FOUNDATIONO

=SeECIALAND
INCLUSIVE
EDUCATION
 LESSON 6:
TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL
DEVELOPMENT AMONG CHILDREN

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
1. Identify typical and atypical milestones in the various stages of child development; and
2. Differentiate typical and atypical development of children in varios stages of their
development

Introduction:
Have you ever wondered how children develop? Maybe one time you have compared
your development with that of a sibling or cousin of yours. Children have so many ways in
which they need to develop: language skills, cognitive skills, social skills and physical skills.
Since each child develops at his own pace, with his own particular strengths and weaknesses, it
can be challenging to determine the difference between typical and atypical development in
children. How can you tell what is typical and what is not?

I. Child Development and Its Importance

Child development is a process is a process every child goes through. This process
involves learning and mastering skills like sitting, walking, talking, skipping and tying shoes.
Most children learn these skills called developmental milestones, during predictable time
periods. Milestones develop in a sequential fashion. This means that a child will need to develop
some kills before he or she can develop other skills.

To ensure that a child meets his/her developmental milestones, it is crucial to observe and
monitor his/her development. The milestones or developmental skills that need to be mastered
usually at the same rate act as a guide for ideal development. It is done bt checking the progress
of a child based on his or her age to see if the child is developing within expectations. For others,
checking the milestones can help detect any difficulties at a particular stage. Intervention can
then be given which can help in the development of a child. Usually, it is the parents, teachers
and pediatricians who use the checklists.

There are five main areas of development in which children develop skills:

 Cognitive development: This is the child’s ability to learn and solve problems.
 Social and emotional development: This is the child’s ability to interact with others,
which includes being able to help themselves and self-control.
 Speech and language development: This is the child’s ability to both understand and
use language.
 Fine motor skill development: This is the child’s ability to use small muscles,
specifically their hands and fingers, to pick up small objects, hold a spoon, turn pages
in a book or use a crayon to draw.
 Gross motor skill development: This is the child’s ability to use large muscles.

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 II. Child Development Theories

During the early 20th century, interest in child development began, specifically, that
which focused on detecting abnormalities. Certain theories were discovered based on this interest
to appreciate the growth that children experience from birth to adolescence.

A. Psychosocial Development Theory of Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory of
psychosexual development and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that the
ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas and skills at each
stage development. Erikson developed his eight (8) stages of psychosocial development based on
Freud’s psychosexual theory.

Stages of Psychosocial Development:

1. Infant (Trust vs. Mistrust)

From birth to 12 months of age 12, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This
occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival.

2. Toddler (Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt)

As toddlers (ages 1 – 3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn what they can
control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear
preferences for certain elements of the environment such as food, toys and clothing.

3. Pre-schooler (Initiative vs. Guilt)

Once the children reach the pre-school stage (ages 3-6 years), they are capable of
initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.
According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task initiative vs, guilt.

4. Grade–schooler (Industry vs. Inferiority)

During the elementary school stage (ages 6-12), children face the task of industry vs
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up.

5. Teenager (Identity vs. Role Confusion)

In adolescence (ages 12-18), children face the task of identity vs role confusion.
According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self.

6. Young Adult (Intimacy vs Isolation)

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs.
isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life

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with others.

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 7. Middle-age Adult (Generativity vs Stagnation)

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which
extends to mid-60s. the social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs stagnation.

8. Older Adult (Integrity vs Despair)

From the mid-60s to the enf of life, we are in the period of development known as late
adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs despair.

B. Cognitive Developmental Theory of Jean Piaget

Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to
long-term changes in these processes. One of the most widely known perspectives about
cognitive development is the cognitive stage theory of a Swiss psychologist named Jean Piaget.
Piaget was a psychological constructivist, in his view, learning proceeded by the interplay of
assimilation and accommodation. Through his studies, Piaget declared that cognitive
development occurred in four stages throughout one’s childhood:

 Stages occur in order

 Children did not skip stages but pass through each one
 These are visible changes from one stage to the next
 The stages occur as building blocks, each one using pieces from the last stage

Stages of Cognitive Development

This type of development model incorporates each stage into the next, which is why it is
often called a “staircase” model. Piaget labeled foru stages of cognitive growth that occurred at
an approximate age in children:

1. Sensorimotor Stage – Birth to Age 2

The first stage is aptly named after how infants learn until age two. From birth,
infants absorb information through their senses: by touching, looking and listening.

