the wayside. Ultimately,
the mark of one's mycological brilliance should perhaps not be defined by the degree to which a
person can see the fungi but, rather, by the clarity of the lens through which such a perspective is
framed, reflected, and honored.

RECORDING DISTRIBUTION
The simplest way to contribute to the collective knowledge of fungal patterns is to add your species
account information to a distribution map of the fungi you observe and/or collect. Unlike the distri-
bution of many plant species that have been thoroughly mapped across the world, the wanderings

108 RADICAL MYCOLOGY

of most mushrooms and lichens are hardly understood. This tracking can also help mycologists
better understand which species are threatened or are being affected by changes in climate and soil
temperatures. It can also help in the discovery of new species. This critical research is one aspect
of fungal ecology that is the most accessible for any amateur mycologist to actively contribute to as
a form of citizen science. Indeed, it is important that this kind of knowledge is passed on to future
generations from the elders in the mycological community. At the institutional level, there is a
rather low number of experts naming new species. Since the 1980s, a mere 50 authors have been
responsible for 26% of the fungi described, several of whom are now dead or retired. 17
The website Mushroom Observer, noted above for aiding in identification, is one site dedicated
to tracking the distribution data of all fungal taxa. Likewise, the volunteer-based North Ameri-
can MycoFlora Project 18 is currently working to "produce a modern, comprehensive mycoflora of
macrofungi for North America ... [and] provide online keys and downloadable applications, up
to date distribution maps, links to macroscopic and microscopic images, and links to nucleotide
sequences and phylogenetic trees:' An ambitious project, to say the least, but one whose fruiting
is long overdue. 19

PROTECTING HABITAT
Refining distribution maps not only leads to an increased understanding of fungal ecologies, but
also of the degree to which certain species are threatened across regions of land. If, for example,
certain species are found to be in lower populations than previously estimated, their protection
status can potentially be increased to threatened or endangered. This form of independent, volun-
teer-based fieldwork is critical for creating thorough surveys of habitats that have been sold for clear
cutting or development. In Oregon, the organizations Bark20 and The Blue Mountains Biodiversity
Project21 both perform such field surveys in proposed timber sales in search of contract violations.
One of the most common forms of violations that they find is the presence of threatened or endan-
gered plant or animal species in the sold area.
Mushrooms and lichens that are currently recognized as threatened around the world are listed
in Appendix B. Local mycological or lichenology associations may also hold lists of rare species
in your region, just as elders in the community may be able to offer a verbal history of changes in
fungal diversity patterns that suggest species in need of protection.
The process for identifying endangered mushrooms and lichens is the same as with any spe-
cies. If a potentially protected species is encountered, be sure to take thorough notes and extensive
pictures from multiple angles that include the surrounding habitat. These photos are important for
verifying claims, which can only be officially done by a certified specialist.
If the threatened species is correctly identified, its degree of protection can be somewhat
subjectively interpreted. Under the Northwest Forest Plan that governs the forests of Oregon and
Washington, the taxonomists that validate the identity of rare species can determine, on a case-by-
case basis, if the site around a threatened species deserves protection based on its relative abundance
locally. Where a species is in high numbers, despite generally having a low population regionally,
its protection buffer may be incredibly small and not fully reflective of its ecological needs. Similar
protection policies may be at work in your area. If you are interested in performing fungal field
surveys for habitat protection, be sure to gain a solid understanding of the regulatory policies (and
their loopholes) that guide their enforcement.

PRESERVING AESTHETICS
If thoroughly dried, the normally ephemeral beauty of fungi can be preserved indefinitely, enabling
their grace to extend to future generations of mushroom seekers. Drying is easily accomplished
in a dehydrator set to a low temperature or by stringing fungi up high in an area that constantly
receives dry, warm air. More delicate species are best dried in an airtight container along with a
packet of silica crystals. Once the mushrooms are brittle, they can then be placed in an area that
has relatively low humidity, so as to avoid rehydration of the tissue.

SEEING FUNGI 109

 Alternately, mushrooms can also be preserved in jars of70% ethanol or isopropyl alcohol. The
mushrooms should first be wrapped in a paper towel soaked in the solution and placed in a sealed
jar for two days. Afterward, the mushrooms are removed from the paper and submerged in a clean
jar filled with the solution. Glycerin can also be added to the liquid at a rate of one teaspoon per
quart to aid in preservation. Once preserved, the fungi can then be placed on a mantle, altar, dash-
board, or in a mycurio cabinet of fungal wonders and other natural oddities.

PRESERVING FOR IDENTIFICATION

If you have collected multiple specimens of the same species, consider preparing them for storage
in your local university's or mycological society's herbarium. Such specimens are critical for helping
understand how a species' distribution pattern and morphology can change over time. Curated
herbaria are good alternatives to private collections as they are usually environmentally controlled
to provide for optimal storage, while also being publicly accessible. Each herbarium has slightly
different requirements for submitting specimens, with most requiring extensive collection notes,
such as those listed earlier in this chapter. For advanced techniques on collecting and preserving
all types of fungi see Biodiversity of Fungi: Inventory and Monitoring Methods by Mercedes Foster
and Gerald Bills.

PRESERVING GENETICS
For the fungal cultivator, the preservation of a collection's genetics is an obvious application of
one's skill set. As outlined in Chapter 8, storing cultures in sterile distilled water, or dried on grains
or cardboard are a few preservation methods that require little maintenance or energy. For the
non-cultivator, even the simple act of preserving spore prints provides a route toward protecting the
diverse genetics oflocal fungal species and strains. Such bioregional spore and culture banks are a
logical outgrowth of the modern seed saving movement, which seeks to ensure genetic diversity in
the face of unmediated genetic modification and habitat destruction. But, unlike some seeds, dried
spores can be stored for an unknown number of years, with the potential to retain their viability
upon hydration (just as dried mycelium can). The preservation of fungal cultures is one of the
simplest acts that Radical Mycologists can perform to communicate a cultural ethos of ecological
respect, regeneration, and resilience to future generations.

