111 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

Chapter 5

Industrial Robots and Robotics

5.0 Introduction
According to the Robot Institute of America (1979) a robot is: “A reprogrammable,
multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized
devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.”
A robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are
usually referred to as bots. There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots,
but there is general agreement among experts and the public that robots tend to do
some or all of the following: move around; operate a mechanical limb; sense and
manipulate their environment; and exhibit intelligent behavior, especially behavior which
mimics humans or other animals
Robotics provides a unique combination of the pillars of science, technology,
engineering and math. It allows students to experience a true interdisciplinary lesson
while studying a cutting edge and exciting topic. Also, the aesthetics which go into the
design and creation of robots allow students to experiment with an artistic side, while
working through technical principals. An industrial robot is a general-purpose,
programmable machine. It possesses some anthropomorphic characteristics, i.e.
human-like characteristics that resemble the human physical structure. The robots also
respond to sensory signals in a manner that is similar to humans. Anthropomorphic
characteristics such as mechanical arms are used for various industry tasks. Sensory
perceptive devices such as sensors allow the robots to communicate and interact with
other machines and to take simple decisions.

5.1 Issac Asimov's three laws of robotics

Asimov's laws were created by Isaac Asimov as a counter to the Frankenstein legend -
that any halfway intelligent creation of mankind would be flawed and jealous of humanity
and must inevitably turn on its creator. Asimov's laws of robotics are not scientific laws,
they are instructions built in to every robot in his stories to prevent them malfunctioning in
a way that could be dangerous. The three laws are and it is important to get them in order
· First Law: A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a
human being to come to harm.
· Second Law: A robot must obey orders given it by human beings, except where
such orders would conflict with the First Law.
· Third Law: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does
not conflict with the First or Second Law.
Where these laws conflict, precedence is given to the first law, then the second law, with
the robot's self-preservation taking last place. For example if a human ordered a robot to
attack another human it would refuse to follow the order (first law takes precedence over
second), but if a human ordered it to disassemble itself it would obey (second law takes
precedence over third).
112 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

They are laws like the law against murder, now laws like the law of gravity. Therefore
scientific credence is irrelevant. We choose to build robots which obey them, or not. It is
up to us.

5.2 History of Robots

270BC: An ancient Greek engineer named Ctesibus made organs and water clocks with
movable figures.
1818: Mary Shelley wrote “Frankenstein” which was about a frightening artificial lifeform
created by Dr. Frankenstein.
1921: The term “robot” was first used in a play called "R.U.R." or “Rossum's Universal
Robots” by the Czech writer Karel Capek. The plot was simple: man makes robot then
robot kills man!
1941: Science fiction writer Isaac Asimov first used the word "robotics" to describe the
technology of robots and predicted the rise of a powerful robot industry.
1942: Asimov wrote “Runaround,” a story about robots which contained the “Three Laws
of Robotics:”
1948: “Cybernetics,” an influence on artificial intelligence research, was published by
Norbert Wiener.
1956: George Devol and Joseph Engelberger formed the world's first robot company in
Ewing Township, New Jersey.
1959: Computer-assisted manufacturing was demonstrated at the Servomechanisms
Lab at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
1961: The first industrial robot was activated on the assembly line in a General Motors
automobile factory in New Jersey. It was called Unimate.
1963: The first artificial robotic arm to be controlled by a computer was designed by
researchers at Rancho Los Amigos Hospital in Downey, California. The Rancho Arm
was designed as a tool for the handicapped and it's six joints gave it the flexibility of a
human arm.
1965: Dendral was the first expert system or program designed to execute the
accumulated knowledge of subject experts. It was done at Stanford University by
Edward Feigenbaum, Bruce Buchanan, Joshua Lederberg, and Carl Djerassi, along
with a team of highly creative research associates and students.
1968: The octopus-like Tentacle Arm was developed by Marvin Minsky.
1969: The Stanford Arm was the first electrically-powered, computer-controlled robot arm
developed by Victor Scheinman at Stanford University in California.
1970: Shakey was introduced as the first mobile robot controlled by artificial intelligence. It
was produced by Stanford Research Institute (SRI) International.
1974: A robotic arm (the Silver Arm) that performed small-parts assembly using feedback
from touch and pressure sensors was designed by David Silver from MIT.
1979: The Stanford Cart, rebuilt by Hans Moravec from Stanford University, crossed a chair-
filled room without human assistance. The cart had a television camera mounted on a rail
which took pictures from multiple angles and relayed them to a computer. The computer
analyzed the distance between the cart and the obstacles. Since 1979, robots and robotics
113 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

have rapidly evolved and have rapidly become an almost invisible presence in our society.
We have employed robots in everything from manufacturing to military to the space
program. Robotics is used at the International Space Station and is becoming more and
more integrated into our daily world.

5.3 Different types of robots

· Industrial robots: Industrial robots are used in an industrial manufacturing
environment. Usually these are articulated arms specifically developed for such
applications as welding, material handling, painting and others.
· Domestic or household robots: Robots used at home. This type of robots
includes many quite different devices such as robotic vacuum cleaners, robotic
pool cleaners, sweepers, gutter cleaners and other robots that can do different
chores. Also, some surveillance and telepresence robots could be regarded as
household robots if used in that environment.
· Medical robots: Robots used in medicine and medical institutions. First and
foremost - surgery robots. Also, some automated guided vehicles and maybe
lifting aides.
· Service robots: Robots that don't fall into other types gathering robots, robots
made to show off technologies, robots used for research, etc.
· Military robots: Robots used in military. This type of robots includes bomb
disposal robots, different transportation robots, reconnaissance drones. Often
robots initially created for military purposes can be used in law enforcement,
search and rescue and other related fields.
· Entertainment robots: These are robots used for entertainment. This is a very
broad category. It starts with toy robots such as robosapien or the running alarm
clock and ends with real heavyweights such as articulated robot arms used as
motion simulators.
· Space robots: This type would include robots used on the International Space
Station, Canadarm that was used in Shuttles, as well as Mars rovers and other
robots used in space.
· Hobby and competition robots: Most of the hobbyist robots are mobile and
made to operate by rolling around on wheels propelled by electric motors
controlled by an on board microprocessor.
· Explorer robots: The majority of these robots are completely self-reliant due to
their sensory systems, however they may also be controlled by humans giving
orders through computer commands. The other types of explorer robots are
underground mine exploring robots, seeing and walking undersea robots, and
even bomb defusing robots used by police.
114 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

· Laboratory robots: Laboratory robotics is the act of using robots in biology or

chemistry labs. For example, pharmaceutical companies employ robots to move
biological or chemical samples around to synthesize novel chemical entities or to
test pharmaceutical value of existing chemical matter.
· Sequence robots: A manipulator which progresses successively through the
various stages of an operation according to the predetermined sequence.
· Playback robots: The playback robots are capable of performing a task by
teaching the position. These positions are stored in the memory, and done
frequently by the robot. Generally, these playback robots are employed with a
complicated control system. It can be divided into two important types, namely:
Point to Point control robots and continuous Path control robots
Robots are machines that supplement or enhance human activities. They can do this in a
number of ways:
· Pre-Programmed Robots: Pre-programmed robots operate in a simple,
controlled environment so that they do not require a great deal in the way of
intelligent control systems ("artificial intelligence") to operate successfully. The
most familiar pre-programmed robots are probably the robots used to build cars
in most automobile plants around the world. There are similar robots that operate
not on cars, but on the human body. Learn more about pre-programmed robots in
both industry and in the medical field.
· Autonomous Robots: Autonomous robots operate independently of human
operators in environments that are not as tightly controlled as pre-programmed
robots. They have "autonomy" because it is ultimately the machine's
responsibility to detect changes in the environment and to adapt to it. When
operating properly it is not necessary for humans to constantly monitor and
manipulate the environment to accommodate limitations in the robot's ability to
cope. Autonomous robots are used in industry, as labor-saving devices at home,
and are even becoming popular toys.
· Teleoperated Robots: Teleoperated robots are controlled remotely by a human
being. The underwater robots that helped fix the oil leak are teleoperated. The
robotic arm on the Space Shuttle is another example. There are many such
examples with the number and kind of robots growing with each passing year.
· Augmenting Robots: Some robots are connected directly to the human user's
body, either by the user gripping the controls in their hand or by having it in
contact with the user's body in some other way. Movements of the user's body
(sometimes it is only the mental activity of the user's brain) ultimately control a
robotic effector of some kind. These robots can either enhance the user's natural
115 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

skill in some way (e.g., extending their reach) or give them a skill they don't have
or have lost (e.g., a robotic prosthetic arm). These robots can give humans the
lifting power of giants and the dexterity of a virtuoso surgeon.

5.4 Technical Specification in Robotics

Accuracy: The robot's program instruct the robot to move to a specified point, it does not
actually perform as per specified. The accuracy measures such variance. That is, the
distance between the specified position that a robot is trying to achieve (programming
point), and the actual X, Y and Z resultant position of the robot end effector.
Repeatability: The ability of a robot returns repeatedly to a given position. It is the ability
of a robotic system or mechanism to repeat the same motion or achieve the same
position. Repeatability is is a measure of the error or variability when repeatedly
reaching for a single position. Repeatability is often smaller than accuracy.
Degree of Freedom (DOF): Each joint or axis on the robot introduces a degree of
freedom. Each DOF can be a slider, rotary, or other type of actuator. The number of DOF
that a manipulator possesses thus is the number of independent ways in which a robot
arm can move. Industrial robots typically have 5 or 6 degrees of freedom. Three of the
degrees of freedom allow positioning in 3D space (X, Y, Z), while the other 2 or 3 are used
for orientation of the end effector (yaw, pitch and roll). 6 degrees of freedom are enough
to allow the robot to reach all positions and orientations in 3D space. 5 DOF requires a
restriction to 2D space, or else it limits orientations. 5 DOF robots are commonly used for
handling tools such as arc welders.
Resolution: The smallest increment of motion can be detected or controlled by the
robotic control system. It is a function of encoder pulses per revolution and drive (e.g.
reduction gear) ratio. And it is dependent on the distance between the tool center point
and the joint axis.
Envelope: A three-dimensional shape, that defines the boundaries that the robot
manipulator can reach; also known as reach envelope.
Reach: The maximum horizontal distance between the center of the robot base to the
end of its wrist.
Maximum Speed: A robot simultaneously moving with all joints in complimentary
directions at full speed with full extension. The maximum speed is the theoretical values
which does not consider under loading condition.
Payload: The maximum payload is the amount of weight carried by the robot
manipulator at reduced speed while maintaining rated precision. Nominal payload is
measured at maximum speed while maintaining rated precision. These ratings are
highly dependent on the size and shape of the payload due to variation in inertia.
116 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

