Chapter 2

Review of Literature

2.1: Introduction
Review of related literature plays a vital role in the field of research. In simple words,
the meaning of review of related literature is to locate, read and evaluate the past as well as
the current literature on the research concerned with the plan of investigation in hand.
Good, Barr and Scates (1941)1 highlighted that “the important physician must keep
abreast of the latest discoveries in the field of medicine, … of obviously the careful students
of education, the research workers and investigators should become familiar with the location
and the used sources of educational information. The direct as well as indirect literature lies
in the vast store house of the published knowledge. The important uses of reviews of related
literature are presented below:
a) It is the foundation of any research study undertaken;
b) It gives an understanding of the investigator,
c) It gives an understanding of the previous work done in the related area and to avoid
the list of duplication,
d) It points out the areas for research ignored previously,
e) It develops the insight of the investigator,
f) It contributes to the general scholarship of the investigator,
g) It provides a good opportunity to the investigator for gaining insight into the methods
measures and approaches employed by earlier investigator and
h) The synoptic view of related literature helps to locate comparative data useful in the
interpretation of results.
Thus, after discussing the importance of review of related literature, it becomes
necessary for investigator of the present study to collect the materials from different libraries
and other sources of information. It is, therefore, an attempt has been made here to review
some of the available studies.

1
C. V. Good, A. S. Barr and D. F. Scates, The Methodology of Educational Research, Appletone
Century Crafts, New York, 1941, p. 167.

30
 W. John Best (1959)2 had expressed the important of review of related literature in
the following words, ‘Practically all human knowledge can be found in books and libraries
unlike other animals that must start a new with each generation, a man builds upon the
accumulated and recorded knowledge of the past.
2.2: Review of related Literatures
An attempt has been made to review some of the available studies. Such as, studies on
the attitudes of the parents towards certain objects, events or functioning that have been
carried out some of the studies are mention below:
Education Commission (1966)3 recommended for effective programme on adult
education in India which should provide for the rapid elimination of illiteracy by means of
mass education and attention towards women, industrial workers, and other special groups,
programs of correspondence studies. It emphasized on the education in particular, basic
social, civic and economic education which required broad support and public commitment,
full exploitation of mass media and audiovisual aids, trained personnel, through provisions
for experience of new literates, and effective planning and administration with due regard to
local conditions and requirements.
J. Bhullar (1976)4 made a study of the university student towards physical activity in
relation to academic performance, intelligence, socio economic status and personality
characteristics. His sample consisted of 400 students (Boys and Girls). Who were exposed to
university environment for atleast a year, was taken from various teaching departments of
Panjab University, Chandigarh. His main findings are subjects with higher intelligence tends
to have more favourable attitude towards Physical activity in relations to its place in the
University programme for health and fitness, as aesthetic experience, and for catharsis,
students who were academically better tended to possess more favourable attitude towards
physical attitude as a Social Experience, for health and fitness, and appreciated participation
in activities possessing certain artistic qualities.
E.V. Rathnaiah (1977)5 had emphasized on formal education, extent of its spread
among the Tribal communities and the nature of structural constraints in a part of Adilabad
district of Andhra Pradesh. The author presents the living conditions of various Tribes and

2
J. W. Best, Research in Education, Prentice Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs, 1959, p.31.
3
Report of Education Commission 1964, Ministry of Education, Government of India, New Delhi,
1966.
4
J. Bhullar, Study of the University Students towards Physical activity in relation to Academic
Performance, Intelligence, socio economic status and personality characteristics, 1976.
5
E.V. Rathnaiah, Structural Constraints in Tribal education: A Regional Study, Sterling Publishers,
New Delhi, 1977

31
the rate of low literacy rate among them. He critically examines different types of constraints
in providing education to the people in which he discussed the influences of structural
variables into external constraints includes ecology i.e. geographical, exposure to modernity
and socio-economic status of the family, type of occupation, level of income etc. and internal
constraints which included the teachers, content of education, medium of instructions,
administration and supervision and attitude towards education.
Jain, B. (1982)6 studied on a classroom behaviour pattern of teachers in relation to
their attitude towards profession, moral and values. It was to find out the teacher’s attitude
towards profession and the classroom behaviour pattern of teachers, the teachers moral and
the classroom behaviour pattern of teacher’s and the teachers values and the teacher’s attitude
towards profession. Some of the findings were that pupils interacted differently in the classes
of married, unmarried or deserted teachers, Male teacher’s devoted more time in asking
questions than female teachers, and young teachers had more favourable attitude towards
teaching profession, classroom teaching and educational process than older teachers.
M. George and K.S. Joseph (1983)7 studied on the effect of Microteaching on
general teaching competence and teacher attitude of the B. Ed. Trainees, department of
education research and studies. The main objectives was to find out if there is any significant
change in the general teaching competence of the B. Ed. Trainees as a result of exposure to
the techniques of micro-teaching and to find out if there was any significant change at the
attitude of the B. Ed. Trainees as a result of adoption of micro-teaching. The major findings
were that there was no significant difference in the teacher attitude score of the B. Ed.
Trainees before and after exposure to the techniques of micro-teaching and the students’
reactions to the micro-teaching approach are positive and favourable generally.
S. N. Jha (1985)8 had highlighted about the progress and development in education,
covering pre-and post-independence periods. He viewed that education should inculcate
socialistic, secular and democratic values among the students. In the survey of education, the
author had covered deliberations and suggestions of various committees and commissions set
up from time to time. Further, observed the study of vernacular bys emphasised on both as a
subject and medium of instruction by various committees and commissions during the British
rule, viz., Wood Despatch (1854), Hunter Commission (1882), Sadler Commission (1917-19)
6
Jain, B., A classroom behaviour pattern of teachers in relation to their attitude towards profession,
moral and values, Physical Education, JMI, 1982, pp. 763-764.
7
M. George and K. S. Joseph, The effect of Microteaching on general teaching competence and teacher
attitude of the B. Ed. Trainees, Department of Education Research and Studies, 1978-83, New Delhi,
pp. 762-763.
8
S.N. Jha, Education for socialism, secularism and democracy, Amar Parkashan, Delhi, 1985.