110 RADICAL MYCOLOGY

 Chapter Five

RADICAL LICHENOLOGY
By Nastassja Noell

L ichens are expressions of pure joy. Their variety of color, morphology, chemical constituents,
and inexhaustible capacity for adaptability is proof that the living world is not purely utili-
tarian. Lichens remind us that life is art and that deeply integrating into one's environments
is the most refined expression of that art. Lichens paint the rocks of the desert with living murals,
drape the temperate forests with lace ribbons, and thrive in the harshest of climatic conditions. From
Antarctic to tropical systems, from rainforests to deserts, lichens are ever-present, showing us a way
of fungal being that is always exposed, always present. Humbly, they slowly grow by crystallizing
sunlight and vapor 1 into delicate but resilient symbiotic systems. Inside the ecosystem of a lichen
are most of the primary components of life: fungi, bacteria, algae, and cyanobacteria, all living in
a discrete synergistic system that can rarely be synthesized in vitro but can withstand the extreme
conditions of outer space.
Lichens form a terrestrial version of kelp forests and coral reefs. Like their cousins the aquatic
algae, lichens absorb all their nutrients from their surroundings: the sea of vapor permeating the
terrestrial world. Without a fungal partner, such a lifestyle would be nearly impossible for the algae
in lichens. The fungal symbiont creates a thick protective skin around the algae to protect it from
desiccation. In exchange, the algae gives the fungus photosynthesized sugars. And together, they
form shapes and pigments that help them survive and thrive in their other-worldly surroundings.
This symbiosis of fungus and algae is thought to date back to the first ancestors of terrestrial
life. As landforms diversified and developed, as mountains rose defiantly and weathered into soft
hills, lichens have been patiently watching from their perches. Some contemporary lichens are over
5,000 years old-relics from a distant age. Lichens are the beholders of stories on landscapes and
climate, if one takes the time to witness them clearly.
Though their slow and ancient nature lends to lichens being lost in the shadows of the larger
members in their ecosystems, these fascinating beings are not static. Rather, they perform numerous
mutualistic roles with bacteria, insects, rodents, ungulates, and humans. And there are four main
reasons that humans work with lichens: as medicine, as a natural dye source, to monitor environ-
mental health, and to study ecosystem biodiversity and dynamics.

What is a Lichen?
A lichen is not a singular organism but a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and algae and/
or photosynthesizing cyanobacteria. What we see when we look at a lichen body-technically
known as the thallus (pl. thalli)-is a complex structure comprised largely of these partnered
organisms.

RADICAL LICHENOLOGY 111

 THE MYCOBIONT
Over 95% of the lichen thallus is the fungal partner, or mycobiont. Compared to the underground
mycelial networks of wild mushrooms, the fungal mass of a lichen lives almost entirely exposed to
harsh conditions that would kill most non-lichenized fungi. The fungus protects the lichen from
the harsh above-ground environment by building a cortex, a dense layer of fungal tissue that pre-
vents water loss, and a medulla, a fluffy, hydrophobic network ofhyphae in the interior of the lichen.
Inside the thallus is where most of the lichen magic happens, from the production of powerful
medicinal compounds to the mind-boggling interplay between bionts.
Curiously, research on the 14,000 known species of lichenized fungi (around 3,000 species
are thought to be currently undiscovered) demonstrates that lichen mycobionts do not form a
common clade on an evolutionary tree (i.e. they don't have a common ancestor). Rather, the lichen
relationship seems to have independently arisen at least five times over the eons, demonstrating
the success of this relationship and serving as a clear example of convergent evolution. These rela-
tionships can also shift over time, as shown in genetic analyses that suggest some major lineages of
currently free-living fungi were previously lichenized. 2 About one-fifth of all known fungal species
are lichenized and nearly all of these fungi are obligate symbionts. Over 98% of lichenized fungi
belong to various branches of the Ascomycota. There are some lichenized Basidiomycetes; most of
these are found in tropical regions, but some live in boreal and temperate regions.

OUTER CORTEX

PHOTOBIONT LAYER

Diagram of a typical stratified

lichen. MEDULLA

.......... LOWER CORTEX

THE PHOTOBIONT
The photosynthesizing partner (photobiont) is what makes the lichen an autotrophic organism.
About 30 species across two kingdoms are known to act as the primary photobiont within lichens.
Most photobionts are eukaryotic green algae species, though about 10% of lichens have a pro-
karyotic cyanobacterium as a photobiont. Approximately 4% of lichens contain both algae and
cyanobacteria as photobionts. 3
Lichens that contain a green alga as their photobiont are called chlorolichens. Lichens with
cyanobacteria as their primary photobionts are called cyanolichens. Tripartite lichens have both
types, with the cyanobacteria generally being contained within a specialized structure called a
cephalodium. Cephalodia are not well studied, but they seem to help maximize nitrogen fixation in
the thallus in a manner similar to the anaerobic gas chambers of root nodules in legumes.
In the lichenized state the photobiont's natural life cycle is usually suppressed. Filamentous algae
and cyanobacteria are often deformed into shorter filaments or unicellular states, and cyanobacteria
cells are typically larger than in the free-living or cultured state. Sexual reproduction is also suppressed
within the lichen, and it is assumed that most algal growth in the lichen occurs primarily by asexual
means. But asexual reproduction is not always as simple as cell division and may include sporulation
by flagellated motile zoospores, which are occasionally found within the lichen thallus. 4
Structurally, the primary photobiont forms a green or blue layer underneath a protective outer
cortex of dense hyphae. This outer cortex acts as the glass roof of a greenhouse of sorts and regulates
gas and moisture exchange, providing a homeostatic environment for the photobiont to thrive. This
photobiont layer is nested within the upper part of a loose, cottony, hydrophobic layer of hyphae
called the medulla.