5.5 Robot Parts and Functions

The following explains different robot parts and their functions.
· Controller: Every robot is connected to a computer, which keeps the pieces of
the arm working together. This computer is known as the controller. The
controller functions as the "brain" of the robot. The controller also allows the robot
to be networked to other systems, so that it may work together with other
machines, processes, or robots. Robots today have controllers that are run by
programs - sets of instructions written in code. Almost all robots of today are
entirely pre-programmed by people; they can do only what they are programmed
to do at the time, and nothing else. In the future, controllers with artificial
intelligence, or AI could allow robots to think on their own, even program
themselves. This could make robots more self-reliant and independent.
· Arm: Robot arms come in all shapes and sizes. The arm is the part of the robot
that positions the end- effector and sensors to do their pre-programmed
business. Many (but not all) resemble human arms, and have shoulders, elbows,
wrists, even fingers. This gives the robot a lot of ways to position itself in its
environment. Each joint is said to give the robot 1 degree of freedom. So, a
simple robot arm with 3 degrees of freedom could move in 3 ways: up and down,
left and right, forward and backward.
· Drive: The drive is the "engine" that drives the links (the sections between the
joints into their desired position. Without a drive, a robot would just sit there,
which is not often helpful. Most drives are powered by air, water pressure, or
electricity.
· End-Effector: The end-effector is the "hand" connected to the robot's arm. It is
often different from a human hand, it could be a tool such as a gripper, a vacuum
pump, tweezers, scalpel, blowtorch, just about anything that helps it do its job.
Some robots can change end-effectors, and be reprogrammed for a different set
of tasks.
· Sensor: Most robots of today are nearly deaf and blind. Sensors can provide
some limited feedback to the robot so it can do its job. Compared to the senses
and abilities of even the simplest living things, robots have a very long way to go.
The sensor sends information, in the form of electronic signals back to the
controller. Sensors also give the robot controller information about its
surroundings and let it know the exact position of the arm, or the state of the world
around it.

Robot Types Classification

The Pneumatic Robot: The pick and place machine is the simplest of the robots.
Pneumatic powered, it has no servo motors driving the axes, but an air cylinder instead.
As such, each stoke is to an end stop, that is generally adjustable for a few millimeters,
via a micrometer type screw. A popular application is to pick and place small components
into an assembly, maybe from a vibratory bowl feeder to an assembly fixture. Pick and
Place units are fast, accurate and very cost effective.
117 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

The Scara Robots: Scara means Selective, Compliant, Robot arm. This robot is
especially designed for assembly automation and uses 4-axes of motion, each axes
driven by a servo motor. The two joints have a motor each and the base has a rotate axis.
The forth axis is the vertical axis that generally inserts a component. This arrangement
makes a very "stiff" arrangement that is ideally suited for accurate insertion. The Scara is
the least expensive of the servo powered robots and are usually small and can be very
fast.
The Gantry Robot: This type of robot is generally mounted direct to the shop floor and
usually has a large work envelope. It can be used for material handling applications and I
used them for stacking and de-stacking steel blanks, that were laser welded into tailored
blanks. They can be pneumatic powered but the cost of servo drives for industrial
robotics is getting so competitive that today the air powered types are few and far
between.
Cartesian robots: These machines are usually mounted on a table and are similar in
concept to the gantry robot but on a smaller scale. The axes can be air or servo motor
powered and are generally offered in modules that are complete and can be bolted
together, to form the motions required.
The 6-Axes Industrial Robot Arm: Maybe the most recognized industrial robot. It is
available in a wide range of sizes and payloads, they can be small enough to mount on a
table or, like the ABB IR 140 shown here are floor mounted. Applications are universal in
the field of industrial robotics. The robot arm can be found in all types of uses, from
assembly to welding to painting and material handling.
The Painting Robot: When used in a painting application, the robot does not need a
large payload capability but does need good repeatability and accurate path following.
When correctly programmed and well maintained, a paint robot will produce excellent
repeatable results with no paint runs or overspray.
The Welding Robot: The welding robot does not require a large payload capability but a
larger work envelope can be an advantage and smooth, non-jerky movement is
required. Welding is a dirty operation, so sealing of critical areas is essential and the
shielding gas used in MIG operations must ensure that weld spatter is kept to a
minimum.

5.6 Robot Anatomy

The Anatomy of Industrial Robots deals with the assembling of outer components of a
robot such as wrist, arm, and body shown in figure 5.1. Before jumping into Robot
Configurations, here are some of the key facts about robot anatomy.
· End Effectors: A hand of a robot is considered as end effectors. The grippers
and tools are the two significant types of end effectors. The grippers are used to
pick and place an object, while the tools are used to carry out operations like
spray painting, spot welding, etc. on a work piece.
· Robot Joints: The joints in an industrial robot are helpful to perform sliding and
rotating movements of a component.
118 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

Elbow

Wrist

Shoulder

Tool
Waist

Figure 5.1 Robot Anatomy

· Manipulator: The manipulators in a robot are developed by the integration of

links and joints. In the body and arm, it is applied for moving the tools in the work
volume. It is also used in the wrist to adjust the tools.
· Kinematics: It concerns with the assembling of robot links and joints. It is also
used to illustrate the robot motions.

5.6.1 Robot anatomy and related attributes: Joints and Links

The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links. Robot
anatomy deals with the study of different joints and links and other aspects of the
manipulator's physical construction. A robotic joint provides relative motion between two
links of the robot. Each joint, or axis, provides a certain degree-of-freedom (DOF) of
motion. In most of the cases, only one degree-of-freedom is associated with each joint.
Therefore the robot's complexity can be classified according to the total number of
degrees-of-freedom they possess.
Each joint is connected to two links, an input link and an output link. Joint provides
controlled relative movement between the input link and output link. A robotic link is the
rigid component of the robot manipulator. Most of the robots are mounted upon a
stationary base, such as the floor.
Join 2
Link 2
Link 1

Join 1 End of arm

Link 0

Base
Ground

Fig.ure 5.2 Joint-link scheme for robot manipulator

From this base, a joint-link numbering scheme may be recognized as shown in Figure
5.2. The robotic base and its connection to the first joint are termed as link-0. The first
119 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

joint in the sequence is joint-1. Link-0 is the input link for oint-1, while the output link from
joint-1 is link-1 which leads to joint-2. Thus link 1 is, simultaneously, the output link for
joint-1 and the input link for joint-2. This joint-link-numbering scheme is further followed
for all joints and links in the robotic systems.
Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified into following
five types as shown in Figure 5.3.

Input link Output link Input link

(a) Linear Joint Output link (b) Orthogonal

Joint

Input link Output link Input link Output link

(c) Rotational Joint (d) Twisting Joint

Output link

Input link

(e) Revolving Joint

Figure 5.3 Types of Joints

· Linear joint (type L joint): The relative movement between the input link and the
output link is a translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two links being
parallel.
· Orthogonal joint (type U joint): This is also a translational sliding motion, but
the input and output links are perpendicular to each other during the move.
· Rotational joint (type R joint): This type provides rotational relative motion, with
the axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.
· Twisting joint (type T joint): This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis or
rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links.
· Revolving joint (type V-joint, V from the “v” in revolving): In this type, axis of
input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint. However the axis of the
output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

5.6.2 Wrist configuration of Robot

Purpose of the Robot Wrist Orientation is to orientate the tools, three additional joints are
require, and these are normally mounted at the end of the arm in an assemble termed
the wrist: it is conventional to define the joints of a wrist roll, pitch and yaw. The arm and
wrist give the robot the required six degrees of freedom that permit the tool to be
120 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

positioned and orientated as required by the task.

· Roll: This is also called wrist swivel, this involves rotation of the wrist mechanism
about the arm axis. Rotation about arm axis.
· Pitch: It involves up & down rotation of the wrist. This is also called as wrist bend.
Rotation about horizontal axis.
· Yaw: It involves right or left rotation of the wrist. Rotation about a vertical axis

Wrist Degrees of Freedom

1 D O F R o -r ll o ll
2 D O F r o l-r
l o ll p itc h a n d r o ll o r y a w and
b e n -r do ll r o ll
p itc h a n d r o ll
3 D O F b e n -bd e n -r do ll
b e n -rd o l-rl o ll
r o l-b
l e n -rdo ll
r o l-r
l o l-r
l o ll p i t c -y
h aw
-r o ll

5.6.3 Common Robot Configurations

Basically the robot manipulator has two parts viz. a body-and-arm assembly with three
degrees-of-freedom; and a wrist assembly with two or three degrees-of-freedom.
For body-and-arm configurations, different combinations of joint types are possible for a
three-degree-of-freedom robot manipulator. Five common body-and-arm
configurations are outlined in figure 5.4.

(b)
Cylindrical
(a) Polar
(c) Cartesian

(d) Jointed-arm
(e) SCARA

Figure 5.4 Common Body-and-Arm configurations

· Polar configuration: It consists of a sliding arm L-joint, actuated relative to the

body, which rotates around both a vertical axis (T-joint), and horizontal axis (R-
joint).
· Cylindrical configuration: It consists of a vertical column. An arm assembly is
121 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

moved up or down relative to the vertical column. The arm can be moved in and
out relative to the axis of the column. Common configuration is to use a T-joint to
rotate the column about its axis. An L-joint is used to move the arm assembly
vertically along the column, while an O-joint is used to achieve radial movement
of the arm.
· Cartesian co-ordinate robot: It is also known as rectilinear robot and x-y-z
robot. It consists of three sliding joints, two of which are orthogonal O-joints.
· Jointed-arm robot: It is similar to the configuration of a human arm. It consists of
a vertical column that swivels about the base using a T-joint. Shoulder joint (R-
joint) is located at the top of the column. The output link is an elbow joint (another
R joint).
· SCARA: Its full form is 'Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm'. It is similar
in construction to the jointer-arm robot, except the shoulder and elbow rotational
axes are vertical. It means that the arm is very rigid in the vertical direction, but
compliant in the horizontal direction.
· Robot wrist assemblies: consist of either two or three degrees-of-freedom. A
typical three-degree-of-freedom wrist joint is depicted in Figure 5.5. The roll joint
is accomplished by use of a T-joint. The pitch joint is achieved by recourse to an
R-joint. And the yaw joint, a right-and-left motion, is gained by deploying a second
R-joint.

