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AQA GCSE Physics Your notes

Current, Potential Difference & Resistance

Contents
Circuit Diagrams
Charge & Current
Current, Resistance & Potential Difference
Required Practical: Investigating Resistance
Resistors
I–V Graphs
Thermistors
LDRs
Investigating Resistance in Thermistors & LDRs
Required Practical: Investigating I–V Characteristics

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Circuit Diagrams
Your notes
Circuit Diagrams
All students in the GCSE examination will be expected to recognise the following standard symbols
and be able to construct circuits using them:

The function of the most common components are:

Cell / battery: Provides the circuit with a source of potential difference. A battery is two or more
cells
Switch: Turn the circuit on (closed), or off (open)
Fixed resistor: A resistor limits the flow of current. A fixed resistor has a resistance it cannot change
Variable resistor: A resistor with a slider that can be used to change its resistance. These are often
used in dimmer switches and volume controls
Thermistor: The resistance of a thermistor depends on its temperature. As its temperature
increases, its resistance decreases and vice versa
Light-dependent resistor (LDR): The resistance of an LDR depends on the light intensity. As the
light intensity increases, its resistance decreases and vice versa
Diode: A diode allows current to flow in one direction only. Current flows through the diode when it
is in forward bias position. They are used to convert AC to DC current

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Light-emitting diode (LED): This is equivalent to a diode and emits light when a current passes
through it. These are used for aviation lighting and displays (TVs, road signs)
Your notes
Ammeter: Used to measure the current in a circuit. Connected in series with other components
Voltmeter: Use to measure the potential difference of an electrical component. Connected in
parallel with the relevant component
Each of these components have an electrical resistance that may impact the current in the circuit
However, the resistance of the ammeter is taken to be negligible and the resistance of a voltmeter
istaken to be infinite in exam questions

Drawing & Interpreting Circuit Diagrams

Being able to draw and interpret circuit diagrams using circuit symbols is an essential skill in the
electricity topic
Electric circuit diagrams require the following to work effectively:
An energy source – This is a source of potential difference so a current can flow. This can be a cell,
battery, or a power supply
A closed path or a complete circuit – Electrons need to flow in a complete loop for a current to
flow. A circuit can be open and closed using a switch
Electrical components – These could act as sensors that respond to the environment (LDR,
thermistor), or measure a value (ammeter, voltmeter), or transfer electrical energy to other forms of
energy (LED, lamp). These must be drawn with the correct circuit symbol
The key rules to remember are:
An ammeter is always connected in series
A voltmeter is always connected in parallel to the component the voltage is being measured
The direction of current flow is always from the positive to the negative terminal of the power
supply

Worked Example
Which circuit diagram correctly represents a circuit with current flowing through?

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Your notes

For a circuit to be connected, the switch must be closed

This is either circuit B or D
The other circuit symbol is a diode
Diodes only allow current to flow in one direction
Since current flow is from positive to negative, a forward-biased diode must point in this
direction in order for the current to flow
This is seen in circuit B

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Examiner Tips and Tricks

Your notes
When asked to draw a circuit diagram, make sure to draw the wires as straight lines with a straight
edge or a ruler and make it as neat as possible, especially the circuit symbols.
If the diagram is too small or there is ambiguity as to what a symbol represents, the examiner may not
award you full marks!
Students often overlook actively learning the circuit symbols. It is true that you will come to be
familiar with most of them as you study the course, but it is really important that as part of your
revision, you make sure that you know them all. You need to be able to name them and draw them.
And for components such as thermistors, resistors, LDRs, fuses, and diodes, you also need to be
able to explain how they work.