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 2. Preoperational Stage – Age 2 to 6
Children continue to build on the object representation that is significant to the
sensorimotor stage in different activities. They learn through the use of language.
However, mental manipulation of information does not take place yet.
3. Concrete Operational Stage – Age 7 to 11
Children begin to represent objects and ideas in a more logical way. Piaget
labeled this stage as concrete operational because he believed that children were
able to manage concrete objects, but not yet think methodically about the
representations of objects. There are two (2) things that distinguish concrete
operational thinking from preoperational thinking. The first is reversibility, which
allows a child to manipulate the order of any process. The second skill that is
acquired decentering. This allows the child to step back and analyze an issue from
more than one angle.
4. Formal Operational Stage – Age 11 and Beyond
From 12 years old to adulthood, a person has the ability to think abstract concepts.

C. Sociocultural Theory of Lev Vygotsky

The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and
theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly of what has become
known as sociocultural theory. This theory believes that children learn actively through hands on
experiences. Vygotsky highlights the importance of other people such as parents, caregivers and
peers in the development of children. Culture plays an integral role as well. Interaction with
others allows learning to be integrated in the child’s understanding of the world. Also included in
the theory is the zone of proximal development, which is the portion in between what one can do
on his or her own and with help. Children best learn when they are in this zone.

D. Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura

Bandura is known for his social learning theory. He is quite different from other learning
theorists who look a learning as a direct result of conditioning reinforcement and punishment. He
asserts that most human behavior is learned through observation, imitation and modeling.

III. Typical and Atypical Development

The development of a child usually follows a predictable pattern. There are certain skills
and abilities and abilities that are observed to gauge a child’s development are called
developmental milestones. However, each child is unique. With this, not all reach a milestone at
the same time, thus the terms typical and atypical development.

The term typical development refers to the normal progression where children grow by
acquiring knowledge, skills and behavior called developmental milestones at a certain time
frame. Atypical development is a term used when development does not follow the normal
course. More
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so, a child is developing atypically when he/she reaches a milestone earlier or later than other
children his/her age.

There is no clear way to identify if a child is developing typically or atypically. However,

there are three commonly accepted principles of a child development that one should look into.
The principles are as follows:

1. Rate of development differs from among children

2. Development occurs in a relatively orderly process
3. Development takes place gradually

IV. Domains of Development

Human development is comprised of four major domains: physical development,

cognitive development, social-emotional development, and language development. Each domain,
while unique in its own, has much overlap with all other domains. It is important to understand
these concepts, because everything related to human development can be traced back to these
four domains.

A. Physical Development

Physical development is defined as the biological changes that occur in the body and
brain, including changes in size and strength, integration of sensory and motor activities, and the
development of fine and gross motor skills.

B. Social and Emotional Development

Social-emotional development is defined as the changes in the ways we connect to other

individuals and express and understand emotions. The core features of emotional development
include the ability of a child to identify and understand their own feelings, to accurately read and
comprehend emotional states of others, to manage strong emotions and their expression in a
beneficial manner, to regulate their own behavior, to develop empathy for others, and to establish
and maintain relationships.

C. Language Development

Infants understand words before they can say. In other words, comprehension precedes
production of language. Children differ enormously in the rate at which they develop language.
The four different aspects of language include all of the following; phonology - the sounds that
make up the language, syntax - the grammar of the language, semantics - the meanings of words,
and pragmatics - how we use language in social situations to communicate.

D. Cognitive Development

Cognitive development is defined as the changes in the way we think, understand, and
reason about the world.

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V. Stages in Child Development
Stages, along with age are used as ranges to mark significant periods in human
development timeline. In each stage, growth and development occur in the four domains. The
stages are as follows:
a. Infancy (birth to 2 years)
Infancy refers to the first year of life after birth, and an infant is defined as a human being
between birth and the first birthday. The term baby is usually considered synonymous with an
infant, although it is commonly applied to the young of other animals, as well as humans. Human
infants seem weak and helpless at birth, but they are actually born with a surprising range of
abilities. Most of their senses are quite well developed, and they can also communicate their
needs by crying, like the three-day-old baby. During their first year, infants develop many other
abilities, some of which are described in this concept. They also grow more rapidly during their
first year than they will at any other time during the rest of their life.

b. Early childhood (3 to 8 years)

Early childhood is a time of tremendous growth across all areas of development. The
dependent newborn grows into a young person who can take care of his or her own body and
interact effectively with others. For these reasons, the primary developmental task of this stage is
skill development.

c. Middle childhood (9 to 11 years)

Middle childhood has been called the “golden age” of childhood. Overall, children are
relatively healthy during this period. Growth rates slow and children start gaining about 5-7
pounds in weight and 2 inches in height each year. Many children begin to slim down as their
torsos become longer. A child at this age can have strong muscles and increased lung capacity to
enable them to play for long periods of time.
d. Adolescence (12 – 18 years)
Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. It includes
some big changes—to the body, and to the way a young person relates to the world.