Figure 5.5 Robotic wrist joint

The SCARA body-and-arm configuration typically does not use a separate wrist
assembly. Its usual operative environment is for insertion-type assembly operations
where wrist joints are unnecessary. The other four body-and-arm configurations more-
or-less follow the wrist-joint configuration by deploying various combinations of rotary
joints viz. type R and T.
Degrees of Freedom: Point location in space specified by three coordinates (P). Object
location in space specified by location of a selected point on it (P) and orientation of the
object (R). Six degrees (P, R) of freedom needed to fully place the object in space and
orientate it.
122 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

The arm joints are used to position the end effector. The wrist joints are used to orient the
end effector.

5.6.4 End Effectors (robot hand)

An end-effector is a tool or gripping mechanism attached to the end of a robot arm used
to make intentional contact with an object or to produce the robot's final effect on its
surroundings to accomplish some task. It is attached to the wrist a hand of the robot and
the end effector is not considered as part of the robot's manipulator.
· Tools: Tools are used in applications where the robot must perform some
processing operation on the work-part. In each case the robot must not only
control the relative position of the tool with respect to the work as a function of
time, it must also control the operation of the tool.
· Grippers: Grippers are end effectors used to grasp and manipulate objects
during the work cycle. The objects are usually work-parts that are moved from
one location to another in the cell. The examples of grippers are;
o Mechanical grippers, in which the part is held between mechanical fingers
and the fingers are mechanically actuated
o Vacuum grippers, in which suction cups are used to hold flat objects
o Magnetized devices, for holding ferrous parts
o Adhesive devices, where an adhesive substance is used to hold a flexible
material such as fabrics.
Grippers have grasping force and the factors that determine the grasping Force are
The weight of the object;
· Consideration of whether the part can be grasped about its center of mass;
· The speed and acceleration with which the robot arm moves, and the
orientational relationship between the direction of movement and the position of
fingers on the object;
Figure 5.6 shows different types of grippers.

(a) External gripper (b) Internal gripper

123 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

( c) Suction cups vacuum gripper (d) Venturi type vacuum gripper

Fixed finger Motor power
amplifiers and
signal processing
for all three
fingers
PARALLEL GRIP
REGION
Two movable
fingers can
swing 180o EQUILIBRIUM LINE

ENCOMPASSING GRIP
REGION

Torque switch
Communications sends torque
connection to appropriate
finger joint
(e) Three-fingered gripper (f) Two-fingered gripper

Figure 5.6 Types of Grippers

5.7 Kinematics
Kinematics refer to the spatial arrangement, according to the sequence and structure, of
the axes of movement in relation to each other. See figure 5.7. There are four basic
types of movement that an industrial robot may have:
1. cartesian
2. cylindrical
3. polar
4. jointed-arm

Cartesian Co-Ordinate Robot: The Cartesian co-ordinate robot is one that consists of
a column and an arm. It is sometimes called an x-y-z robot, indicating the axes of motion.
The x-axis is lateral motion, the y-axis is longitudinal motion, and the z-axis is vertical
motion. Thus, the arm can move up and down on the z-axis; the arm can slide along its
base on the x-axis; and then it can telescope to move to and from the work area on the y-
axis. The Cartesian co-ordinate robot was developed mainly for arc welding, but it is also
suited for many other assembly operations.
Cylindrical Co-Ordinate Robot: The cylindrical co-ordinate robot is a variation of the
Cartesian robot. This robot consists of a base and a column, but the column is able to
124 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

rotate. It also carries an extending arm that can move up and down on the column to
provide more freedom of movement. The cylindrical co-ordinate robot is designed for
handling machine tools and assembly.

Pick-and-place

Application of
sealant

Most assembly
operations

CARTESIAN OR
X-Y-Z ARM

Handling at
machine tools

Spot welding

CYLINDRICAL

Handling at
diecasting
machines

POLAR
Fettling castings

Gas welding

Arc welding

Spray painting

JOINTED ARM

Figure 5.7 Four basic types of robot configurations and their factory applications.

Polar Co-Ordinate Robot: The polar co-ordinate, or spherical co-ordinate robot

consists of a rotary base, an elevation pivot, and a telescoping extend-and-retract boom
axis. These robots operate according to spherical co-ordinates and offer greater
flexibility. They are used particularly in spot welding.
125 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

Jointed-Arm Robot: The jointed-arm robot resembles a human arm. It usually stands
on a base on which it can rotate, while it can articulate at the "shoulder" joint, which is just
above the base. The robot can also rotate about its "elbow" and "wrist" joints. With the
swiveling and bending at the wrist, six degrees of freedom can be obtained. The jointed-
arm robot is the most popular form for a robot and is capable in welding and painting
work.

5.8 Robot Drive systems

Basically three types of drive systems are commonly used to actuate robotic joints.
These are electric, hydraulic, and pneumatic drives. Electric motors are the prime
movers in robots. Servo-motors or steeper motors are widely used in robotics. Hydraulic
and pneumatic systems such as piston-cylinder systems, rotary vane actuators are
used to accomplish linear motions, and rotary motions of joints respectively.
Pneumatic drive is regularly used for smaller, simpler robotic applications; whereas
electric and hydraulic drives may be found applications on more sophisticated industrial
robots. Due to the advancement in electric motor technology made in recent years,
electric drives are generally favored in commercial applications. They also have
compatibility to computing systems. Hydraulic systems, although not as flexible as
electrical drives, are generally used where larger speeds are required. They are
generally employed to carry out heavy duty operations using robots.
The combination of drive system, sensors, and feedback control system determines the
dynamic response characteristics of the manipulator. Speed in robotic terms refers to
the absolute velocity of the manipulator at its end-of-arm. It can be programmed into the
work cycle so that different portions of the cycle are carried out at different velocities.
Acceleration and deceleration control are also important factors, especially in a confined
work envelope. The robot's ability to control the switching between velocities is a key
determinant of the manipulator's capabilities. Other key determinants are the weight
(mass) of the object being manipulated, and the precision that is required to locate and
position the object correctly. All of these determinants are gathered under the term
'speed of response', which is defined as the time required for the manipulator to move
from one point in space to the next. Speed of response influences the robot's cycle time,
which in turn affects the production rate that can be achieved.
Stability refers to the amount of overshoot and oscillation that occurs in the robot motion
at the end-of-arm as it attempts to move to the next programmed location. More
oscillations in the robotic motion lead to less stability in the robotic manipulator.
However, greater stability may produce a robotic system with slower response times.
Load carrying capacity is also an important factor. It is determined by weight of the
126 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

gripper used to grasp the objects. A heavy gripper puts a higher load upon the robotic
manipulator in addition to the object mass. Commercial robots can carry loads of up to
900 kg, while medium-sized industrial robots may have capacities of up to 45kg.

5.9 Robot Mechanisms

All machines transform energy to do work, but only some mechanisms are capable of
performing work. The term machinery means an assembly that includes both machines
and mechanisms. The Physical Principles; Efficiency of Machines & Mechanical
Advantage.

Efficiency of Machines: Simple machines are evaluated on the basis of efficiency and
mechanical advantage. While it is possible to obtain a larger force from a machine than
the force exerted upon it, this refers only to force and not energy; according to the law of
conservation of energy, “more work cannot be obtained from a machine than the energy
supplied to it”.
Because Work = Force * Distance, for a machine to exert a larger force than its initiating
force or operator, that larger force must be exerted through a correspondingly shorter
distance. As a result of friction in all moving machinery, the energy produced by a
machine is less than that applied to it. Consequently, by interpreting the law of
conservation of energy, it follows that:
Input Energy = output energy + wasted energy
This statement is true over any period of time, so it applies to any unit of time; because
power is work or energy per unit of time, the following statement is also true:
Input Power = output power + wasted power
The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of its output to its input, if both input and output are
expressed in the same units of energy or power. This ratio is always less than unity, and it
is usually expressed in percent by multiplying the ratio by 100.
Percent Efficiency = (output energy / input energy) * 100
Percent Efficiency = (output power / input power) * 100
A machine has high efficiency if most of the power supplied to it is passed on to its load
and only a fraction of the power is wasted. The efficiency can be as high as 98 percent for
a large electrical generator, but it is likely to be less than 50 percent for a screw jack. For
example, if the input power supplied to a 20-hp motor with an efficiency of 70 percent is to
be calculated, the foregoing equation is transposed.
Input power = (output power / percent efficiency) * 100
= 20 hp / 70 * 100 = 28.6 hp
127 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

Mechanical Advantage: Mechanical advantage is a measure of the force amplification

achieved by using a tool, mechanical device or machine system. Ideally, the device
preserves the input power and simply trades off forces against movement to obtain a
desired amplification in the output force. Machine components designed to manage
forces and movement in this way are called mechanisms.
An ideal mechanism transmits power without adding to or subtracting from it. This
means the ideal mechanism
· does not include a power source,
· is frictionless,
· constructed from rigid bodies that do not deflect or wear,
The performance of real systems is obtained from this ideal by using efficiency factors
that take into account friction, deformation and wear.
The mechanical advantage of a mechanism or system is the ratio of the load or weight
W, typically in pounds or kilograms, divided by the effort or force F exerted by the
initiating entity or operator, also in pounds or kilograms. If friction has been considered or
is known from actual testing, the mechanical advantage,
MA, of a machine is: load / effort = W / F
The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) is the mechanical advantage determined by
physical measurement of the input and output forces. Actual mechanical advantage
takes into account energy loss due to deflection, friction, and wear. The AMA of a
machine is calculated as the ratio of the measured force output to the measured force
input,
AMA = fout / fin, where the input and output forces are determined
experimentally.
The ratio of the experimentally determined mechanical advantage to the ideal
mechanical advantage is the efficiency η of the machine,
η = AMA/IMA

5.9.1 Components of Robotics Mechanisms

The Basic components of Robotics Mechanisms are;
· Inclined Plane:
· Pulley Systems
· Screw Systems
· Levers
· Linkages – Simple Planar Linkages
· Gears and Belts
· Cams and Cranks
128 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

Inclined Plane: An inclined plane is a flat supporting surface tilted at an angle, with one
end higher than the other, used as an aid for raising or lowering a load. The inclined plane
is one of the six classical simple machines. Inclined planes are widely used to move
heavy loads over vertical obstacles.
I B
F=W sinq
W h
F q
A Ib C
Figure 5.8 The Inclined Plane

From figure 5.8 moving an object up an inclined plane requires less force than lifting it
straight up, at a cost of an increase in the distance moved. The mechanical advantage of
an inclined plane, the factor by which the force is reduced, is equal to the ratio of the
length of the sloped surface to the height it spans. Due to conservation of energy, the
same amount of mechanical energy (work) is required to lift a given object by a given
vertical distance, disregarding losses from friction, but the inclined plane allows the
same work to be done with a smaller force exerted over a greater distance. The angle of
friction, also sometimes called the angle of repose, is the maximum angle at which a load
can rest motionless on an inclined plane due to friction, without sliding down. This angle
is equal to the arctangent of the coefficient of static friction μs between the surfaces.