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Charge & Current

Your notes
Source of Potential Difference
For electrical charge to flow through a closed circuit, it must include a source of potential difference
(p.d)
Sources of potential difference include:
A cell
Batteries (multiple cells)
Electrical generator
A cell makes one end of the circuit positive and the other negative
This sets up a potential difference across the circuit
This is sometimes known as the voltage
The symbol for potential difference is V
The potential difference across a component in a circuit is defined as
The energy transferred per unit charge flowing from one point to another
The energy transferred can also be called the work done
This is calculated using the equation:

Potential difference is measured in volts (V). This is the same as a Joule per coulomb (J C-1)
If a bulb has a voltage of 3 V, every coulomb of charge passing through the bulb will lose 3 J of
energy

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Potential difference (or voltage) is measured using a voltmeter

A voltmeter is always set up in parallel to the component you are measuring the potential difference Your notes
across

Potential difference can be measured by connecting a voltmeter in parallel between two points in a
circuit

Worked Example
Calculate the work done in moving a charge of 5 C through a potential difference of 20 V.
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Charge, Q = 5 C
Potential difference, V = 20 V
Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

Step 3: Rearrange for the work done, W

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W = VQ
Step 4: Substitute in the values Your notes
W = 20 × 5 = 100 J

Electric Current
Electric current is the flow of electrical charge
It is measured in units of amperes (A) or amps
The symbol for current is I
The size of the electric current is the rate of flow of electrical charge
In other words, how much charge passes through a point each second
In metals, such as a copper wire, the electrical charge that flows is electrons
Therefore, the current in a circuit is a flow of electrons

In metals, the current is caused by a flow of electrons

The unit of charge is the Coulomb (C)
This is defined as the quantity of charge that passes a fixed point per second when a current of 1 A
is flowing

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The coulomb (C), is equal to the quantity of electricity conveyed in one second by a current of one
ampere i.e. 1 C = 1 A s
Your notes
Charge flow, current and time are related by the equation:

This equation can be rearranged with the help of the following formula triangle:

Worked Example
Calculate the current through a lamp when a charge of 4 C passes through it in 500 s.
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Charge, Q = 4 C
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Time, t = 500 s
Step 2: Write down the relevant equation
Your notes
Q = It
Step 3: Rearrange for current, I

Step 4: Substitute in the values

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Students often confuse charge and current. When we say charge in terms of electrical circuits, we
are really talking about a quantity of electrons. A unit of charge, one coulomb (1 C) is 6.24 × 1018
electrons. When delocalised electrons flow around a circuit, the amount of charge passing a fixed
point (like an ammeter) per second is the current. So an ammeter is basically counting the number of
electrons or the amount of charge flowing through it each second. One amp (1 A) of current is one
coulomb of charge per second (1 C / s).

Current in a Loop
Electrons are negatively charged
Therefore, they flow away from the negative terminal of a cell towards the positive terminal
Conventional current is defined as the flow of positive charge from the positive terminal of a cell to
the negative terminal
This is opposite to the direction of electron flow, this is because conventional current was being
put to use before the discovery of the electron

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Your notes

By definition, conventional current always goes from positive to negative (even through electrons go
the other way)
Current is measured using an ammeter
Ammeters should always be connected in series with the part of the circuit you wish to measure the
current through

An ammeter can be used to measure the current around a circuit and always connected in series
In a circuit that is a closed-loop, such as a series circuit, the current is the same value at any point
This is because the number of electrons per second that passes through one part of the circuit is
the same number that passes through any other part
This means that all components in a closed-loop have the same current

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Your notes

The current is the same at each point in a closed-loop

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Current, Resistance & Potential Difference

Your notes
Current, Resistance & Potential Difference
Resistance is defined as the opposition to current:
The higher the resistance of a circuit, the lower the current
This means that good conductors have a low resistance and insulators have a high resistance
The symbol for resistance is R
It is measured in Ohms (Ω)
Ω is the Greek capital letter ‘Omega’

An Ohm is defined as one volt per ampere (1 V / A)

The resistance of a circuit can be increased by adding resistors (or variable resistors) to it
Every electrical component has a resistance, even wires
In exam questions, the resistance of the wires and batteries are assumed to be negligible

High resistance means there is lower current and vice versa

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The current I through a component depends on both the resistance R of the component and the
potential difference V across the component
Your notes
The greater the resistance R of the component, the lower the current I for a given potential
difference V across the component
The lower the resistance R of the component, the greater the current I for a given potential
difference V across the component

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Resistance can be tricky to grasp conceptually because the definition 'opposition to current' is a bit
difficult to pin down.
From the point of view of a tiny electron flowing through a wire, the wire is this huge structure of
metal ions arranged in a lattice. There are millions of other electrons flowing through the wire too.
Every time an electron hits the lattice, the electron transfers some of its energy to the lattice. The
electron loses energy and slows down a bit, and the lattice gains energy and vibrates more and
more with each collision. The more it shakes, the more the electrons collide with it.
The wire heats up due to the collisions of electrons with the lattice of the metal ions in the wire. The
hotter it gets, the more it vibrates, the more collisions there are. The more collisions there are, the
hotter it gets... and on and on and on.