Self-Assessment:
Answer the following questions:
1. State the various child development theories and discuss each.
2. Enumerate and discuss the various domains of development.

Reflection:
Look for photos that will represent various milestones for every stage. As a variation,
show the photo and then name the specific milestone, stage and domain. Jot down answers on the
table provided below.

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Description of Photo Stage of Development Milestone

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 MODULE 3
LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

LESSON 7:
LEARNERS WITH ADDITIONAL NEEDS

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
1. Identify the various additional needs learners might have
2. Differentiate the additional needs from one another
3. Recognize the characteristics of learners with additional needs
4. Discuss what marginalization means; and
5. Identify different marginalized groups

Introduction:
Children learn every day. This happens in various settings and different ways. Learning at
times happens intentionally and with great effort while there are situations where it happens
almost effortlessly.

I. Learners Who Are Gifted and Talented

A. Definition

Children who are gifted and talented exhibit a wide range of characteristics. Some may
excel in academic subjects, performing well above grade level in specific areas, such as math or
reading. Others may be more interested in the arts, playing musical instruments, or using various
media to demonstrate their talents. Still others may show leadership abilities by working with
their peers to achieve specific goals.

There is another way

to look into giftedness which
is conceptualized by Gardner
in 1993. According to him
intelligence is multifaceted.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

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 B. Identification
To identify gifted and talented students, one must do the following:
 Locate the student’s domain of giftedness
 Describe the student’s level of giftedness
 Describe the student’s field of talent
C. Learning Characteristics
 Keen powers of observation.
 Learned or read very early, often before school age.
 Reads widely and rapidly.
 Well developed vocabulary - takes delight in using unusual and new words.
 Has great intellectual curiosity.
 Absorbs information rapidly - often called sponges.
 Very good memory - can recall information in different circumstances.
 Have to ability to concentrate deeply for prolonged periods.
 Very good powers of reasoning and problem solving.
 Have intense interests.
 Possess unusual imagination.
 Have a great interest in "big" questions, e.g. the nature of the universe, the
problem of suffering in the world, environmental issues.
 Very sensitive - perhaps getting upset easily.
 Very concerned about rights and wrongs, concerned about injustices.

D. General Educational Adaptations

Suggested strategies for reaching gifted students:

1. Teachers may give enrichment exercises that will allow learners to study the same
topic at a more advanced level.

2. Acceleration can let students who are gifted and talented can move at their own pace
thus resulting at times to in completing two grade levels in one school year

3. Open-ended activities with no right or wrong answers can be provided, emphasizing on

divergent thinking wherein there are more possibilities that pre-determined answers.

4. Leadership roles can be given to gifted students since studies have shown that gifted
students are often socially immature.

5. Extensive reading on subjects of their own interest may be coordinated with the school
librarian to further broaden their knowledge.

6. Long term activities may be provided, that will give the gifted students an opportunity
to be engaged for an extended period of time

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II. Learners with Difficulty Seeing

A. Definition

Students with visual impairments are infants, toddlers, children and youths who
experience impairments of the visual system that impact their ability to learn. Functionally
blind – students
can use limited vision for functional tasks but need their tactile and auditory channels for learning.

B. Identification

Learners with difficulty seeing often have physical signs such as crossed eyes, squinting
and eyes that turn outwards. They may also be clumsy, usually bumping into objects which
causes them to fall down. They like to sit near the instructional materials or at times would stand
up and go near the visual aids.

Learners with difficulty seeing may also show poor eye-hand coordination. This can be
seen in their handwriting or poor performance in sporting activities. Another indication is poor
academic performance as these students might have difficulty reading.