5.9.2 Pulley Systems

A pulley is a wheel on an axle that is designed to support movement of a cable or belt
along its circumference. Pulleys are used in a variety of ways to lift loads, apply forces,
and to transmit power. A pulley is also called a sheave or drum and may have a groove
between two flanges around its circumference. The drive element of a pulley system can
be a rope, cable, belt, or chain that runs over the pulley inside the groove.

F
A BC D
S

h
b W
a
Figure 5.9 Pulley System
129 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

Pulleys are assembled to form a block and tackle in order to provide mechanical
advantage to apply large forces. Pulleys are also assembled as part of belt and chain
drives in order to transmit power from one rotating shaft to another. See figure 5.9.

5.9.3 Belt Drive and Pulley Systems

A belt and pulley system is characterized by two or more pulleys in common to a belt.
This allows for mechanical power, torque, and speed to be transmitted across axles. If
the pulleys are of differing diameters, a mechanical advantage is realized. See figure
5.10.

D
1 RPM
RPM D D D 4
1 2 3 4

Figure 5.10 Pulley transfer

A belt drive is analogous to that of a chain drive, however a belt sheave may be smooth
(devoid of discrete interlocking members as would be found on a chain sprocket, spur
gear, or timing belt) so that the mechanical advantage is approximately given by the ratio
of the pitch diameter of the sheaves only, not fixed exactly by the ratio of teeth as with
gears and sprockets.
In the case of a drum-style pulley, without a groove or flanges, the pulley often is slightly
convex to keep the flat belt centered. It is sometimes referred to as a crowned pulley.
Though once widely used on factory line shafts, this type of pulley is still found driving the
rotating brush in upright vacuum cleaners, in belt sanders and bandsaws. Agricultural
tractors built up to the early 1950s generally had a belt pulley for a flat belt (which is what
Belt Pulley magazine was named after). It has been replaced by other mechanisms with
more flexibility in methods of use, such as power take-off and hydraulics.
Just as the diameters of gears (and, correspondingly, their number of teeth) determine a
gear ratio and thus the speed increases or reductions and the mechanical advantage
that they can deliver, the diameters of pulleys determine those same factors. Cone
pulleys and step pulleys (which operate on the same principle, although the names tend
to be applied to flat belt versions and V belt versions, respectively) are a way to provide
multiple drive ratios in a belt-and-pulley system that can be shifted as needed, just as a
transmission provides this function with a gear train that can be shifted. V belt step
pulleys are the most common way that drill presses deliver a range of spindle speeds.
130 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

5.9.4 Chain Drives

The main disadvantage of the belt drives and the rope drives is that the velocity ratio
does not remain constant, but varies on account of slip. Since chain drives are positive
drives there is no slip, hence the velocity ratio will remain constant. Chain drives are
suitable for small centre distances and can be used generally up to 3 meters but in
special cases even up to 8 meters. Chain drives transmit power up to 100kw and
operating peripheral velocity up to 15m/s. The velocity ratio can be as high as 8:1. A
typical chain drive is shown in figure 5.11.

Roller Chain

Type ‘B’ Sprocket

Type ‘C’ Sprocket

Figure 5.11 Chain Drive

Chain drives are employed for the wide range of power transmission applications,
like in bicycles, motorcycles, rolling mills, agricultural machinery, machine tools,
conveyors, coal cutters, etc. From an industry standpoint, the major types of chains are
shown in figure 5.12.

(a) (b) ( c)

(d) (e)
Figure 5.12 Major Types of Chains

Roller Chain (Bush Roller Chain): This type of chains in figure 5.xa is most commonly
used for transmission of mechanical power on many kinds of domestic, industrial and
agricultural machinery, including conveyors, wire and tube drawing machines, printing
presses, cars, motorcycles, and bicycles.
131 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

Silent Chain: The silent chain in figure 5.xb also called inverted tooth chain, consists of a
series of toothed link plates assembled on joint components in a way that allows free
flexing between each pitch. The links are held together at each chain joint by one or more
pins, which also allow the chain to flex. Silent chains from different manufacturers
usually cannot be connected together. Standard silent chains are used in a wide variety
of industrial drives where a compact, high-speed, smooth, low-noise drive is required.
High-performance silent chains are commonly used in industrial equipment where
ultimate smoothness is required.
Leaf Chain: Leaf chains shown in figure 5.xc are designed for lifting rather than power
transmission. Tensions are very high, but speeds are slow. Normally the chains work
intermittently. The main considerations in the design of the leaf chains are tensile loads,
joint wear, and link plate and sheave wear. . The most common use for leaf chain is
probably on lift trucks.
Flat-top Chain: Flat-top chains shown in figure 5.xd are widely used on conveyors, most
basically used on the special type of slat conveyor.
Engineering Steel Chain: Engineering steel chains shown in figure 5.xe are designed
for difficult conveying applications and are used in conveyors, bucket elevators, and
tension linkages. Only a few are used in drives. The main design considerations for
these chains are tensile loads, several types of wear, lubrication, and environment.
5.9.5 Screw Mechanism
The screw is basically an inclined plane (see Figure 5.13) wrapped around a cylinder. In
an inclined plane, a linear force in the horizontal plane is converted to a vertical "lifting"
force. With a screw, a rotary force in the horizontal plane is converted to a vertical "lifting"
force. Screw W
A screw is simply
a spiraled inclined plane
F

Pitch Radius
i
P h

(a) (b)
Figure 5.13 (a) Screw (b) Screw Jack

A screw is a mechanism that converts rotational motion to linear motion, and a

torque (rotational force) to a linear force. It is one of the six classical simple
machines. The most common form consists of a cylindrical shaft with helical grooves or
ridges called threads around the outside. The common principle of all screws is that a
rotating helix can cause linear motion. The screw passes through a hole in another
132 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

object or medium, with threads on the inside of the hole that mesh with the screw's
threads. When the shaft of the screw is rotated relative to the stationary threads, the
screw moves along its axis relative to the medium surrounding it; for example rotating a
wood screw forces it into wood. In screw mechanisms, either the screw shaft can rotate
through a threaded hole in a stationary object, or a threaded collar such as a nut can
rotate around a stationary screw shaft. A screw can amplify force; a small rotational
force (torque) on the shaft can exert a large axial force on a load. The smaller the pitch,
the distance between the screw's threads, the greater the mechanical advantage, the
ratio of output to input force. Screws are widely used in threaded fasteners to hold
objects together, and in devices such as screw tops for containers, vises, screw jacks
and screw presses. The screw jack, shown in Figure 5.x is a practical application of the
inclined plane because a screw is considered to be an inclined plane wrapped around
cylinder. A force F must be exerted at the end of a length of horizontal bar l to turn the
screw to raise the load.

5.9.6 Levers
A lever is a rigid beam that can rotate about a fixed point along its length called the
fulcrum. Physical effort applied to one end of the beam will move a load at the other end.
The act of moving the fulcrum of a long beam nearer to the load permits a large load to be
lifted with minimal effort. This is another way to obtain mechanical advantage. The three
classes of lever are illustrated in Figure 5.14. Each is capable of providing a different
level of mechanical advantage. These levers are called Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3.
The differences in the classes are determined by:
· Class 1 - Position along the length of the lever where the effort is applied
· Class 2 - Position along the length of the lever where the load is applied
· Class 3 - Position along the length of the lever where the fulcrum or pivot point is
located

Figure 5.14
133 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

CLASS 1: the most common, has its fulcrum located at or about the middle with effort
exerted at one end and load positioned at the opposite end, both on the same side of
the lever. Examples of Class 1 levers are playground seesaw, crowbar, scissors, claw
hammer, and balancing scales.
CLASS 2: has its fulcrum at one end; effort is exerted at the opposite end, and the
opposing load is positioned at or near the middle. Examples of Class 2 levers are
wheelbarrow, simple bottle openers, nutcracker, and foot pump for inflating air
mattresses and inflatable boats.
CLASS 3: also has its fulcrum on one end; load is exerted at the opposite end, and the
opposing effort is exerted on or about the middle. Examples of Class 3 levers are shovel
and fishing rod where the hand is the fulcrum, tweezers, and human and animal arms
and legs.

Law of the Lever: The lever is a movable bar that pivots on a fulcrum attached to a fixed
point. The lever operates by applying forces at different distances from the fulcrum, or
pivot. See figure 5.15.

M1 X a = M2 x b

a b

Figure 5.15 Law of Lever

Assuming the lever does not dissipate or store energy, the power into the lever must
equal the power out of the lever. As the lever rotates around the fulcrum, points farther
from this pivot move faster than points closer to the pivot. Therefore a force applied to a
point farther from the pivot must be less than the force located at a point closer in,
because power is the product of force and velocity. If a and b are distances from the
fulcrum to points A and B and let the force FA applied to A is the input and the force FB
applied at B is the output, the ratio of the velocities of points A and B is given by a/b, so we
have the ratio of the output force to the input force, or mechanical advantage, is given by
MA = FB/FA = a/b
This is the law of the lever, which was proven by Archimedes using geometric reasoning.
It shows that if the distance a from the fulcrum to where the input force is applied (point A)
is greater than the distance b from fulcrum to where the output force is applied (point B),
then the lever amplifies the input force. On the other hand, if the distance a from the
fulcrum to the input force is less than the distance b from the fulcrum to the output force,
134 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

then the lever reduces the input force.