Calculating Current, Resistance & Potential Difference

The current, resistance and potential difference of a component in a circuit are calculated using the
equation:

This equation can be rearranged with the help of the following formula triangle:

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Your notes

Voltage, current, resistance formula triangle

Worked Example
Calculate the potential difference through a resistor of resistance 10 Ω if there is a current of 0.3 A
through it.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Resistance, R = 10 Ω
Current, I = 0.3 A
Step 2: Write the equation relating resistance, potential difference and current
V = IR
Step 3: Substitute in the values
V = 0.3 × 10 = 3 V

Examiner Tips and Tricks

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Remember that 'voltage' and 'potential difference' are the same, either wording will be accepted in
your exam answers
Your notes

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Required Practical: Investigating Resistance

Your notes
Required Practical 3: Investigating Resistance
Equipment List

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Metre ruler = 1 mm
Ammeter = 0.01 A
Voltmeter = 0.1 V

Resistance of the Length of a Wire at a Constant Temperature

The aim of this experiment is to investigate how the length of a wire at a constant temperature affects
the resistance of electrical circuits

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Variables:
Independent variable = Length of resistance wire, L Your notes
Dependent variable = Resistance, R
Control variables:
Potential difference of the power supply
Temperature of the wire

Method

Resistance of the length of wire apparatus

1. Set up the apparatus by connecting two crocodile clips to the thin resistance wire a distance of 10 cm
apart and setting the power supply to 1.5 V
2. Connect the wire, using the clips, to the rest of the circuit
3. Record the potential difference from the voltmeter and current from the ammeter
4. Move the clips in 10 cm intervals further apart
5. Take new measurements from the voltmeter and ammeter for each length reading

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6. Continue until the crocodile clips are a length of 1 m apart

An example table of results might look like this:
Your notes

Analysis of Results
Calculate the resistance of each length of wire using the equation:

Where:
R = resistance (Ω)
V = potential difference (V)
I = current (A)
Plot a graph of resistance (on the y-axis) against length (on the x-axis) and draw a line of best fit
An example graph might look like:

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Your notes

The graph should be a straight line through the origin with a positive correlation
This means that the longer the piece of wire, the higher the resistance
In other words, the resistance is directly proportional to the length of the wire

Examiner Tips and Tricks

This practical is notoriously difficult to obtain valid results from because it is so difficult to control for
the heating effect in the wire. Temperature affects resistance, so when the wire heats up, the
increased temperature affects the resistance as well as the length of the wire. When this happens,
we call it a confounding variable. A variable other than the independent variable has impacted the
results, and it is therefore impossible to tell the extent of the effect of the independent variable.
There are ways that you can minimise the impact of a confounding variable (scientists have to work
around them all the time in real life situations), and so this often comes up in exam questions.
Only have the circuit connected to take the reading and then disconnect it straight away until you
are ready to take the next reading. But at longer and longer lengths of wire, the resistance increases
causing more and more heating.
In an ideal scenario, you would wait until the wire had cooled back to room temperature before you
took the next reading, but you simply don't have the time to do this in class. However, these are

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things you could talk about in an exam question if asked for suggestions on improving the
investigation.
Your notes
Combinations of Resistors in Series and Parallel
The aim of this experiment is to investigate how combinations of resistors in series and parallel affect
the total resistance in electrical circuits
Variables:
Independent variable = Number of resistors
Dependent variable = Total resistance, R
Control variables:
Potential difference of the power supply
Temperature of the resistors