C. Learning Characteristics

Learners with visual impairments demonstrate the following characteristics:

 Intellectual abilities are similar to those of sighted peers

 They are unable to use sight to assist them in the development of concepts
 Their concepts development depends on their tactile experience
 They are unable to use visual imagery
 They may display repetitive, stereotyped movement for example, rocking or
rubbing of eyes.
 They are withdrawn, dependent and are unable to use non-verbal cues
 They have difficulty using spatial information and visual imagery and
imagery problems with functional implications
 They have unusual facial behaviours such as a squinting, blinking
or frowning while reading or doing close work.
 They are unable to locate or pick up small objects
 They have difficulty in writing or are not able to write within the lines
 They have difficulty in reading books within the normal range thus
bringing the book/object closer to the eyes.

D. General Educational Adaptations

As a teacher, your main priority is insuring that all of your students have an equal
opportunity to access learning materials and succeed in your course. To teach visually impaired
or blind students you should modify your teaching strategy, allow for the use of visual aids and
assistive technology, and create a safe learning environment.

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  You should also get in the habit of dictating what you are writing on the
chalkboard or whiteboard. This way students who are unable to see the board can
still follow along with the material and take notes.
 Do not provide your students with a handout that contains assignment
instructions. Visually impaired or blind students in your class may have difficulty
seeing the words and learning what is expected. Instead, you should always give
oral instructions for every assignment and activity.
 When you are teaching a class with visually impaired or blind students, you
should try and incorporate tactile learning experiences whenever possible.
 Students who are visually impaired or blind may not always know who is talking.
As a result you should always address students by their name when you call on
them to answer or ask questions. This way the student who is visually impaired
can learn to identify their peers based on the sound of their voice.
 In some instances visually impaired or blind students may need extra time to
complete their assignments and tests. This is typically because reading braille or
using some form of technological aide can take additional time.
 Even though you will need to make certain modifications to your teaching style
and classroom structure in order to accommodate students with visual
impairments, you should still hold these students to the same standard as the rest
of their peers.
 When you are teaching visually impaired or blind students, you may need to
modify the curriculum and the way you teach the curriculum in order the meet the
students needs.

III. Learners with Difficulty Hearing

A. Definition

Hearing impairment is a broad term that refers to hearing losses of varying degrees from
hard-of-hearing to total deafness. The major challenge facing students with hearing impairments
is communication. Hearing-impaired students vary widely in their communication skills. Among
the conditions that affect the development of communication skills of persons with hearing
impairments are personality, intelligence, nature and degree of deafness, degree and type of
residual hearing, degree of benefit derived from amplification by hearing aid, family
environment, and age of onset. Age of onset plays a crucial role in the development of language.
Persons with prelingual hearing loss (present at birth or occurring before the acquisition of
language and the development of speech patterns) are more functionally disabled than those who
lose some degree of hearing after the development of language and speech.

B. Identification

To identify learners with difficulty hearing, observe a student and see if he’she does the
following:

 Speech problems
 Inattentive

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  Hires volume
 Learning difficulties
 Social withdrawal

C. Learning Characteristics

Some of the common characteristics of deafness commonly found in classrooms include

the following:

 Difficulty following verbal directions

 Difficulty with oral expression
 Some difficulties with social/emotional or interpersonal skills
 Will often have a degree of language delay
 Often follows and rarely leads
 Will usually exhibit some form of articulation difficulty
 Can become easily frustrated if their needs are not met — which may lead to
some behavioral difficulties
 Sometimes the use of hearing aids leads to embarrassment and fear of
rejection from peers

D. General Educational Adaptations

 Look directly at the student and face him or her when communicating or
teaching.
 Say the student’s name or signal their attention in some way before speaking.
 Assign the student a desk near the front of the classroom, or where you plan to
deliver most of your lectures.
 Speak naturally and clearly. Remember speaking louder won’t help.
 Do not exaggerate your lip movements, but slowing down a little may help
some students.
 Use facial expressions, gestures and body language to help convey your
message, but don’t overdo it.
 Some communication may be difficult for the hard of hearing student to
understand. Explicitly teach idioms and explain jokes and sarcasm.
 Young hearing impaired children often lag in the development of social
graces. Consider teaching specific social skills such as joining in to games or
conversation, maintaining conversations, and staying on topic.

IV. Learners with Difficulty Communicating

A. Definition

A child with a communication disorder has trouble communicating with others.

He or she may not understand or make the sounds of speech. The child may also struggle
with word choice, word order, or sentence structure.