5.9.7 Linkages
A linkage is a mechanism formed by connecting two or more levers together. Linkages
can be designed to change the direction of a force in robotics or make two or more
objects move at the same time. Many different fasteners are used to connect linkages
together yet allow them to move freely such as pins, end-threaded bolts with nuts, and
loosely fitted rivets. The two general classes of linkages are Simple Planar Linkages and
Complex Specialized Linkages. Linkages are capable of performing tasks such as
describing straight lines or curves and executing motions at differing speeds. Linkages
can be classified according to their primary functions:
• Function Generation: the relative motion between the links connected to
the frame
• Path Generation: the path of a tracer point
• Motion Generation: the motion of the coupler link
A linkage modeled as a network of rigid links and ideal joints is called a kinematic chain.
Linkages may be constructed from open chains, closed chains, or a combination of open
and closed chains. Each link in a chain is connected by a joint to one or more other links.
Thus, a kinematic chain can be modeled as a graph in which the links are paths and the
joints are vertices, which is called a linkage graph. The number of parameters in the
subgroup is called the degrees of freedom (DOF) of the joint. Mechanical linkages are
usually designed to transform a given input force and movement into a desired output
force and movement. The ratio of the output force to the input force is known as the
mechanical advantage of the linkage, while the ratio of the input speed to the
output speed is known as the speed ratio. The speed ratio and mechanical
advantage are defined so they yield the same number in an ideal linkage.
A kinematic chain, in which one link is fixed or stationary, is called a mechanism, and a
linkage designed to be stationary is called a structure. A linkage, or kinematic chain, is an
assembly of links and joints that provide a desired output motion in response to a
specified input motion. Linkages are a vital mechanism and many examples can be seen
around us. The most common types of linkage are shown in figure 5.16.

PIVOT

FIXED
PIVOT POINT
FIXED
PIVOT PC

PIVOT

(a) (b) (c (d)

Figure 5.16 Types of Linkages
135 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

(a) Reverse Motion Linkage: As the top rod moves to the left the bottom rod moves to
the right. The bars move in opposite directions. Another way of describing this
linkage is the direction of movement in one rod is reversed in the other rod. The
fixed pivot is the centre of rotation.
(b) Parallel Motion Linkage: As the large rod at the top of the diagram moves to the
left the two small rods at the bottom move to the right. All the rods are parallel to
each other.
(c) Crank and Slider Linkage: The rods move forwards and backwards in slider. The
fixed pivot anchor the linkages to one place.
(d) Bell Crank Linkage: This linkage allows horizontal movement to be converted to
vertical movement. It also works the opposite way round. A practical example of
this is the brake mechanism on a bicycle.
Link, Node and Joint: A link is a nominally rigid body that possess at least 2 nodes. A
node is an attachment point to other links via joints. The four most common links are
known as binary, ternary, quaternary and pentanary links and they have two, three, four
and five joints (nodes) respectively on their structures. The order of a link indicates the
number of joints to which the link is connected (or the number of nodes per link). There
are binary (2 nodes), ternary (3 nodes), and quaternary (4 nodes) links. A joint is a
connection between two or more links at their nodes, which allows motion to occur
between the links. A pivot is a joint that allows rotary motion, and a slider is a joint that
allows linear motion.

Degree of Freedom (DOF): The number of degrees-of-freedom (DOF) of a linkage is

equal to the number of input motions needed to define the motions of the linkage. When
one looks at a 4-bar linkage and sees the coupler translating and rotating as it moves,
the coupler does not have 3 degrees of freedom (x, y, θ) because the motions are all
related. Indeed, the linkage has only 1 DOF.
Link Evaluation: Gruebler's Equation is the most commonly used equation for
evaluating simple linkages. The Gruebler's Equation is
F = 3(n-1) – 2f1
Where,
n = Total number of links (including a fixed or single ground link)
f1 = Total number of joints (some joints count as f = ½, 1, 2, or 3)
· Example: Slider-crank n = 4, f1 = 4, F = 1
· Example: 4-Bar linkage n = 4, f1 = 4, F = 1
· The simplest linkage with at least one degree of freedom
(motion) is thus a 4-bar linkage!
136 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

· A 3-bar linkage will be rigid, stable, not moving unless you

bend it, break it, or throw it.
From Gruebler's Equation we can see that;
· A 2-bar linkage, an arm attached to a motor's output shaft will have 1 DOF.
· A 3-bar linkage with 3 links and 3 joints will have 0 DOF, as expected, and hence
triangles make stable structures.
· A 4-bar linkage has 4 links and 4 joints and 1 DOF.
· 5-bar linkages can be configured many different ways and thus may have more
than 1 DOF. However, these are not generally stable unless multiple input power
sources are used.
· 6-bar linkages can have 1 DOF and they can be extraordinarily useful.
Joints Degree-of-Freedom:
· The simplest joint that allows rotational motion to occur between two links is the
revolute (R) joint. Also called a pin joint or a pivot, generally it is formed by a pin
that passes through both links. A pivot is a joint that allows rotary motion and a
slider is a joint that allows linear motion. They are single degree of freedom joints
for which f = 1 in Gruebler's Equation.
· Helical (H) joints, also called screws, are another common joint which form the
basis for a common means to transform rotary power into linear power
· A common two degree of freedom joint is the Cylindrical (C) joint in which f = 2 in
Gruebler's Equation.
· A Spherical (S) joint is a three degree of freedom joint in which f = 3 in Gruebler's
Equation. This joint is commonly found in automotive and aircraft linkages where
the primary degree of freedom is the revolute motion.
· A Planar (F) joint is a three degree of freedom joint that allows for two
translational motions and a rotational motion in a plane (X, Y, and θ) so f = 3 in
Gruebler's Equation.

5.9.8 Gears and Belts

A wheel and axle assembly becomes especially useful when gears and belts are brought
into the picture. Gears can be used to change the direction or speed of movement, but
changing the speed of rotation inversely affects the force transmitted. A small gear
meshed with a larger gear will turn faster, but with less force. There are four basic types
of gears: spur gears, rack and pinion gears, bevel gears, and worm gears. Spur gears
are probably the type of gear that most people picture when they hear the word. The two
wheels are in the same plane (the axles are parallel). With rack and pinion gears there is
one wheel and one rack, a flat toothed bar that converts the rotary motion into linear
137 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

motion. Bevel gears are also known as pinion and crown or pinion and ring gears. In
bevel gears, two wheels intermesh at an angle changing the direction of rotation (the
axles are not parallel); the speed and force may also be modified, if desired. Worm gears
involve one wheel gear (a pinion) and one shaft with a screw thread wrapped around it.
Worm gears change the direction of motion as well as the speed and force. Belts work in
the same manner as spur gears except that they do not change the direction of motion.
In both gears and belts, the way to alter speed and force is through the size of the two
interacting wheels. In any pair, the bigger wheel always rotates more slowly, but with
more force. This "tradeoff" between force and speed comes from the difference in the
distance between the point of rotation and the axle between the two wheels. On both the
big and the small gear, the linear velocity at the point of contact for the wheels is equal. If
it was unequal and one gear were spinning faster than the other at the point of contact
then it would rip the teeth right off of the other gear. As the circumference of the larger
gear is greater, a point on the outside of the larger gear must cover a greater distance
than a point on the smaller gear to complete a revolution. Therefore the smaller gear
must complete more revolutions than the larger gear in the same time span.

Figure 5.17 2 Gear System

Systems of gears work in a similar fashion to pulleys and belts except there is no belt
and the gears are inter-meshed with the teeth of one gear turning the teeth of a second
gear. In this case, the RPM are a function of the number of teeth on the gear. he
relationship between the gears is expressed as follows;

RPM1⋅Teeth1=RMP2⋅ Teeth2RPM1⋅Teeth1=RMP2⋅ Teeth2

Where:
· RPM1 is the revolutions per minute of the first gear
· Teeth1 is the number of teeth in first gear
· RMP2 is the revolutions per minute of the second gear
· Teeth2 is the number of teeth in the second gear.
138 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

The assumption is compatible teeth in the two gears shown in figure 5.17
There are many types of gears such as spur gears, helical gears, bevel gears, worm
gears, gear rack, etc. These can be broadly classified by looking at the positions of axes
such as parallel shafts, intersecting shafts and non-intersecting shafts. Figure 5.18
shows the different types of gears.

Spur Gears Helical Gears Rack and Pinion

Bevel Gears Miter Gears Worm and Worm Gear

Screw Gears Internal gears

Figure 5.18 Types of gears

Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature is shown in figure 5.19

Worm
Internal Gear

Worm Wheel Gear Coupling

Miter Gear
Involute Spline Shafts
Screw Gear & Bushings Helical Gear

Pawl Rack
Pinion Spurl Gear

Ratchet

Involute Spline Shafts

& Bushings

Spiral Bevel Gear

Straight Bevel Gear

Figure 5.19 Gear Terminology

5.9.9 Cams and Cranks

Both cams and cranks are useful when a repetitive motion is desired. Cams make rotary
motion a little more interesting by essentially moving the axle off-center. Cams are often
used in conjunction with a rod. One end of the rod is held flush against the cam by a
spring. As the cam rotates the rod remains stationary until the "bump" of the cam pushes
the rod away from the cam's axle. Cranks convert rotary motion into a piston-like linear
139 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

motion. The best examples of cranks in action are the drive mechanism for a steam
locomotive and the automobile engine crankshaft. In a crank, the wheel rotates about a
centered axle, while an arm is attached to the wheel with an off-centered peg. This arm is
attached to a rod fixed in a linear path. A crank will cause the rod to move back and forth,
and if the rod is pushed back and forth,

(a) Cam (b) Crank

Figure 5.20 Cams and Cranks

it will cause the crank to turn. On the other hand, cams can move their rods, but rods
cannot move the cams. Cams can be used to create either a linear repetitive motion
such as the one illustrated in Figure 5.20.