112 RADICAL MYCOLOGY

 (Leh) Cross-section of a
chlorolichen. Note the distinct
stratification of the green al-
gal layer and the gray fungal
medulla, as well as the thick-
ness of the outer cortex (the
white tissue above the green
algal layer that is melanized
brown at the very edge).
(Right) Cross-section of a cy-
anolichen, the Jelly Lichen
leptogium lichenoides. Note
The Relationship Between Bionts that the cyanobacteria and
the medulla are intermixed in
While the fungus comprises the bulk of the thallus, it is by no means the dominant partner. For the interior and the outer cor-
tex is very thin.
example, the photobiont is just as responsible as the mycobiont for determining the shape of the
thallus that will maximize photosynthesis. These shapes take a variety of forms, often reflecting the
lichen's habitat and substrate. They may be leaf-like structures clinging to hillsides, or flat crusts on
rocks that capture light coming from one direction in a way that is akin to solar panels. Or they may
be hair-like curtains draping from tree branches that can capture diffused light in misty habitats, or
a blend of all of these shapes. As with mushrooms, it is the unique blend of these and other features
that define a given lichen species.
Lichens have been found in recent years to be comprised of much more than just two or three
partners. More like a miniature ecosystem, a lichen thallus can also contain hundreds of other mi-
crobes and fungi. These organisms include epibiont bacteria that live on the surface of lichens and
may play key roles for cell wall function and nitrogen fixation. 5 There are also endolichenic fungi
that seem to be cohabitating inside the lichen thallus performing unknown beneficial functions.
Endolichenic fungi cannot be seen with normal light microscopes and do not create symptoms in
the lichen. Other fungi grow on the surface of lichens. Some of these lichenicolous fungi have been
found to be parasymbiotic, often with unknown relations to the lichen, while most others, such as
Carbonea species, are purely parasitic. This group includes some odd parasitic Basidiomycete fungi
that grow on lichens, such as Biatoropsis usnearum and Cystobasidium usneicola which form galls
on Usnea species. Most of the 3,000 known species oflichenicolous fungi are obligate to a particular
genus or family of lichens. However, as our understanding is currently limited about their range,
distribution, and biodiversity, more research is needed to form a more thorough analysis of their
roles and niches.
Some lichenized fungi are transiently parasitic. In the early phases of their.life cycle they live
on or within an established lichen thallus in order to take algae from the lichen host. In some in-
stances, this new fungus-photobiont pair may even take over the original lichenizing fungus and
form a completely new type of free-living lichen. 6 Phylogenetic evidence suggests that a tremendous
amount of algal switching occurs between lichens.7 Further, as there are so few photobiont species
compared to mycobiont species, it has been suggested that the lichenized fungi may be suppressing
the algae's ability to reproduce in an effort to stabilize their genetics and reduce speciation events.
This might explain why Trebouxia species are not found free-living, despite being the most common
photobiont in lichens. Trebouxia may have evolved to be dependent on the lichen biome and is only
able to survive and procreate through the algal swapping between lichen thalli. As lichenology is
still in its infancy-much more so than mycology-more research needs to be done to determine
where the line is drawn between what does and does not constitute the lichen microbiome.

Lichen Needs
Lichens crystalize airborne water and nutrients into complex molecular arrangements that are used
to build their bodies, construct secondary chemicals, and create microhabitats that favor their niche.
While lichens have adapted to nearly all terrestrial habitats, there are a small number of ecological
constraints that lichens must creatively respond to in order to thrive:

RADICAL LICHENOLOGY 113

 WATER: Unlike most plants, lichens do not have a vascular system that conducts wa-
ter throughout their thallus. Rather, lichens absorb water from mist, dew, rainwater,
waterfall spray, ocean air, and the humid microclimates created by moss. Whatever
is in this water (e.g. salts, heavy metals), the lichen will absorb.
NUTRIENTS: Lichens lack true mycelia in the sense that lichen hyphae do not pen-
etrate the substrate that they grow on in order to absorb nutrients. Most of these
nutrients are obtained from rainwater and airborne particulates. A smaller amount
are provided by water that has leached nutrients from deciduous tree bark, limestone
boulders, or other substrates and subsequently dripped onto the lichen. Some species
prefer certain nutrient sources. Nitrophiles are lichens that thrive in areas impacted
by nitrogen pollution, such as agricultural areas or near popular bird roosts. Cal-
ciphiles thrive on calcium-rich substrates, such as limestone or calcium-rich soil.
The pH of the substrate or water source is critical as most species have adapted to a
particular pH range. Limestone and deciduous tree bark generally have a high pH;
coniferous trees and granitic rocks tend to be nutrient poor and have a low pH.

SEEING LICHENS

Lichens embody the principle of symbiosis at many different scales, yet their misrepresentation
throughout history has led to their ecological importance being overshadowed by shortsighted
descriptions of their internal and external dynamics. Depending on how one chooses to perceive
Nature, the lichen symbiosis is often described in one of three ways:
REDUCTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
A lichen is a symbiotic organism, composed of an alga or cyanobacterium and a fungus. This rel-
atively bland description-if indeed it says anything at all about the other organisms living in the
lichen thallus-treats each biont as an isolated entity that reacts predictably and mechanically to
the other bionts one at a time. The reductionist extracts a fungal spore, tries to grow it in isolation
in a plate of agar, and is stumped when the resulting undifferentiated slime refuses to magically
turn into an elaborate and colorful lichen when she drops an algal cell into the dish.
MvcOCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
A lichen is a dietary choice of a fungus-a fungus that discovered agriculture. In this perspective,
the mycobiont is said to create a structure that is similar to a greenhouse, solely to provide a ben-
eficial growing environment for the algae that keeps it alive. Like a good farmer, the mycobiont
produces sunscreen-like compounds that protect the algae from harmful UV radiation during dry
periods, anti-herbivory and anti-microbial compounds that reduce predation, and a three dimen-
sional structure that regulates moisture and gas levels within the lichen in response to the growth
needs of the algae. The algae, in this perspective, is scarcely distinguishable from the substrate
or air surrounding the lichen; it supplies photosynthetic sugars to the fungus and that's about it.
SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
A lichen is an ecosystem, it is an emergent property. In the systems perspective, a lichen is under-
stood to be entirely different than the sum of its constituent organisms. Such cumulative associ-
ations are found in the experience of consciousness arising from the random firing of individual
neurons and in the collaborative power of a worker's cooperative or social movement. The sys-
tems perspective of lichens requires a conceptual leap that challenges traditional biological con-
cepts of species and the linear phylogenetic arrangement of the Tree of Life. Within the systems
perspective, the ecology of the lichen symbiosis is emphasized over the individual roles of each
biont, and the boundaries between the bionts blur. Lichens are understood as ecosystems, where
both autotrophs and heterotrophs are present and in balance, and gas and nutrient exchange
between the two bionts creates a miniature biosphere that regulates the temperature, moisture,
and light and gas levels of the system in relation to its surrounding environment. The shape, fea-
tures, colors, and morphological particularities of lichens are a dynamic and complex interplay of
the bionts, the lichen, and the surrounding ecosystem.

