Mathematics 10

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POLYNOMIALS
The Rational Roots Theorem

I. Learning Competency:
M10AL-Ig-H-16.1
Prove the rational root theorem.

II. Learning Objectives:

1. Find the roots of polynomial equations.
2. Differentiate roots and real roots.

(Developmental Activity)

The roots of a polynomial function, also called the zeros of the polynomial
function, are values of 𝒙 for which 𝒇(𝒙) is equal to 𝟎.

Remember:

1. Every polynomial function with degree 𝒏 hast at most 𝒏 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔.

This means that a quadratic function has at most 2 zeros, a third-degree

function has at most 3 zeros, a fourth-degree function has at most 4 zeros,
and so on.

2. When (𝑥 – 𝑟) occurs as a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑘 times, then 𝑟 is a root of

multiplicity k. Each zero of multiplicity 𝑘 is counted 𝑘 times.

Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 + 27𝑥 + 27

Factoring the function, we have (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 3)
The factor (𝑥 + 3) occurs as a factor 3 times.
Therefore, −3 is a root or zero of 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 3.

Prepared by:
ERMA AGNES F. NUNEZ - SEHS
Mathematics 10

The Rational Root Theorem

Let 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 be a polynomial

with integer coefficients.
𝑝
If 𝑞 is a rational number in lowest terms and is a zero of 𝑃(𝑥), then 𝑞 is a factor
of 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑝 is a factor of 𝑎0 .

“If we want to find the zeros of the function using the Rational Root Theorem,
we need to determine and try any of the possible rational roots using synthetic
division.”

This theorem gives us the possible rational zeroes of the function. It can happen
that the function has no rational zeros.

Example 1.
Determine the possible rational roots of the polynomial
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 10

Solution:
Using the Rational Root Theorem, we make a list of possible zeros of a
polynomial by listing the factors of the constant term (p) divided by the factors of
the leading coefficient (q).

We determine that p = -10 and 𝑞 = 1

The factors of -10 are 1, -1, 10, -10, 2, -2, 5, and -5 or ±1, ±10, ±2, and ±5.
The factors of 1 are 1 and -1 or ±1.

Since 𝑞 = 1, then the possible rational roots are ±1, ±10, ±2, and ±5

Example 2.
Determine the possible rational roots of the polynomial
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 12

Solution:
Make a list of possible zeros by listing the factors of the constant term (p)
divided by the factors of the leading coefficient (q).

We determine that p = -12 and 𝑞 = 2

The factors of -12 are 1, -1, 2, -2, 3, -3, 4, -4, 6, -6, 12, and -12 or ±1, ±2, ±3,
±4, ±6, and ±12. The factors of 2 are 1, -1, 2, and -2 or ±1 and ±2.

Since 𝑞 is an integer other than 1, we are going to divide each of the factors of 𝑝
by each of the factors of 𝑞. Thus,

Prepared by:
ERMA AGNES F. NUNEZ - SEHS
Mathematics 10

1 1 1 1 1 1
=1 = −1 = =−
1 −1 2 2 −2 2

−1 −1 −1 1 −1 1
= −1 =1 =− =
1 −1 2 2 −2 2

2 2 2 2
=2 = −2 =1 = −1
1 −1 2 −2

−2 −2 −2 −2
= −2 =2 = −1 =1
1 −1 2 −2

3 3 3 3 3 3
=3 = −3 = =−
1 −1 2 2 −2 2

−3 −3 −3 3 −3 3
= −3 =3 =− =
1 −1 2 2 −2 2
4 4 4 4
=4 = −4 =2 = −2
1 −1 2 −2

−4 −4 −4 −4
= −4 =4 = −2 =2
1 −1 2 −2

6 6 6 6
=6 = −6 =3 = −3
1 −1 2 −2

−6 −6 −6 −6
= −6 =6 = −3 =3
1 −1 2 −2

12 12 12 12
= 12 = −12 =6 = −6
1 −1 2 −2

−12 −12 −12 −12

= −12 = 12 = −6 =6
1 −1 2 −2

The quotients may be listed in any order. Thus, we have the possible zeros as

1 3
{±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12, ± , ± }
2 2

Note that each quotient is written only once. Remember, the list above are only
possible roots.

Prepared by:
ERMA AGNES F. NUNEZ - SEHS
Mathematics 10

Example 3.
Determine the possible rational roots and find the zeros of the polynomial
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3

Solution:
We determine that p = 3 and 𝑞 = 2
The factors of 3 are 1, -1, 3, and -3 or ±1 and ±3.
The factors of 2 are 1, -1, 2, and -2 or ±1 and ±2.