6.0 Robot control

Robot control is an essential technology that enables a robot to move precisely and
adaptively. The problem of robot control is formulated to include determination of the
joint torques to be generated by the joint actuators, so as to guarantee the execution of
the robot task while satisfying given transient and steady state requirements. In view of
constraints within the environment, the robot controls are categorized into motion
control in free space and interaction control in constrained space. The motion control is
the most essential of robot manipulator controls. One of the basic requirements for the
successful completion of a robot task is the ability to handle an interaction between the
end-effector of the robot and the environment. The contact force at the manipulator's
end-effector should be controlled at the desired force, because a large force error
causes damages of the manipulator and the manipulated object

6.1 Concepts of Robot Control

Every robot has a controller, which continuously reads from sensors like motor
encoders, force sensors, or even vision or depth sensors, and updates the actuator
commands so as to achieve the desired robot behavior. Examples of control objectives
include
· motion control: as when a robot arm moves along a specified trajectory; Motion
control, also known as servo control or robotics, is a branch of automation that
focuses on precisely controlling the movement of various components inside a
machine. Power, efficiency, and movement precision are critical in applications
140 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

like manufacturing lines. An effective motion control system allows for movement
and guarantees that a machine may come to a halt completely. The movement of
different parts of machines can be controlled by using rotary and linear actuators.
Machine position and velocity may be regulated using a motion control device
such as an electric motor, hydraulic pump, or servo actuator. Industrial
operations use motion control to move specified loads carefully. Hence,
controlling the movement of objects falls under motion control.
· force control: where the objective is to apply specific forces to an object or the
environment; the basic idea behind force control is simple: the output of the
sensor is used to close the loop in the controller, adjusting each of the joint torque
to match the desired output. In a certain way, this is similar to position control. You
simply replace the reference position from the motor encoders by a reference
force from the force/torque sensor. In an application for which the applied force is
important, the robot needs to be controlled differently. Instead of servoing each
joint to its targeted position, the output torque is controlled to match the desired
force applied by the end-effector on an external object. To do this, a way of
measuring the external force is required.
· hybrid motion-force control: The “hybrid” technique described combines force
and torque information with positional data to satisfy simultaneous position and
force trajectory constraints specified in a convenient task related coordinate
system. the hybrid control law avoids to introduce conflicting behaviors (force vs.
motion control) in any of the task space directions
· impedance control: Impedance control is a prominent method in robotic
dynamics control relating to force. It is based on the motion dynamics in joint
space and transfer the dynamics to the task space to complete the control
command. It is used in human-robot interaction applications often that the
manipulator of the robot interacts with environment. Examples of applications
include humans interacting with robots. By controlling the impedance, we control
how the robot behaves during an interaction with the environment by defining its
stiffness and damping. We could let it behave like a very loose spring with high
compliance! When the robot would be pushed it would move back and force until
it reaches after some time its initial position. If we add some damping the end-
effector might even return to its initial position after the displacements with no
oscillations at all. On the contrary, the robot would only move, if there are high
forces from the environment, if the stiffness is high.

6.2 Types of Robot Controls

Robots can be classified by the type of control that's used to move them. The types of
control that are commonly used are point to point, continuous path, XYZ coordinates,
and positive stop. The point-to-point system records a series of locations during the
programming function and the robot moves to these points when the robot is in run
mode. The continuous-path control is used where the robot must follow an exact path
such as in welding or spray painting. Each location in the path is recorded when the robot
is in teach mode, and then the robot will follow each path during playback or run mode.
141 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

The XYZ control uses mathematical coordinates to determine each point in the program.
All points in the program are identified by their X, Y, and Z coordinates and these points
can be entered manually into the program or by moving the robot to the location and
recording the location through a teach pendant.
The positive-stop control is used primarily with pneumatic robots where an air cylinder is
extended or retracted until it reaches a stop. This type of robot control is also called
bang-bang because of the noise the robot makes when it hits a stop. The robot motion is
determined by a sequencer that energizes each cylinder at the appropriate time. The
positions for this robot program are determined by the placement of each stop.
· Point-to-Point Robot Control: Most robots today operate on a system called
point to point control. This type of robot control is achieved by moving the robot to
a specific location (point) during programming and recording the coordinates of
the point into memory by pressing a button on the teach pendant. During the
programming phase of the project, all of the points are recorded in the order that
the robot must move to them. When the robot runs the program, it moves
sequentially from point to point. When the robot reaches a point, it can energize
or de-energize any output signals to energize end effectors or send output
signals that are used for interfacing to other equipment in the cell such as
pneumatic cylinders that are used to move parts into location. The most
important part about the point-to-point program is that the robot can move one or
all of its axes to move from one point to the next. The robot does not care if the
travel between one point and the next is a straight path or if the motion has a slight
arc in it. All that is important is that the robot stops when it reaches the next point.
In most cases, the function the robot provides occurs after it reaches a point. For
instance, if the robot uses suction to pick up and place a part, it will turn on its
suction when it reaches the point where it is ready to pick up the part, and it will
turn off its suction when it reaches the point where it will drop off the part
· Continuous-Path Control: The continuous-path control is used when the action
the robot must provide occurs at all times between points, such as spray painting,
continuous cutting, continuous welding, or continuous gluing. Since this type of
robot must follow a precise path when it's spray painting, each location in the path
the robot takes to move from point to point is recorded during the programming
phase of the project and replayed when the robot is in the run phase. This type of
robot is fairly easy to program because no special programming language is
needed to get the robot to repeat the exact path it was taught. The main drawback
of this type of controller is that this type of programming requires large amounts of
memory to record the exact path the robot was taught as well as the speed during
each part of the program.
· XYZ Control: XYZ control uses coordinates instead of points to identify each
position the robot moves to during the time it runs its programs. The XYZ control
is very similar to the point-to-point control except the entire work envelope is
identified by its mathematical coordinates.
· Positive-Stop Control: Positive-stop control is used in many robots that utilize
pneumatic cylinders. This type of control energizes a solenoid valve to extend or
142 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

retract the cylinder at the appropriate time. When the extend solenoid valve is
energized, air is let into the pneumatic cylinder and the shaft inside the cylinder
begins to extend and it moves until it hits a stop at the end of its travel. When the
solenoid for retraction is energized, air is let into the other side of the pneumatic
cylinder and the shaft will begin to retract until it hits the stop at the end of its
travel. In some cases, the stroke of the cylinder is short, and in other cases the
stroke of the cylinder is long. When a short-stroke cylinder is used, the robot
makes noises each time the cylinder hits a positive stop. This noise is referred to
as a bang and this type of robot is sometimes called a bang-bang robot. In some
positive-stop robots, more than one stop can be used by placing the stops
outside the robot.

6.3 Industrial Robot Programs

Typical point-to-point programs will contain a step number, positional data,
operational codes, and a feed rate (speed) for each step. The positional data will list the
number of pulses on the encoder that each motor (each axis) will display when the robot
reaches the position. The pulses are considered raw positional data since they don't
relate to a specific point. The robot controller records the pulse data from the encoders
when the robot is programmed and it simply moves the robot motors until the encoders
match for that position.
The XYZ program is similar to the point-to-point program except the positional data are
listed as XYZ positions rather than the number of pulses each motor or axis will move. It's
important to remember that the XYZ position is the place in the work envelope where the
end of the robot wrist will be for that position. The important point to remember about an
XYZ program is that one could measure the cell to determine the coordinates of any
other points and enter them in the program and the robot would move to those points.
This makes the XYZ program useful in programs that are developed from CAD drawings
(CAD/CAM) or by off-line simulation software. CAD/CAM is computer-aided drafting
(design) and computer-aided manufacturing.
The continuous-path program samples the position of the robot continually as it's
moved through its path and records these data points in memory. The velocity of each
motor is also recorded for each point that's recorded. When the robot is in the run mode,
it repeats these points and motor velocities so that the robot repeats the program exactly
the way that it was recorded. Anytime an input or output signal is received or sent during
the time the robot is moving, it's recorded so that the robot will repeat this action when it's
in the run mode. For instance, the robot will remember where it's supposed to turn on a
spray nozzle if it's spray painting, and repeat it at exactly the same point in the program
each time the program is replayed.
The fixed-stop robot will generally use a program that allows one to put the axis moves
in the sequence they are executed. Sometimes this type of program is actually a PLC
program, or a sequencer of, some type.
143 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

7.0 Voice Recognition

Speech Recognition is that ability of any machine which helps them identifying words
and phrases in language and converting them into machine convenient language.
Speech recognition is classified into two categories, speaker dependent and speaker
independent. Speech Recognition (SR) is an easy way of communication with human
and it also gives the advantage of interacting with the novice users without a proper
training. There two important part of in Speech Recognition;
· Recognize the series of sound and
· Identified the word from the sound.
This recognition technique depends also on many parameters - Speaking Mode,
Speaking Style, Speaker Enrollment, Size of the Vocabulary, Language Model,
Perplexity, Transducer etc. There are two types of Speak Mode for speech recognition
system
· one word at a time (isolated-word speech)
· continuous speech
Depending on the speaker enrolment, the speech recognition system can also divide;
· Speaker dependent systems are trained by a single person, the person who is
using the system. So we can say that system which is trained by the user. These
systems are very efficient and capable of getting high command count. But the
system only gives response to the person who trained the system.
· Speaker independent is a system trained to respond to a word independent of
who speaks. Thus the system must respond to a large variety of patterns of
speech.
The voice input device is mounted on the controller so that the commands related to the
movements can be given by voice. When commands are inputted by any microphone.
Analog electrical signals which represents voice are first converted into digital form. This
is done by an analog to digital converter. And after that these digital signals are given as
an input to robotic controller. The robot controller must have a kind of filtering device
which is used to filter the input data in the form of voice. To improve accuracy and voice
we use a conversion modelling process and form a system response.
The user interface (UI) is an important component of any product handle by the human
user. To communicate or control the robot the human robotic interface (HRI) required is
the speech recognition (SR) system or Voice User Interface (VUI). When the user gives
the instruction like “Go to my office”, then it should understand the object “my office”; it is
the natural description of an object in social context. From the HRI points of view - the
Robot should understand of its environment and its task. One of the important
components of spoken interface is microphone. Microphone hears everything. But most
of the noisy data is handled by the SR system. Another component is the Loud Speaker.
If anything goes wrong, then the Robot can inform the user through the Loud Speaker
using Speech synthesizer. For example, if the Robot doesn't understand the command,
then it can give the feedback to user through speech or dialogue - like, “I don't
understand” using Speech synthesizer. Figure 2.2 shows a general overview of Spoken
Natural Language Interface for Robotics Control.
144 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

Figure 2.2: Typical Spoken Natural Language Interface in Robotic.