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 Communication is the interactive exchange of information, ideas, feelings, needs
and desires between and among people (Heward, 2013). Communication is used to serve
several functions, particularly to narrate, explain, inform, request (mand) and express
feelings.

Speech is the expression of language with sounds or oral production. Speech is

produced through precise psychological and neuromuscular coordination: (1) respiration
(act of breathing), (2) phonation (production of sound by the larynx and vocal folds; (3)
articulation (use of lips, tongue, teeth, and hard and soft palates to speak)

Language is used for communication, a formalized code used by a group of

people to communicate with one another, that is primary arbitrary (Heward 2013).

Speech impairments are communication disorders such as stuttering, impaired

articulation and language or voice impairment.

Language disorders involve problems in one or more of the five components of

language and are often classified as expressive or receptive.

B. Identification
 Struggling with stories

By the age of five, children should be able to describe things that have happened
using longer sentences, for example, “Today was really great at school. My teacher gave
me an award and said it was mine for being so good”.

 Understanding spoken language

Children may have difficulty with understanding the meaning of words and
concepts. They may have problems following instructions, understanding games and
tasks, and making sense of what is being said to them. Children with these difficulties
may often appear to understand, as they may be getting clues from following other
children or guessing from the context. They may also come across as 'difficult' simply
because they do not fully understand what is being said.

 Poor behaviour

Behaviour is communication and poor behaviour has been linked to language

difficulties in children of all ages.

 Speech sound production

Children may have problems with the intelligibility of their speech – they may
have a reduced number of sounds available to them and have difficulty making particular
sounds in simple or longer words. They may not be easy to understand when they speak,
or they may be reluctant to speak for fear of not being understood.

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  Attention and listening

Many children who have speech and language difficulties have problems with
listening to spoken language (often when their hearing is okay). They have difficulty
concentrating on a task and listening to adult instructions.

 Social skills

Children's development of social skills, their sense of self and others, and their
ability to form relationships and learn can all be affected by speech and language
problems

C. Learning Characteristics
1) Academic Performance:
 reluctance to contribute to discussions
 difficulty organizing ideas
 difficulty recognizing phonemes
 difficulty producing sounds
 failure to follow directions
 difficulty finding the right word for things
2) Social Interaction:
 Reluctance to interact with other children
 exclusion or rejection by other children
 difficulty carrying on a conversation
 problems negotiating rules for games
3) Cognitive Functioning:
 difficulty organizing information for recall
 slow responding
 inattentiveness
4) Behaviour:
 high level of frustration
 frequent arguments
 fighting with peers
 withdrawing from interaction

D. General Educational Adaptation

Teaching strategies for students with communication disorders include:

 Allowing more time for a student to complete activities, assignments and

tests.
 Having a student sit near you to easily meet her learning needs.
 Discussing possible areas of difficulty and working with the student to
implement accommodations.

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  Always asking before providing assistance, and using positive
reinforcement when the student completes an activity independently.
 Using peer assistance when appropriate.
 Modifying activities or exercises so assignments can be completed by the
student, but providing the same or similar academic objectives.
 Creating tests that are appropriate for the student with speech impairment
(for example, written instead of oral or vice versa.)
 Providing scribes for test taking if a student needs assistance.
 Making sure the student understands test instructions completely and
providing additional assistance if needed.

Self-Assessment:
Answer the following questions:
1. Enumerate and define the different learners with additional needs.
2. What accommodations can be given to learners with communication difficulties?

Reflection:
Think of a person you know or a famous person who has difficulty in any of the domains
mentioned in this lesson. Use any graphic organized to create a profile of this person, his/her
strengths, interests, accomplishments, difficulties, needs, and other information you have. How
does seeing the “whole person” affect your view of this person and not just his/her difficulties?
How is such a perspective important in teaching and learning in an inclusive classroom?

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REFERENCES:
Aligada-Halal,Cristina. Foundations of Inclusive and Special Education. Manila: Rex Book
Store, 2020
Bryant, Diane P. (et.al). Teaching Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Classroom.,
Singapore: SAGE Publications, 2017.
Inciong, Teresita G. Introduction to Special Education. Manila: Rex Book Store, 2010
MAPSA. Managing Children With Special Needs (Learning Disability, ADHD, Autism). Manila:
Rex Book Store, 2009.
Dreyer, Lorna. Inclusive Education (Education Studies for Initial Teacher Developments)

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