Method

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Your notes

Series and parallel resistor combinations apparatus

1. Connect the circuit shown in figure 1 with a battery of 4 V, first with one resistor (R1) with the voltmeter
connected in parallel and ammeter in series
2. Close the switch and record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for just the second resistor (R2)
4. Open the switch and add connect both R1 and R2 in series as shown in figure 2, connecting the
voltmeter in parallel to both resistors
5. Close the switch and record the new readings on the voltmeter and ammeter
6. Open the switch and arrange R1 and R2 now in parallel shown in figure 3
7. Close the switch and record the readings on the voltmeter and ammeter
An example table of results might look like this:

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Your notes

Analysis of Results
Similar to the previous experiment, the resistance for each voltage and current reading is determined
by the equation:

The results should show that in series:

The resistance of the combined resistors is equal to the sum of the two individual resistances
This is because the electrons flow through just one path through both resistors, so the current
does too
The results should show that in parallel:
The resistance of the combined resistors is less than the sum of the two individual resistances
This is because the electrons are split between the different paths (or 'loops') but the resistors still
have the same potential difference across them

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:
The first crocodile clip (connected to the circuit, not the wire) must start at 0 on the ruler
Otherwise, this could cause a zero error in your measurements of the length
Both the ammeter and voltmeter should be checked to start from 0
Random Errors:

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Only allow small currents to flow through the wire

This keeps the temperature of the wire constant, so it doesn't change its resistance Your notes
The current should be switched off between readings so its temperature doesn't change its resistance
Repeat the experiment by reducing the length of the wire 10 cm each time down to a length of 10 cm
Add more resistors in series and parallel to calculate the effect on the combined resistance

Safety Considerations
When there is a high current flowing through a thin wire, the wire will become very hot
Make sure never to touch the wire directly when the circuit is switched on
Switch off the power supply right away if burning is smelled
Make sure there are no liquids close to the equipment, as this could damage the electrical equipment if
spilled

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Resistors
Your notes
Constant & Variable Resistance
Resistors come in two types:
Fixed resistors
Variable resistors
Fixed resistors have a resistance that remains constant
Variable resistors can change the resistance through the circuit
This therefore can vary the amount of current through the circuit
For fixed and variable resistors, once the resistance is set, it will stay at this value no matter how the
current changes
However, the resistance of components such as lamps, diodes (diodes and LEDs), thermistors and
LDRs (light dependent resistors) changes with the current through the component

Fixed and variable resistor circuit symbols

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I–V Graphs
Your notes
Ohm's Law
Ohm's Law states that:
The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across it
Electrical conductors that obey Ohm's Law are referred to as ohmic conductors
Examples of ohmic conductors are:
Fixed resistors
Wires
Heating elements
Ohm's Law is represented by the equation V = IR
If V and I are directly proportional, this means that the resistance R remains constant
Ohm's Law is relevant only at constant temperatures
An ohmic conductor will have a current-voltage (I–V) graph that is a straight line through the origin

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An I-V graph for an ohmic conductor is a straight line graph through the origin
Reversing the potential difference (and direction of the current) makes no difference to the shape of Your notes
the line, the potential difference and current values will just be negative
If the axis labels are swapped around (the current on the x-axis and p.d on the y-axis) the graph will still
be a straight line through the origin

Filament Lamps
A filament lamp is an example of a non-ohmic conductor
This means that the current and potential difference are not directly proportional
This is because the resistance of the filament lamp increases as the temperature of the filament
increases
The I–V graph for a filament lamp shows the current increasing at a proportionally slower rate than the
potential difference

I-V graph for a filament lamp

This is because:
As the current increases, the temperature of the filament in the lamp increases
The higher temperature causes the atoms in the metal lattice of the filament to vibrate more

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This causes an increase in resistance as it becomes more difficult for free electrons (the current) to
pass through
Your notes
Resistance opposes the current, causing the current to increase at a slower rate
Where the graph is a straight line, the resistance is constant
The resistance increases as the graph curves
Reversing the potential difference reverses the current and makes no difference to the shape of the
curve

Resistance & Temperature

All solids are made up of vibrating atoms
The higher the temperature, the faster these atoms vibrate
Electric current is the flow of free electrons in a material
The electrons collide with the vibrating atoms which impedes their flow, hence the
current decreases
So, if the current decreases, then the resistance will increase (from V = IR)
Therefore, an increase in temperature causes an increase in resistance