8.0 Robot vision

Robot vision works by integrating one or more cameras into the robotic system. A
camera is mounted at the end of the robotic arm that acts as the "eye" of the machine.
Alternatively, the camera may be placed separately from the robot. These cameras and
the associated software can recognize objects and scan barcodes and QR codes.
During programming, the robot learns to identify objects and codes it needs to work with.
2D or 3D scans are made of these, which are stored in the software. It is then possible to
assign specific tasks to them.

8.1 Vision Segments:

There are three segments in a robot vision system:
· Image capture: The cameras capture footage of the objects that enter a cobot's
workspace. If the set-up is halfway through the assembly line, there is a good
chance that conveyor systems will deliver the products directly before the cobots.
The camera/s will start capturing visual data from a calculated distance.
Afterward, the machine will analyze the images or footage and enhance it to
produce a clear picture.
· Image processing: The picture will go through further processing and analyzed
by pixel. The system will compare the colors and apparent shape of the object
with the image programmed in its database.
· Connectivity and response: Once the machine recognizes that the object in
the picture matches the pre-programmed image, it will perform a corresponding
action onto the object before it.
This entire process happens in quick succession within seconds.

8.2 Components
The major components of a machine vision system include the lighting, lens, image
sensor, vision processing, and communications.
· Lighting: Lighting illuminates, the part to be inspected allowing its features to
stand out so they can be clearly seen by camera.
· Lens: The lens captures the image and presents it to the sensor in the form of
light.
· Sensor: The sensor in a machine vision camera converts this light into a digital
image which is then sent to the processor for analysis.
· Vision Processing: Vision processing consists of algorithms that review the
145 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

image and extract required information, run the necessary inspection, and make
a decision.
· Communications: communication is typically accomplished by either discrete
I/O signal or data sent over a serial connection to a device that is logging
information or using it.
8.3 Working
A robot vision system will normally consist of one or more 2D area-scan or 3D camera
units, defined LED/laser lighting, vision software and the required robot. The industrial
camera captures an image of the inspection area and the vision software will search for a
feature of contour which requires position and orientation. This information is calculated
by the vision software to provide an output in x, y, z and angular for the robot controller.
The defined positions are then updated with the offset calculated by the vision system.
The industrial camera could be in a fixed position within the cell or alternatively mounted
on the robot arm.

8.4 Vision Inspection

Modern flexible robot inspection cells are built around a number of camera, normally up
to two, integrated onto the robot head. The robot will then move to defined inspection
positions around the sub-assembly or part to inspection, in high detail, individual areas.
This is normally combined with the off-set robot adjustment so that parts can be out of
position but the camera checks the position and moves relative to a datum, before the
quality inspection capture takes place.

8.5 Robotic Vision Tools

Manufacturers have long designed sophisticated vision computing solutions. Some are
now providing vision effectors that can be attached to robotic arms. Here are the best
providers on the market:
· Cognex: The most innovative company in the field of machine vision. With long-
standing experience building high-quality vision tools, their tools now connect to
common robotic models on the market. The tool is easy to calibrate and leverage
the Cognex vision software capabilities. But the 2D and 3D Cognex sensors also
connect with other robot models (ABB, Mitsubishi, Yaskawa).
· SICK: SICK offers an easy-to-set-up vision sensor for automation-starters. The
calibration is fast, and you can watch live images from the camera to adjust.
· Keyence: The software provides auto-calibration and robust pattern-searching
technology to make the setup faster than ever. It can greatly assist your robot in
picking, inspecting and positioning applications.
· OnRobot: The OnRobot Eyes is both easy to set up and calibrate and offers
depth perception for varying heights or stacked objects. When trained, it only
needs one shot to detect multiple objects and thus minimizes cycle time. It can
support a wide range of robot models and can also be mounted externally.
146 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

8.6 Deploying Robotic Vision

Adding visions intelligence is not a small endeavor, it involves a carefully thought-out
implementation plan. Here's a step-by-step guide to getting started on your new
automation journey:
· Identify the need for vision in your application
· Choose the best tool and vendor
· Train and calibrate your robot
· Rethink your work organization

9.0 Robots Applications Across Industries

Businesses and government agencies use robotics in a variety of ways. The word
application is often synonymous with the term industrial robot. This is because robot
applications are the specific tasks industrial robots are used to perform or automate. The
numerous applications of industrial robots are typically divided into three groups:
material handling, processing, and assembly and inspection, Farming and Agriculture,
Healthcare, Logistics, Retail and Hospitality, Smart Cities etc.

9.1 Material HandlingMaterial handling is one of two large robot application

categories. In general, these processes involve using industrial robots to move, transfer,
handle, or stack parts. Material handling applications are some of the most popular for
robotic automation as they mainly involve repetitive tasks which are ideal for industrial
robots. The types of material handling applications include:
· Part Transfer
· Machine Loading/Unloading
· Machine Tending
· Packaging
· Pick and Place
· Palletizing
· Depalletizing
· Sorting
· Dispensing
· Injection Molding
· Press Tending
· Die Casting

9.2 Processing
The processing category is the other large category of robot applications. It covers a
broad range of application types and features welding applications, which have become
one of the more popular uses for industrial robots. Unlike material handling applications
that tend to be more generalized, processing applications involve the robot performing a
specialized task with task specific tooling on a workpiece. The applications that fall under
this category are:
· Arc Welding
147 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

· Spot Welding
· EBW
· Ultrasonic Welding
· Ultrasonic Cutting
· Painting
· Plasma Cutting
· Laser Cutting
· Laser Welding
· Coating
· Water Jetting
· Cutting
· Grinding
· Polishing
· Sanding
· Sealing
· Deburring
· Deflashing
· Routing
· Thermal Spray

9.3 Assembly and Inspection

The ategory of robot applications includes just two types: assembly and inspection.
Robotic assembly involves using industrial robots to build products. They may be used
to fasten, insert, or fit workpieces together to achieve a finished product. Robotic
inspection involves using industrial robots for quality control measures. Robots can
inspect items for defects, measure against specific parameters, or test products to
ensure quality standards are met for all items.

9.4 Farming and Agriculture

Here are some application of robots in agriculture:
· Crop condition identification and corresponding chemical application, spraying
or harvesting, as required by the fruit or plant.
· Mobile manipulation through collaborative arms (harvesting, fruit handling).
· Collection and conversion of useful information for the farmer.
· Selective application of pesticides.
· Selection to avoid food waste

9.5 Healthcare
Various types of robots are used in the healthcare industry to enhance the patient
experience. Robots are used to deliver medication, disinfect surfaces, or provide mobile
telepresence functionality. Cobots are also used to assist medical professionals during
rehabilitation or to help nurses better serve their patients.
148 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

9.6 Logistics
Robotics help logistics and shipping companies to deliver goods quickly and efficiently.
They are used as warehouse robots that help them process items, expedite operations,
and increase accuracy. They also employ robots to take shipments the last mile and
ensure safe delivery to customers.

9.7 Retail and Hospitality

Robotics can be used to enhance the customer or guest experience in a variety of ways.
Retail and hospitality companies are using robotics to automate inventory processes,
provide concierge or way-finding services, clean various environments, and assist
customers with their luggage or valet parking.

9.8 Smart Cities

Robotics help create smarter and safer cities. Humanoid robots offer way-finding and
information services. Robots are used to deliver goods and conduct routine security
patrols. Robotics also help expedite building construction, conduct site surveys, and
collect building modeling information.
9.9 Assisting Disabled Individuals
Robots are used for helping disabled people in their daily lives. For example, a small
tabletop robot was programmed to communicate with disabled people and perform
simple tasks such as serving food, and doing some personal help. And for blind people,
some robots were designed to guide them while walking by using certain sensors and
voice commands.
9.10 Hazardous Environment
In Hazardous environments, humans were finding it difficult to work. Because of the
inherent environment humans must be well-protected. Robots are designed specifically
for the environment to withstand the climatic conditions, and work environment. These
robots can work in poisonous gas areas and also for specific work like maintenance and
fault detection.
 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

Self-Test 1

1. What Is Automation?
2. What Are The Different Components Used In Automation?
3. What Are The Different Control Systems Used In Automation?
4. Name the data communication protocols used in industrial automation industry.
5. What is LOTO?
6. What is the Purpose of Lockout/Tagout and LOTO Safety
7. List the LOTO Safety & Lockout/Tagout Procedures steps
8. Difference between PLC & Relay?
9. What Is Encoder?
10. Which Are The Leading PLC Providers?
11. What Types Of Sensors Are Used For Measuring Different Parameters?
12. Why 4-20 Ma Preferred Over 0-20 Ma and 0-10VSignal?
13. What Is Field Bus?
14. What Is Actuator?
Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics
 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

Self-Test 2

1. What are the Subsystems of industrial robot?

2. What is meant Degrees of Freedom?
3. What is a robot work cell? What are the different classifications of work cell
layout?
4. What is the common imaging device used for robot vision system?
5. What is the function of Gearing in a Robot
6. What is meant by gripper?
7. What are the types of gripper?
Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics
189 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

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C o n t r o l o f H a z a r d o u s E n e r g y ( L o c k o u t / T a g o u t )
https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/controlhazardousenergy/concepts.html
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between-plc-and-pac
Electric Motor / Electrical Lectures / Industrial Automation
Electrical Technology https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2015/10/electrical-drives-ac-drives-vfd-
dc-drives.html
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Fundamentals of Robot
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s2s.eu/modules.php?name=s2s_wp4&idpart=2&op=v&idp=750
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Industrial Drives Theory http://www.electricalquizzes.com/industrial-drives/industrial-drive-2
Jon Stenerson, Fundamentals of Programmable Logic Controllers, Sensors, and Communications (3rd
Edition), 2004, Pearson.
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Kathy Ceceri, Sam Carbaugh, Robotics: Discover the Science and Technology of the Future with 20
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Notion Press.
Lock-out Tag-out
Mikell P Groover, Industrial Automation and Robotics, 2014, Mcgraw-hill Inc.
Peter Mckinnon, Robotics: Everything You Need to Know About Robotics from Beginner to Expert,
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Technicians, 1996, Palgrave.
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Programmable Logic Controllers Tutorial
https://www.wisdomjobs.com/e-university/programmable-logic-controllers-tutorial-523.html
Principle of DC Motor https://studyelectrical.com/2014/12/working-principle-of-dc-motor.html
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about-stepper-motors.html
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190 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