114 RADICAL MYCOLOGY

 SUBSTRATE: Given enough time, lichens can grow on nearly any surface, from rot-
ting couches, to rusting metal, to evergreen leaves and desert soil. But the finely
tuned nutrient, water, and light requirements of most lichens tend to limit a species'
growth to one type of substrate. Epiphytes grow on trees or shrubs, saxicoles grow
on rocks, and terricoles grow on soil.
LIGHT: Light is critical to the generation of photosynthates and, indirectly, the sec-
ondary metabolites that protect the lichen from parasites and herbivores. Lichens
usually thrive in areas that have intense to diffuse light, however many species, such
as the pin lichens, are adapted to grow in darker habitats like the underside of logs
or in rock crevices.
WATER AND LIGHT REGIMES: Unlike most fungi and plants, lichens are poikilohy-
dric, meaning they can readily withstand desiccation. During dry periods, lichens go
into a dormant state that can last more than 100 years. When these dormant thalli
are rehydrated they can return to life within minutes and begin photosynthezing.
During periods of darkness the lichen cannot produce additional photosynthates. If
the lichen does not enter dormancy via dessication it will eventually run out of the
materials to produce secondary metabolites, making it more susceptible to parasitic
fungi and bacteria, particularly if temperatures are warm and the climate is moist
(accelerating the fungal metabolic processes).

LICHEN CHEMISTRY

The range and complexity of the chemicals and secondary metabolites produced by lichens is
almost unparalleled by other similarly sized groups of organisms. Most lichen species have a dis-
tinctive chemistry that tells a story about the habitats they call home, the challenges they've
encountered, and their adaptive resilience. Many of the pigments that give lichens their range
of colors have been found to act like a sunscreen, reflecting or absorbing light (e.g. atranorin),
while other lichen chemicals stored in the interior medulla of the lichen have been found to have
anti-herbivory properties against snails (e.g. gyrophoric acid). Most lichens also have antibiotic
properties that are effective against fungal and bacterial parasites (e.g. usnic acid). These com-
pounds can be used as medicines for humans. While chemistry can be used to distinguish lichens
at the species level, most chemicals are not limited to a particular genus or family. The vast mul-
titude of secondary chemicals can be found within most families or orders of lichens. The phy-
logenetic implications of this may be suggestive of genetic bottlenecks, such as during the K-T
extinction, or of the horizontal transfer of genes between different groups of lichens.

The Reproductive Structures of Lichens

Though the algae and fungi in a lichen cohabitate, they do not share DNA. Both organisms repro-
duce independent of the other, and a lichen as a whole may have multiple ways of replicating itself.
The mycobiont tends to reproduce much like other fungi, often through the production of sexual
spores and/or asexual conidia. The Ascomycete lichenized fungi have sexual reproduction patterns
that tend to reflect those of their mushroom-forming kin, especially the Cup Fungi in the order
Pezizales. In Ascomycete dominant lichens, the spore producing ascomata are generally apothecia
or perithecia. Some Basidiomycete lichens do exist, however these are rare and often mistaken for
mushrooms. The fruiting body structure in a Basidiomycete lichen is often similar to an agaric
mushroom, however the mycelium and associated green algae form a distinct, superficial vegetative
thallus (e.g. the basal scales of Lichenomphalia hudsoniana). The exception is the basidiolichen
Dictyonema s.l., which looks and feels like a polypore mushroom, but the photobiont lives in the
interior of the thallus.

RADICAL LICHENOLOGY 115

 After sporulation by the ascomata or basidiomata, the spores grow independently for a short
while until an appropriate photobiont is found. These spores take on a variety of shapes, sizes, col-
ors, and forms. As with mushrooms, the general spore types are usually consistent across genus or
family. Most lichens also have asexual fruiting bodies (conidiomata) that produce conidia. In some
species, conidia have been found to act as spermatia, fertilizing another lichen through a structure
Apothecia. known as a trichogyne.
Interestingly, most lichens also feature one or several methods for asexual cloning of the li-
chen itself. Instead of, for example, producing new spores with unique DNA sequences, these
lichen clones are little bundles of fungal hyphae containing several photobiont cells. These bundles,
called diaspores, bud off and fall away or are carried by the wind to new habitats where they serve
as "seeds" -cottony clones of the mother lichen-that will eventually grow to be a new thallus.
Diaspores can be dispersed hundreds of miles on the feet of traveling birds and in the air currents
of the upper atmosphere, or more locally on the backs of insects and animals. Often the diaspores
simply fall from the mother lichen to establish on a lower branch or below a host boulder.
When a diaspore lands on a suitable substrate and the right moisture and nutrients are present,
it will first grow rhizomorph-like structures over the surface of the substrate. From this structure
Perithecia with asci filled with
the thallus' tissues will begin to grow from the center outwards on top of the substrate, forming the
sexual ascospores. Pycnidia cortices, the medulla, and a layer of photobiont cells. Diaspores come in two main forms:
look similar but contain asex-
ual conidia. • Isrn1A: These diaspores grow from within the medulla and push up through the
cortex, bending the cortex around the diaspores, forming a protective cortex that
then breaks off in finger-like pieces.
• SoREDIA: These diaspores lack any protective cortex. They are granular outgrowths
of the medulla that grow up through openings in the cortex called soralia.

ISIDIA SOREDIA

Diaspore-producing lichen species have distinct morphologies that aid in their identification.
Lichens that produce isidia will not produce soredia, and vice versa. The diaspore type and loca-
tion of origin are significant characteristics that likely reflect speciation events in the evolution of a
particular group of lichens. Most sorediate and isidiate species will also occasionally still produce
viable apothecia (in addition to their usual asexual diaspores), however there are a few species (e.g.
Lepraria spp.) that have never been observed in the sexual state. Very rarely one will encounter
sorediate or isidiate forms of species that normally do not produce diaspores. This terminology
might be confusing at first, but just remember that diaspores contain both algal and fungal symbi-
onts and thus reproduce the whole lichen as a clone, while spores reproduce only the mycobiont.