Diodes
A diode is a non-ohmic conductor that allows current to flow in one direction only
This is called forward bias
In the reverse direction, the diode has very high resistance, and therefore no current flows
This is called reverse bias

The I–V graph for a diode is slightly different:

When the current is in the direction of the arrowhead symbol, this is forward bias
This is shown by the sharp increase in potential difference and current on the right side of the
graph
When the diode is switched around, this is reverse bias
This is shown by a zero reading of current or potential difference on the left side of the graph

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Your notes

I-V graph for a semiconductor diode

An LED is a specific type of diode that emits light and works the same way as a normal diode

Linear & Non-Linear Graphs

Circuit elements can be linear or non-linear
In maths, linear means the graph is a straight line
To know whether a circuit element is linear or non-linear, check whether its I-V graphs is a straight line or
not
Linear components have an I-V graph that is a straight line through the origin
Non-linear components have an I-V graph that is not a straight line
Linear components are said to obey Ohm's Law and have a constant resistance, whilst non-linear do
not
Some components may be linear at low currents, then become non-linear as the current increases (and
therefore a change in temperature)
For example, a fixed resistor at room temperature is linear, but when it becomes very hot it will
become non-linear

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Your notes

Linear and non-linear I-V graphs

Linear elements include:
Fixed resistors
Wires
Heating elements
Non-linear elements include:
Filament lamps
Diodes & LEDs
LDRs
Thermistors

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Thermistors
Your notes
Thermistors
A thermistor is a non-ohmic conductor and a temperature-dependent resistor
It is represented by the following circuit symbol:

Thermistor circuit symbol

The resistance of a thermistor changes depending on its temperature
As the temperature increases the resistance of a thermistor decreases and vice versa

The resistance through a thermistor is dependent on the temperature of it

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Applications of Thermistors
A thermistor is a temperature sensor and is regularly used as a thermostat Your notes

This means it automatically regulates temperature or activates a device when the temperature
reaches a certain point
Therefore, thermistors are found in:
Ovens
Refrigerators
Fire alarms
Digital thermometers
Boilers
They are commonly used to regulate and monitor the temperature in environments where it must be
carefully controlled eg. food and beverage factories

A digital thermometer uses a thermistor to display a temperature reading

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LDRs
Your notes
Light-Dependent Resistors
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a non-ohmic conductor
It is represented by the following circuit symbol:

LDR circuit symbol

The resistance of an LDR changes depending on the light intensity on it
As the light intensity increases the resistance of an LDR decreases and vice versa

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The resistance of an LDR is dependent on the amount of light intensity on it

Applications of LDRs Your notes

An LDR is a light sensor

This means it automatically regulates the amount of light intensity on it or activates a device when
the light intensity reaches above or below a certain point
Therefore, LDRs are found in:
Lights that switch on when it gets dark (eg. garden lights, street lights)
Alarm clocks
Burglar alarm circuits
Light intensity meters
Security lights
The main advantage of an LDR is that these circuits are automatic therefore not needing any human
time and intervention to function correctly everyday

Automatic street lights use LDRs to switch on and off during different times of day and night

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Investigating Resistance in Thermistors & LDRs

Your notes
Investigating Resistance in Thermistors & LDRs
To investigate the relationship between the resistance of a thermistor and temperature, or the
resistance of an LDR and light intensity, the following circuits must be set up:

For the LDR circuit:

Begin with the lamp turned off in a dark room
Record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter
Slowly increase the light intensity of the lamp using the dimmer switch
Record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter for each increase in light intensity
For the thermistor circuit:
Begin with the heater turned off
Record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter

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Slowly increase the heat of the heater using the dimmer switch
Record the reading on the voltmeter and ammeter for each increase in temperature of the heater Your notes
In both situations, make sure the lamp and heater are close, but not touching, the LDR and thermistor
respectively
Wait a few seconds before taking the voltmeter and ammeter readings to allow the LDR and thermistor
to react to the change in the environment
Calculate the resistance of the LDR or thermistor for each change in light intensity or temperature using
the equation:

Therefore, to measure the resistance of any component in a circuit, make sure the following are
included in the circuit diagrams:
The ammeter is connected in series to the component
The voltmeter is connected in parallel to the component
The component with the appropriate circuit symbol
The component is connected to a power supply with a low voltage (below 15 V) otherwise too high
a current in the circuit will start to affect the resistance of the component

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Your notes

Circuit diagram for investigating the resistance of a component

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure to draw all the circuit symbols accurately. Many of them are very similar with small
differences denoting what they do:
Two arrows pointing towards a symbol mean that it is light-dependent (eg. LDR)
Two arrows pointing away mean that it is light-emitting (eg. LED)

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Required Practical: Investigating I–V Characteristics

Your notes
Required Practical 4: Investigating I–V Characteristics
Aim of the Experiment
The aim of the experiment is to use circuit diagrams to construct appropriate circuits to investigate the
I–V characteristics of a variety of circuit elements
These include a fixed resistor at a constant temperature, a lamp and diode
Variables:
Independent variable = Potential difference, V
Dependent variable = Current, I
Control variables:
Potential difference of the power supply
Use of the same equipment eg. wires, diodes

Equipment List
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Variable resistor
Fixed resistor (between 100 Ω and 500 Ω)
Filament lamp
Diode
Voltage Supply
Wires

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Variable resistor = 0.005 Ω
Voltmeter = 0.1 V
Ammeter = 0.01 A

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Method
Your notes

Circuit diagram of the apparatus set up. The fixed resistor will be replaced by a filament lamp and diode
1. Set up the circuit as shown with the fixed resistor
2. Vary the voltage across the component by changing the resistance of the variable resistor, using a
wide range of voltages (between 8-10 readings). Check the appropriate voltage reading on the
voltmeter
3. For each voltage, record the value of the current from the ammeter 3 times and calculate the average
current
4. Increase the voltage further in steps of 0.5 V and repeat steps 2 and 3
5. Make sure to switch off the circuit in between readings to prevent heating of the component and wires
6. Reverse the terminals of the power supply and take readings for the negative voltage (and therefore
negative current)
7. Replace the fixed resistor with the filament lamp, then the diode, repeating the experiment for each
An example of a suitable table might look like this:

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Your notes

Analysis of Results
Plot a graph of average current against voltage (an I–V graph) for each component
If the I–V graph is a straight line, it is an ohmic conductor. This is expected from the fixed resistor
This means it obeys Ohm's Law: V = IR
If the I–V graph is a curve, it is a non-ohmic conductor. This is expected from the filament lamp and
diode
Compare the results from the graphs obtained to the known I–V graphs for the resistor, filament lamp
and diode. These should look like:

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Your notes

The expected I-V graphs for the resistor, diode and filament lamp
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
The voltmeter and ammeters should start from zero, to avoid zero error in the readings

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Random Errors:
In practice, the voltmeter and ammeter will still have some resistance, therefore the voltages and Your notes
currents displayed may be slightly inaccurate
The temperature of the equipment could affect its resistance. This must be controlled carefully
Taking multiple readings of the current for each component will provide a more accurate result and
reduce uncertainties

Safety Considerations
When there is a high current and a thin wire, the wire will become very hot
Make sure never to touch the wire directly when the circuit is switched on
Switch off the power supply right away if burning is smelled
Make sure there are no liquids close to the equipment, as this could damage the electrical equipment
The components will get hot especially at higher voltages
Be careful when handling them - especially the filament lamp
Disconnect the power supply in between readings to avoid the components heating up too much

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In this experiment, the independent variable is the p.d. across the component and the dependent
variable is the current flowing through the component. Students often find it confusing to know how
to change the p.d. and this depends on the equipment that you use for this investigation. If you use a
power pack, then you can easily change the p.d. with a dial, and the experiment is easy to keep track
of. However, if you use a battery, or if you use one setting on the power pack, then the p.d. is fixed
and you would need to use a variable resistor to change the p.d. It is important that you understand
the role of a variable resistor within this experiment, as this is a question that is sometimes asked
about in exams!

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