Index
191 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics
192 Basic Concepts of Industrial Automation & Robotics

A 166-167, 172 57, 65, 93, 138 Data, 1-2, 6-7, 11, 14, 102, 107-108, 123,
AC, 7, 36, 38, 53-54, Base, 52-53, 132-133, Commutation, 80-81 16-19, 21, 35-36, 38- 128, 143, 155, 186
95-97, 106-107, 124- 145, 147-149, 151, Commutator, 102, 40, 42, 59-61, 67, 93- Electromagnetic, 89,
125, 127-128, 131- 153-155, 184 105-107 94, 136, 138, 176-177, 112
132, 135-138 Batch, 8, 17, 20, 60, Comparator, 126, 136 182 Elements, 12-13, 16,
Accuracy, 3-4, 31, 55, 92, 94 Compressors, 99-101 database, 6, 13-14, 68 18, 21, 23, 26, 65, 68,
116, 125, 136, 145, Battery, 20, 38, 54, 90 Conductors, 105-107, DC, 7, 35-36, 38, 53, 78, 83-84, 87, 91
173, 179, 182 Bayesian, 181 109 56-57, 80, 95-97, 100, Elevators, 100-101,
Acquisition, 1, 8, 10, BCS, 17 Conduit, 139 102-103, 105-109, 130, 161
14, 16, 40 BDCS, 17 Configuration, 3, 75, 111, 116, 122, 124- Embedded, 6, 33, 128
Actuating, 2, 11, 12, 13 Beam, 52-53, 162- 93-94, 149-151 126, 128, 130-132, Emergency, 13, 22,
84-85 163, 172 Connection, 29, 47, 134, 136, 181 24-25
Actuator, 10, 36, 38, Bearings, 102, 114 86, 138, 149, 153, 166 DCS, 6, 8, 13, 15-16, EMF, 114
64, 68, 85, 145, 180- Bellows, 68 Connectivity, 33, 132, 67, 90, 92-94 Emitter, 52-53, 171-
181 Belt, 50-53, 158-160, 174 Decoder, 80, 81 172
Adaptive, 136, 180 168 Connector, 36, 41 Decoding, 81, 172 Encoder, 44, 116, 125,
Adders, 81 Bevel, 167, 169 Console, 3, 61, 93 Decommissioning, 26 127, 145, 171-172
Address, 22, 25, 39, Binary, 166, 174 Construction, 88-89, Deflection, 157 Encoders, 44
46-48 Bit, 2, 34, 36, 48, 172 104, 107, 109, 112, Deflector, 50 Energy, 2, 27-30, 84,
Addressable, 67 BLDC, 80 148, 151 Deformation, 157, 184 95, 97, 102, 156-158,
Alarm, 6, 13-14, 22, Block, 34, 46, 64, 76, Contact, 47, 51, 54, Detection, 10, 24-25, 164, 180
24, 62, 90, 91, 143 78, 80, 82-84, 128, 104, 106, 144, 152, 55, 172 Engelberger, 142
Algorithm, 63, 74, 76, 131, 159 167-168, 170 Detector, 44, 171-172 Equipment, 2, 5, 8-10,
78, 80, 135-136, 176 Blowtorch, 146 Continuity, 26, 91 Detectors, 65, 85, 15, 17-21, 27-31, 60-
Alignment, 122 BPCS, 17, 22, 24, 60- Contractor Switch, 35 171-172 62, 64, 85, 88-90, 97-
Allen, 33, 47-48 61 Control, 2-3, 6-8, 10- Deviation, 63-64, 70, 98, 100, 139, 161, 179
AMD, 34 Bradley, 33, 47-48 16, 19, 21, 24, 27-28, 73-74 Error, 55, 58, 63, 71-
Amplification, 157 Breaker, 30, 139-140 44, 51-52, 60-61, 63- Device, 13, 19, 25, 30, 78, 81-82, 84, 125-
Analog, 14-15, 20, 33- Brush, 106-107, 160 64, 68, 70, 72, 75, 78, 33, 41-42, 46, 54, 56- 128, 145, 171, 181
34, 39, 41, 54, 65, 137- Brushless, 106, 111, 80-86, 90, 92, 94-95, 58, 65-68, 81, 86, 93, ESD, 24-25
138 124 116-117, 123, 125- 124-125, 157, 170, Ethernet, 12-13, 15,
Analyzer, 12, 91 Buchanan, 142 127, 129, 131, 133, 186 33, 35-36, 54, 93, 138
ANSI, 19, 21, 89 Bus, 2, 8, 12, 14, 16, 135-136, 176-182 DeviceNet, 8, 67, 138
Arc, 116, 145, 153, 33, 38-39, 134, 136, Controller, 1-2, 7, 13- Devices, 1-4, 6-8, 11- F
183-185 138, 140 15, 17, 33, 36, 56, 59, 18, 20, 24, 28, 30, 33- Facility, 14, 22-23, 40,
Archimedes, 164 Buses, 3, 12, 14, 39 61-62, 64, 66-69, 71- 36, 41-42, 46, 48, 51, 61
ARM, 154 Bushings, 169 82, 84-85, 92-93, 95- 56, 62, 65, 67-68, 78, Factory, 14, 18, 20,
Armature, 104-107, Button, 45, 51, 56, 67, 96, 132-133, 135, 146, 101, 124, 131, 135, 130, 142, 154, 160
109-111, 126, 181 140 173, 179-180, 182 141, 143-144, 152, Failsafe, 22
Artificial, 1, 142, 144, Byte, 46, 48 ControlNet, 138 162, 172, 186 FAT, 19
146, 181, 186 Controls, 5, 11, 13, 16, Diagnose, 55 Fault, 21, 53, 56-58,
ASCII, 15 C 26, 41, 62, 68, 78, 82, Diagnostic, 21, 55, 58, 93, 137, 139
ASD, 131 Cable, 2, 54, 57, 158 85, 92-93, 95, 144 62, 66 FCV, 90
Asimov, 141-142 CAD, 5 Converter, 2, 39, 62, Dial, 126 FDT, 19
Assembly, 8, 116, 124- Calibration, 170 65, 95, 126, 132 Diaphragms, 65 Feedback, 1, 76-77,
125, 130, 142, 147, California, 142 Conveyor, 29, 50-51, Digital, 14, 18, 20, 33, 83-84, 111, 124, 126,
150-151, 153-154, Cams, 4, 158, 169- 100, 161 38-39, 41, 55, 65-67, 135-136, 142, 146,
156, 165, 167, 183- 170, 175 Cooling, 64, 81, 87, 97 82, 93, 126-127, 133, 155, 170-171, 180,
184 CAN, 8, 14, 20, 78 Coriolis, 65 137-138, 175 182-183
Auto, 82, 138, 183 Capacitive, 44 Counter, 41, 129-130, Display, 13, 16, 57, 67, Feedforward, 180
Automate, 8, 183 Capacitor, 53, 101, 141 85, 93 Feigenbaum, 142
Automated, 1, 4-5, 8- 126 Coupler, 164, 166 Distributed, 1, 14-16, Field, 6-7, 9, 12, 14,
9, 11, 16, 21-22, 31, Capacity, 15, 96-97, CPF, 18 20, 40, 92-93, 178, 16-17, 36, 54-57, 65,
34, 124, 130, 138, 100-101, 116, 156 CPU, 14-15, 34-36, 186 67, 85, 92, 102-104,
143, 182-183 Capek, 142 38-41, 67 DMS, 87 108-110, 112, 114,
Automatic, 7, 9-10, 13, Capillary, 89 CPUs, 53 documentation, 19, 124, 132, 135, 138,
26, 31, 49, 60, 64, 82 CAPP, 5 Cranes, 98, 100 20, 92 144, 147, 183-186
Automation, 1-9, 11- Cartesian, 147, 150- Crank, 166, 169-170 DOF, 145, 148, 165- Fieldbus, 17-18, 67
17, 19-21, 23, 27, 30- 151, 153-154, 176, Crowbar, 163 166 Fleming, 102, 107-108
31, 34, 61, 76, 92-94, 181 Current, 12, 41, 49, Drilling, 49, 179 Float, 52-53, 70-71
130, 147, 182 Chain, 158-161, 165 53, 57, 65-66, 81-82, Drive, 7, 54, 95-98, Flow, 7-8, 12, 14, 33,
Automobile, 9, 131, Channel, 6, 39, 48 95, 99, 102, 104-105, 121-123, 128, 131, 38, 45, 47, 49, 60, 62-
142, 144, 169 Chip, 54, 173 107-109, 112-118, 136-138, 145-146, 63, 65, 68, 78, 82, 84,
Automotive, 3, 167 Circuit, 12, 39, 45, 49, 121-123, 126-127, 155, 158-161, 169 86, 88, 91-92, 95, 108,
Autonomous, 144, 56-57, 77, 105-106, 130, 132, 134-136, Driver, 38, 54, 113- 116-
180-181 116-117, 123-126, 170, 173, 177, 181 114, 116, 118-119, 123 Flowrate, 85
Autonomous, 181-182 128, 139-140, 170 Current Controller, DVDs, 131 Fluid, 62-65, 68, 87-
Clad, 139 136 Dynamic, 68, 114, 88, 131
B Clarke, 135 Current Reference, 155, 175, 180-181 Flux, 103-105, 112,
Backhaul, 21 Claw, 163 136 132-133, 135-136
Backlash, 171 Cybernetics, 142 E Frame, 102-104, 135,
Backplane, 39-40 CNC, 4, 7, 9, 124, 130 Cylinder, 51-52, 146, EEPROM, 38 164, 177
Backup, 53 Code, 7, 9, 87, 88, 155, 162 Effector, 145-146, Framework, 19
Balance, 11, 70-72 146, 172 152, 171, 182 Frankenstein, 141-
Ball, 114 Coil, 47, 101-102, 123 D Elbow, 151, 155, 184 142
Band, 69, 81-82 Communication, 2-3, Damping, 120 Electric, 2, 39, 41, 45, Frequency, 23-25, 75,
Bar, 7, 140, 162-163, 6, 8, 12, 14, 16-18, 20, DAS, 16 52-53, 68, 85, 95-100, 78, 95, 118-120, 127-
31, 36, 39-40, 53-54,