Lichen Phylogenetics
THE MYCOBIONT
About one-fifth of all fungi are lichenized and nearly all of these fungi are obligate symbionts to
the lichen: they cannot carry out their entire life cycle without their symbiotic partner. Although
all lichens share a similar nutrient acquisition strategy of deriving photosynthates from a phototro-
phic organism, lichenized fungi do not form a common evolutionary group, or clade. Depending

116 RADICAL MYCOLOGY

on the researcher, around five clades of Ascomycete fungi are considered lichenized, and some of
these clades include both lichenized and non-lichenized fungi. 8 Additionally, phylogenetic research
suggests that some lineages of non-lichenized fungi were previously lichenized (e.g. the chemically
powerful genera Aspergillus and Penicillium 9 ), suggesting that lichenization is not necessarily ge-
netically predetermined, but rather a system built by the bionts that can be abandoned in certain
situations, such as has been found in some in vitro culturing situations.
Most lichenized fungi (about 98%) belong to various branches of the Ascomycota, but little
is known or speculated as to what characteristics make ascomycetous fungi more favorable to the
lichen symbiosis than other fungal groups. To turn the question on its head, we might ask, why
have lichenized Basidiomycetes not evolved and diverged with the same exuberance as their asco-
mycetous brethren? Basidiolichens make up only 2% of all lichens. 10 The answers to these questions
remain highly speculative at best.

THE PHOTOBIONT
About 100 taxa of algae and cyanobacteria are known to act as photobionts within lichens.11 Al-
though there are relatively few species of photobionts in comparison with mycobionts (ca. 17,000
taxa), the potential photobionts range across different kingdoms. The favorite photobiont for lichens
is by far the eukaryotic green algae, which belong to the Plant Kingdom, while the less prevalent
prokaryotic cyanobacteria are part of the Eubacteria Kingdom. The Verrucariaceae lichens-some
of which are renowned for growing on tidal rocks where nothing else can grow-include species
with a red algal photobiont from an unknown and unresolved kingdom, and one species with a
brown algal photobiont from the Chromalveolata Kingdom.
Proper identification of a photobiont requires culturing in order to see the distinguishing
morphological features associated with different parts of its life cycle. Due to the unstable taxon-
omy of algae and bacteria, most photobionts are known to genus at best. Due to these limitations,
there may be many unnamed species or even genera of photobionts and a far greater diversity of
photobionts than is currently understood.
Coevolution of photobionts and mycobionts has not yet been demonstrated by phylogenetic
research, rather it appears that specialization is unidirectional. Molecular research suggests that
lichenized fungi are extremely faithful to a particular set of photobiont species and evolved to adapt
to that species or species group. The reverse does not hold up in molecular analysis: while photo-
biont species are found to associate with a wide range of lichens, most are also found free-living.
Existing phylogenetic research does not yet demonstrate that lichens harbored their evolution and
diversification. But there are exceptions, including the green algae Trebouxia (a huge exception
considering it is the most common lichen photobiont) and Myrmecia. These algae are rarely found
free-living and the lichen symbiosis appears to be their primary mode for growth and dispersal.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF LICHENS

For various reasons, lichens are taxonomically classified by the fungal partner, not the photobiont,
nor the symbiosis of the two entities. This taxonomic system is challenged by some lichenologists
who emphasize that a lichen is the combination of two genomes, thus the sum is distinctly differ-
ent than the single fungal genome. Taxonomic classification based upon symbioses between two
or more organisms challenges the linear-hierarchical system ofLinnaean taxonomy. An emergent
classification system would have to be born from the old standard system.
Recent research is showing that there is also a range of associated bacteria whose relationships
to the lichen symbiosis are currently unknown, but they are very specific to the lichen thallus. 12
The bacterial flora on the surface of a lichen is often distinctly different from the flora of the sur-
rounding soil. Research into the roles of these organisms in the lichen symbiosis is an emerging
area of research.

RADICAL LICHENOLOGY 117

 The white fo/iose lichen is built
by the same fungal species
as the brown corraloid Den-
driscocaulon lichen (insert).
Why do they look so different?
They have two different pho-
tobionts. Until traditional tax-
onomic concepts can incorpo-
Lichen Biodiversity and Bioindications
rate co-dominance of bionts, From coastal deserts to tropical rainforests, from temperate deciduous and coniferous forests to
these lichens are considered prairies and talus slopes, anywhere you look, lichens thrive in vast numbers. They are so globally
the same species: Lobaria am-
plissima. abundant that 6% of the Earth's land surface is estimated to be covered in vegetation dominated
by these miniature ecosystems. 13 Yet, despite their ubiquity, it is surprising to find that only a few
lichen species are globally distributed.
With no roots, mycorrhizal structures, wings, or feet, lichens are specially adapted to the quality
of the air and type of climate that surrounds them, as well as the structure and nutrient cycles of
their habitat. Worldwide, the highest biodiversity oflichens tends to be found in areas with a mosaic
of diverse habitat types, different levels of continuity (e.g. ancient forests mixed with various seral
stages of forest), and, of course, clean air. In general, the more diverse the topography and potential
substrates, and the more pristine the habitats, the greater the lichen biodiversity. Thus, some of the
best lichen hotspots in the world include the Great Smoky Mountains of southeastern United States,
the Yukon of Canada, the tropical mountain systems of the northern Andes, the Himalayas and
the Central American highlands. Other optimal sites include temperate rainforests in northeastern
China and the Pacific Northwest of the United States, the forest and bogs of northern Ireland and
Iceland, and southern Chile and Argentina. Even Antarctica hosts at least 484 species oflichens; of
these more than 60 are not found anywhere else in the world.
In many of these areas oligotrophic lichens tend to dominate. These species prefer low levels
of nutrients in the air and water, making their presence a strong indication of pristine air. These
habitats tend to be rather stable and homogenous, so lichen biodiversity tends to only be increased
by small-scale disturbances, such as a small fire or the falling of a large tree. A mosaic of small, iso-
lated disturbances help increase light into the forest or release ash-borne nutrients into the canopy
of trees. Both of these events can help increase lichen establishment and growth.
Conversely, large-scale disturbances greatly threaten lichen health and diversity. This is seen
most clearly in urban centers-our modern "lichen deserts" -where air pollution and the de-
struction of habitats is directly correlated with a lack in lichen diversity. Most lichen species are
so sensitive to the effects of acid rain and heavy metals that they will slowly disintegrate and die
when exposed to the air around industrial areas. Some pollution-tolerant macrolichens, such as
Physcia species or the bright orange species in the genera Xanthoria and Xanthomendoza, are often
the only species found in heavily polluted areas, and their dominance is usually a clear indication
of low air quality.
The distribution ranges of different lichen species also provide interesting insights into not only
lichen biogeography, but also into the history of a place. Some lichens are endemic to very small
areas, suggesting they are relics of a Pleistocene climate or remnants of a rapidly disappearing hab-