Since 𝑞 is an integer other than 1, we are going to divide each of the factors of 𝑝
by each of the factors of 𝑞. Thus,

1 1 1 1 1 1
=1 = −1 = =−
1 −1 2 2 −2 2

−1 −1 −1 1 −1 1
= −1 =1 =− =
1 −1 2 2 −2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3
=3 = −3 = =−
1 −1 2 2 −2 2

−3 −3 −3 3 −3 3
= −3 =3 =− =
1 −1 2 2 −2 2

The quotients may be listed in any order. Thus, we have the possible zeros as
1 3
{±1, ±3, , ± }
2 2

1 3
Using synthetic division, we are going to determine which among ±1, ±3, 2 , ± 2
are the roots of 𝑃(𝑥).

1 2 3 -8 3 -1 2 3 -8 3
2 5 -3 -2 -1 9
2 5 -3 0 2 1 -9 12

3 2 3 -8 3 -3 2 3 -8 3
6 27 57 -6 9 -3
2 9 19 60 2 -3 1 0

1 2 3 -8 3 The polynomial is a third-degree

2 1 2 -3 polynomial; therefore, it has 3
2 4 -6 0 1
roots. The roots are {1, −3, 2}.

Prepared by:
ERMA AGNES F. NUNEZ - SEHS
Mathematics 10

Descartes’ Rule of Signs

This is another helpful tool in finding the zeros of a function. You now know that
a function with degree n has at most n roots. Descartes’ Rule of Signs will help
us determine the number of positive or negative zeros in a function. The rule is
based on the number of changes in the sign of a function.

Examples
Use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to find the number of positive and negative real
zeros for each of the following polynomial functions.

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 19𝑥 − 12

There are 3 sign changes. These are from + to −, − to +, and + to

−. Therefore, the polynomial has 3 positive roots.

2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3

There are 4 sign changes. These are from + to −, − to +, and + to

−, and − to +. Therefore, the polynomial has 4 positive roots.

3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 7 + 3𝑥 6 + 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1

There are 2 sign changes. These are from + to − and – to +.

Therefore, the polynomial has 2 positive roots. This is a seventh-
degree polynomial; therefore, there are at most 7 roots. This means
that if there are 2 positive roots, then there are 5 negative roots.

Important:

1. For the Descartes’ Rule of Signs to work, the polynomial should be written in
standard form.
2. If there are roots that appear 𝒌 times in a function, these roots of multiplicity
𝒌 are counted as 𝒌 roots.

Prepared by:
ERMA AGNES F. NUNEZ - SEHS
Mathematics 10

(Reinforcement Activity)

From Example 3.
Given: 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3

1 3
The possible zeros are: {±1, ±3, 2 , ± 2}
1
The zeros are: {1, −3, }
2

1
If you are asked to write the roots, then it should be written as: 𝑥 = {1, −3, 2}

From the roots let us determine the factors:

For 𝑥 = 1, the factor is (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1 = 0; 𝑥 = 1)

For 𝑥 = −3, the factor is (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 3 = 0; 𝑥 = −3)
1 1
For 𝑥 = 2, the factor is (2𝑥 − 1) (2𝑥 − 1 = 0; 𝑥 = 2)

Multiplying the factors, we have:

(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 3) (2𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3

Prepared by:
ERMA AGNES F. NUNEZ - SEHS
Mathematics 10

(Transferring Activity)

Given: 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 3

1. By the Rational Roots Theorem, what are the possible zeros of the function?
2. By Descartes’ Rule of Signs, how many positive roots does the function
have?
3. What are the zeros of the function? (Use synthetic division to test the
possible zeros.)

Prepared by:
ERMA AGNES F. NUNEZ - SEHS
Mathematics 10

III. References/Links:
Dignadice, A. D. (2006). Wizard mathematics: Advanced algebra and
trigonometry. Tarlac City, Philippines: Wizard Publishing Haws, Inc.

Vance, E. P. (1984). Modern algebra and trigonometry third edition.

Mandaluyong City, Philippines: CACHO HERMANOS, INC.

Republic of the Philippines. Department of Education. (2015). Grade 10

Mathematics: Learner’s Module. Department of Education.

Republic of the Philippines. Department of Education. (2015). Grade 10

Mathematics: Teacher’s Guide. Department of Education.

Verbo, RJ. C. (2018). Rational root theorem [Seminar handout]. Mataas na

Paaralang Neptali A. Gonzales, SDO, Division of Mandaluyong City.

Nanoy, Z. S. (2018). Descartes’ rule of signs [Seminar handout]. Marikina

National High School, Division of Marikina City.

Prepared by:

ERMA AGNES F. NUÑEZ

Teacher 1

Checked by: Noted by:

GAYLE D. IBALLA OLIVE R. LOMIBAO

Master Teacher 1 Head Teacher – Mathematics
Department

JEFFREY C. TRINIDAD
Principal

Prepared by:
ERMA AGNES F. NUNEZ - SEHS