118 RADICAL MYCOLOGY

itat. The presence of slow growing pin lichens often indicates that a forested habitat has undergone
little disturbance over a period of decades to centuries, and thus most species of pin lichens are
associated with older growth forests. In desert environments, soil crust lichens have successional
stages that correspond with the increasing stability of the soil. This creates a positive feedback loop
whereby primary succession soil crust lichens create the habitat required by secondary and tertiary
succession soil crust lichens.
Lichen distribution patterns also give us a look back into geologic time. For example, the genus
Heterodermia is most diverse in southeastern United States and eastern Asia, strongly suggesting
that their range was continuous during the Arcto-Tertiary geoflora, when the Appalachian moun-
tains of eastern North America formed a contiguous landscape with modern China.
These responses to ecological variables make lichens strong bioindicators of climate and cli-
matic regimes, air quality, acid rain levels, and the continuity of a habitat both spatially and over
time. As such, a variety of biomonitoring methods can be employed to measure anthropogenic
impacts on lichens and their surrounding environment. These skills are discussed in the Citizen
Science section of this chapter.

Lichens Being
Within terrestrial ecosystems around the world, lichens co-create ancient temperate forests and
add to the stoic resilience of desert ecosystems. These small creatures are not passive members of
our local habitats, but critical ecosystem drivers.

IN DESERTS
Desert lichens form some of the most striking displays of a symbiotic relationship between an
ecosystem and organism. In undisturbed desert landscapes, lichen soil crusts form a living skin:
a mosaic of living biological soil crusts (biocrusts) that hold soil particles together and paint the
desert floor in a pinnacled topography of yellow, white, pink, brown, green, and black biocrusts.
This living skin is composed of lichens, moss, cyanobacteria, bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi,
together forming their own miniature ecosystem.

Biotic soil crusts on the Colo-

rado Plateau, Canyon/ands,
Utah, USA. Notice the texture
and height of the crusts com-
pared to the worn down trail
that weaves through them.

Biocrusts are vital for the desert ecology as they bind together surface soil particles and precious
organic matter into a biological crust that is usually at least several millimeters thick. This living
crust stores carbon to create organic matter. Jelly lichens, such as Collema tenax, also fix nitrogen.
But the biocrust network goes beyond the production of essential nutrients: biocrusts create a state
of homeostasis that supports the restoration and structural capacity for an arid ecosystem to thrive.
And they do this in a way that is similar to the skin of humans:
UV PROTECTION: The sunscreen-like pigments of lichens scatter or absorb UV ra-
diation, protecting sensitive microfauna and microflora from the DNA scrambling
effects of the sun.
EROSION CONTROL: The biocrust's sticky photosynthates and the hyphae of fungi,

RADICAL LICHENOLOGY 119

 actinomycetes, and lichens bind soil particles together a couple of centimeters deep
beneath the surface of the soil. When intense precipitation occurs, the biocrust rap-
idly absorbs the water, sending it deeper into the soil through the hyphal web, while
at the same time allowing excess water to slide across the surface of the biocrust.
During heavy rain events, bareground areas that are covered by biocrust are able
to retain nearly all their soil, nutrients, and organic matter relative to areas lacking
biocrusts.
• INFILTRATION: Precipitation events in arid lands are precious, and the pinna-
cle-and-valley topography of biocrusts form miniature rainwater catchments that
enable water to infiltrate the ground and reach the deep roots of native plants and
Don't bust the crust. shrubs. The height of the pinnacles and the depth of the rainwater catchment valleys
-U.S. National Park Service can vary from 1-10 centimeters or more, depending on the extent of frost in the
region and the length of time that the area has been undisturbed by heavy grazing
or trampling.
RESERVOIRS OF BIODIVERSITY: The topography of the soil crusts create humid
microclimates that nurture the seeds of native plants, insects, and microfauna, which
are also supported by the nutrients produced by the crusts. 14 Further research into
the miniature webs of life that are supported by biocrusts is greatly needed.
• SOIL ORGANIC MATTER: In arid lands, most organic matter is limited to the areas
around shrubs and perennial grasses, leaving large, barren interspaces. Biocrusts fill
these interspaces and create a thick ( 1 cm or more) layer of fixed carbon and organic
matter that feeds and protects the soil microfauna, yielding a more fertile desert that
can harbor greater biodiversity.
• SOIL NITROGEN: Nitrogen is a limiting nutrient in most ecosystems, but particularly
in deserts where overall diversity of nitrogen-fixing plants can be quite low and
atmospheric input from lightning is easily lost. Biocrusts at various stages of devel-
opment have been found to contribute 2-365 kilograms of nitrogen per hectare each
year. 15 One of the most productive biocrust species is the jelly lichen Collema tenax.

IN FORESTS
Lichens are probably best known for their majestic displays in temperate forests around the world
and their strikingly bold presence in tropical forests. Where there is clean air and moisture, forest
lichens thrive and are integral members of their ecological communities.
• PROTECTION: Many lichens create anti-herbivory chemicals to protect themselves
from insects. This protection is also imparted to the trees on which they grow. This
is notably important for young hardwood trees, which are susceptible to insects
sucking on their sweet cambium juice. In clean air forests, smooth barked hardwood
trees are usually covered with a mottling of white, green and blue crustose lichens
that grant the tree an anti-herbivory shield.
• STRUCTURAL: Lichens form a variety of canopy and surface structures which mod-
erate and enhance humidity and temperature, helping support other epiphytes,
native plants, insects, arthropods, and microfauna. Canopy lichens and the biotic
community of forest canopies help to create a furry skin over the surface of forest
ecosystems that traps in humidity, stabilizes temperatures, facilitates the resilience
of forest ecosystems, and even influences the precipitation patterns of downwind
Along with the anti-herbivo- ecosystems.
ry layer provided by crustose • NUTRIENT SPONGE: Lichens function as biological sponges that absorb nutrients
species, the foliose lichens on
older trees provide habitats
from the air. In coastal areas, tufts and dangling lacy nets of fruticose lichens trap
for beneficial insects, thereby and absorb the nutrient content of ocean air, slowly releasing these nutrients into
nurturing insect biodiversity, the terrestrial environment by rainwater leeching or decomposition.
which in turn helps combat
CARBON AND NITROGEN FIXATION: All lichens fix carbon, and many also fix ni-
detrimental pests.
trogen. Lichens in temperate rainforests contribute up to 50% of the nitrogen budget

120 RADICAL MYCOLOGY

 for the forest. Nitrogen is a primary limiting nutrient in most ecosystems.
FooD WEB: Lichens provide critical winter forage in temperate to boreal forests.
Horsehair Lichens (Bryoria spp.) are the primary winter forage of keystone species,
including woodland caribou. A variety of small mammals depend on them for food
as well.
• INSECTS: Insect-lichen associations are relatively unknown. Some insects such as
Lacewings use lichens as camouflage, but there are likely many more intersections
to be discovered.

Identifying Lichens
Before one can begin to work with lichens, it is essential to be able to first learn how to identify
them. Identifying lichens is one of the most rewarding ways of engaging with lichens for it not Fruticose lichen.
only enhances personal and ecological resiliency but also increases one's connection to a habitat.
As you learn how to identify lichens, more and more species begin to reveal themselves. A forest
that previously looked like a wash of only one or two lichens soon turns into an ecosystem covered
in hundreds of species.
Luckily, learning to identify most of the larger lichens is not too difficult and requires little
equipment. If you're an herbalist, a good lOx or 20x loupe, field guide, and practice differentiating
between look-alike species is all you will need. If you're an artist and want to collect dye lichens,
you'll also need to do spot tests, as described later. If you're a citizen scientist doing environmental
monitoring you'll probably also want a dissecting scope in order to identify lots of different species
within a shorter period of time. And if you're a naturalist measuring total biodiversity, you'll even-
tually also want a compound microscope and the chemicals known as P and I.
Identifying lichens first begins with determining the overall structure of the lichen, generally
classified by the following three forms:
FRUTICOSE: These lichens have a tree- or beard-like form and are found in the
greatest abundance growing in temperate rainforests. They tend to hang from trees
where their large surface area is able to absorb as many nutrients and as much water
Foliose lichen.
from the air as possible. In more arid forests or areas with air pollution issues, fru-
ticose lichens are often low in abundance and diversity. Unique features of fruticose
lichens include branches and a uniform outer cortex (no distinction between upper
and lower cortex is possible).
• FouosE: Foliose lichens are flatter and more leaf-like. They come in a wide range of
shapes and sizes and are often found in the greatest abundance in moist temperate
forests on the bark and branches of trees or on top of moss at the bases of trees and
rocks. Most are attached to the substrate by rhizines (short root-like structures) and
the thallus usually forms a rosette (rose shapes), where each section is called a lobe.
Lobes can be elongated like fingers or squat like rose petals. Lobes that are smaller Rhizines.
than 2 millimeters in length are called squamules; lichens with many squamules are
called squamulose. Unique features of foliose lichens include lobes, differentiated

•
upper and lower cortices (usually both are present), and rhizines.
CRUSTOSE: These lichens are the most diverse group of lichens. They are found
growing in all habitats, from the bark in tropical rainforests, to the soil of arid des-
erts, to frigid rocks in Antarctica. These lichens grow along or within the surface of
.&.
- - ""
~
~

their substrate, forming a living skin that facilitates water absorption and erosion 'l y "'"
prevention in desert habitats, while also providing an anti-herbivory shield for thin
barked trees in temperate and tropical forests. Unique features of crustose lichens
- ~

.I'
include an upper cortex (no lower cortex) and areoles (the tile-like subunits making lo L
up the thallus of many crustose lichens). ::-

Crustose lichen.

RADICAL LICHENOLOGY 121

 Interior of thallus dark brown·black
Forms a thin crust on substrate CRUSTOSE - UNSTRATIFIED
that cannot be removed without ,,,,_ _ _ __ ·see Collema, Leptogium, or others
removing substrate in Collemataceae and Llchenales
Photobiont layer na\')' blue to
forest green
Rattcned with two distinct sides - CYANOLICHEN
that arc different in color and Interior of thallus with two layers: • sec Peltigero, Sticta, Nephroma.,
texture, not ropc·lilcc · FOLIOSE a light medulla and photobiont Coccocarpia, Dictyonema,
(If hollow two· sided tubes sec layer (algae or cyanobacteria) PseuJocyphel'4ria, Panrraria
Hypogymnia or Mmegauia) - STRATIFIED
Photobiont later grass green
Yellow·orange to bright yellow cortex
- CHLOROLICHEN ·sec Xanthoria, CandeUiria, V11lpicida
Brown to black
Rope·likc, not flattened, or if · see Bryoria., Pseudephebe
rope·lilcc and flattened the
two sides of the branches are Central cord inside branches Greenish ·yellow upper cortu
identical in color and texture ·sec Usnea · see Xanthoparmelia, Flavoparmelia.,
-FRUTICOSE Pale green, yellow, or white Flarocetraria, Clado,,ia
Growing on trrcs or shrubs
~::;,i:J~o:.~~x
· see Alectoria, Ramalin~
Bryoria. Evtrnia.Jtrum,
No central cord Hetcrodermia Umbilicaria, Cetraria J.I.
Growing on soil or rock White to bluish·gray upper cortex
• see NU!b"'7 ClaJonia, Ramlirra, · sec Parmotrema, Physica, Heterodtrmia,
Dictylina, Aspfoilia hispida, Parmtli.a, Lobaria, Mengaz:zia, Hypogymnia
Cetraria. U•,.M s.I., Alectoria (in alpine) and members of Physicaccac and Parmcliaceae
~
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:;::
.g
"'0...
0
c: I.I
>i
·~ ::s...
~
c:
~
~
..<
I.I
Cl
=:<
~-
·~ ~ f"4
~-6 f"4
~
THE LICHEN RAINBOW
Are lichenologists colorblind? Sometimes it sure seems like it! Describing the colors oflichens for
identification purposes is a highly subjective and rather contentious topic among both amateurs
and professionals. Is a lichen containing usnic acid called yellow, or yellow-green, or pale green?
Ask three lichenologists and you might get three different answers. Similarly, a lichen containing the
compound atranorin may be called blue by one person or white by another. It's all a bit ridiculous,
but the matter is more confounded by the fact that lichen colors tend to vary when they are wet,
dry, shaded, or exposed to the sun. Thus, some tips are offered to aid in determining a lichen's color:
Try to ID lichens only when they are dry. This is when their pigments are most
visible and consistent.
Learn to recognize lichen pigments instead of colors. Begin associating the color
you see with the chemical produced by the lichen, that way you can learn the range
of color variation of "usnic green;' "atranorin gray;' etc.
• When collecting lichens remember to note if the lichen was in a shaded location.
Lichens exposed to less sunlight produce less pigment and are thus more pale or
almost green colored.

Spot Tests
As with identifying mushrooms, proper identification of a lichen may require the use of color
change-inducing chemical reagents. This process is slightly different from that of working with
mushrooms, but with some practice it can often be done quickly in the field. The materials for spot
tests include:
• 2-4 SMALL GLASS CONTAINERS: These are for holding the chemicals. I prefer glass
tincture bottles with eyedroppers that seal at the top.
• CHEMICAL APPLICATION DEVICE: I prefer glass capillary tubes, others use a dissect-
ing probe. Eyedroppers apply too much chemical, producing inaccurate reactions.
RAZOR BLADE
DISSECTING MICROSCOPE OR LARGE MAGNIFYING GLASS
CHEMICALS: The most commonly used chemicals for lichen identification are K (10%
potassium hydroxide [KOH]) and C (normal household bleach). As you get more
comfortable with lichen identification you will want to add E (ethanol or methanol
at 70% or higher), P (p-Phenylenediamine), and I (Lugols iodine) to your repertoire.
Spot test gear.
• UV LAMP: Centered on 350 nm (see below).
Spot tests often need to be applied to both the cortex and the medulla of the lichen, and often
in a specific order, so make sure the capillary tubes are specific to only one chemical. I accomplish
this by making my K tube longer than my C tube since KOH is more commonly called for in most
ID keys. To limit having the toxic P test rolling around, I make the P tube so long that it rests in My preferred capillary tubes
are made by Fisher Scientific
the P mixing container. (70 µL, product number 22-
A UV lamp is also important for identifying lichens in tropical or subtropical areas, less so 260-943). You can get 100 for
in temperate areas. Tropical lichens often contain xanthones, subtle yellowish pigments that flu- ten dollars. Before you use one,
first create a narrow applica-
oresce under UV light. UV lamps are also useful for other groups of lichens, including Cladonia tion point by holding the mid-
and Parmotrema. The lamp must emit UV with a wavelength of around 350 nm in order for most dle of the glass capillary tube
UV+ substances to fluoresce. Cheap UV LED flashlights do not work! Some experimentation may over a small flame until the
glass is soft. Then pull from op-
be required to find a suitable lamp. 16 To conduct a UV spot test, simply go into a dark closet or cut posite ends to break the tube at
holes out of a cardboard box for your eyes and hands, and turn on the UV lamp, being careful not the center. Using sand paper or
to damage your eyes. If the lichen cortex has xanthones, it will fluoresce as a dull to bright orange a rough surface, gently rub the
narrow tip until there is a small
or yellow color. If the lichen contains alectoronic acid or other subtler medullary chemicals, you hole. The capillary tube will
will need to first flake off some of the cortex to expose the medulla before conducting the UV test. pull chemicals up inside using
Alectoronic acid and other medullary chemicals turn a subtle to bright white or "ice blue" under capillary force and will pour
them onto the lichen when the
UV, depending on the concentration of the chemical. This can be a confusing spot test if the results tip touches the thallus.
are not obvious; just know that a dull or vibrant purple color indicates a negative UV reaction.

RADICAL LICHENOLOGY 123

 Orange
Wine-red A
-ish

Pulvinic acid derivatives

are typically a purer,
brighter yellow than any
Faint Faint Pale type of anthraquinone.
Yellow PA Candelaria
reddish reddish orange Some Candelariella are
orangeish. Beware pale
Xanthoria and Ca/op/aca
species in deep caves.

Bright Rhizocarpon
Yellow PA
orange geographicum group

Yellow PA Vulpicida

Yellow PA Vu/picida, Letharia

Yellow PA Pseudocyphellaria aurata

±Yellow- Yellow- Some Myelochroa,

±Yellowishh Yellowish ±Yellow A
ish orange Physconia

±Yellow- Yellow- Bright Xanthones are most com-

±Yellowish
orange orange orange
x Some Pertusaria
mon in tropical species.

±Pink-
±Yellowish
orange
x Some Pertusaria

Highly variable from yel-

lowish to milky greenish;
absorbs UV, resulting par-
Gold Df Usnea, Flavoparmelia adoxically in an extremely
useful UV+ dull yellow for
some cheap, broad-spec-
trum UV lamps.

Pale Pale With bluish tinge if in high

Pale gray l30D Physcia, Parmelia
yellow yellow concentrations.

Commonly found as a re-

Bright Some Pertusaria, Pyxine,
Pale gray?
yellow
x Ochro/echia
placement for atranorin in
cortex of tropical species.

Mostly northern and

Me/anelia, Cetraria
alpine.

Dingy Orange
Brownish ±Pinkish l30Do Cortex of many Cladonia Turns brownish in sun.
brownish -red

Blue- Blue-
Df Cladonia strepsi/is Related to usnic acid.
green green

Yellow-
±Reddish Red White l30DE Gowardia nigricans
ish orange

±Orange- Yellow-
White l30D Some Cladonia
ish orange

Cetrelia olivetorum,
Dark red Dark red White OD
Tuckermannopsis ciliaris

Darkred Darkred White? OD Roccella

Flavopunctelia,
Dark red Dark red OD
Melanelixia, Pseudevernia

Typically weaker, more

fleeting C+than lecanoric
Fleeting Umbilicaria, Trape/ia, acid, but both vary accord-
Rosy-red OD
pink Ochro/echia Ing to concentration; tiny
needle-shaped crystals
in water.

Slow ±White Cladonia

±Purplish Purplish OD
reddish ish cryptochlorophaea

±Yellow- Rosy- Orange- Flavoparme/ia, some

130Do
ish pink red Hypogymnia

124 RADICAL MYCOLOGY