32
and Zakir Hussain Committee on basic education (1937), Open University and educational
broadcasts and telecasts. The author was of the viewed that a link has to be established
between education and economy and that education and research has to be made need based
and more attention has to be devoted to applied research, although fundamental research was
also necessary for advancement of knowledge. He further brings out with the reference of the
private managed institutions.
G. Mishra (1986)9 studied on the attitude of teachers working in Government aided
conventional Sankrit Vidyalaya of Varanasi towards teaching profession. His main objective
was to study the attitude of the teachers working in conventional Sankrit Vidyalayas towards
the teaching, teaching process, etc. His main findings were that there was gender difference
in the attitude towards teaching, male teachers scoring higher than the female teachers and
the designation of teachers did not influence the attitude towards the teaching profession.
K. Bhutani (1986)10 studied the effect of some cognitive and personality factors on
attitude change. He also conducted the pre-try out study on 405 college students (185 boys
and 220 girls). The sample was selected through multistage cluster sampling. His major
findings are those with higher cognitive consistency were less prove to attitude change than
those with less cognitive consistency, boys were proved to be more consistent than girls,
there was a significant difference between the changed score of flexible boys and girls in
favour of girls and girls had higher cognitive complexity than boys.
P.L. Khushwaha (1986)11 investigated into the attitude and role perceptions of
secondary teachers, Rajasthan. The main findings are that teachers’ quality was inversely
related to the referred role, there was no relationship between teaching experience and the
motivator role and there were no significant differences among the high, medium and low
attitude groups on the role of the motivator and on the counsellor.
Sarker A.K. (1986)12 conducted a study to find the correlates of children attitudes
towards their parents. The main objectives of the study was to examined the relationship
between children’s attitude towards their parents and variables like children perception of

9
G. Mishra, A study on the attitude of teachers working in Government aided conventional Sankrit
Vidyalaya of Varanasi towards teaching profession Sam. U, 1977 in Third Survey of Research in
Education 1978-83, NCERT, New Delhi, 1986, pp. 821-822.
10
K. Bhutani, A study of Effect of some Cognitive and Personality Factors on Attitude changes, in Third
survey of Research in Education 1978-83, NCERT, New Delhi, 1986, pp. 336-337.
11
P. L. Khushwaha, An investigation into the attitude and role perceptions of secondary teachers,
Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, Education, Rajasthan University, in third survey of research in education,
1978-83, NCERT, New Delhi, 1986, p. 817.
12
Sarker A. K., Correlates of children attitudes towards their parents, Department of Education,
Kolkata University in third survey of research in education, 1978-83, NCERT, New Delhi, 1986,
p.407.

33
parental love, their birth order, gender and some aspect of personality. Some of the important
findings were that attitudes scores were normally distributed, boys and girls with favourable
and unfavourable attitude did not differ with respect to their personality and the third born
children attitude towards their parents differed significantly.
Mandip Kaur (1987)13 studied about the value dimensions of primary school
teachers and compared the rank and order of value dimensions of gender i.e. male and female
teachers and areas i.e. urban and rural. The researcher concluded that there was no difference
in the value dimensions of urban and rural primary school teachers except the social value.
The value dimensions of primary school teachers are related to their socio-economic level
and lastly there was no difference in the value dimensions of male and female primary school
teachers.
Poonam Seth (1989)14 studied the effects level of educational qualifications of the
parents on the competence of the children of 3-4 and 4-5 years of age as well as the impact of
the family income on the competence of the children. The researcher also related the working
status of the mothers on the competence of the children and concluded that both educational
qualifications and economic status of parents influence the competence of the children,
however, the working status of the mothers does not seem to be related to the competence of
the child. Further the nature of parental interaction was an important factor influencing the
child development and education of the parents seems to be one of the factors associated with
the low or high interactions of the parents with their children.
H.S. Birdi (1989)15 reviewed the development of education in India since 1854
particularly the educational policies on the development of primary, secondary and higher
education, professional, vocational and technical education, women education, adult
education and administration and supervision of education to find out the impact of
qualitative and quantitative aspects of national education policies. The researcher opined that
the progress made in the elementary education was enormous and establishment of Navodaya
Vidyalaya has been a major step towards providing better modern education with awareness
of the environment, adventure activities and physical education to the talented children for
the rural areas as well.

13
Mandip Kaur, “A study of value dimensions of primary school teachers in relation to their socio-
economic status”, M. Phil Dissertation, submitted to Punjabi University, Patiala, 1987.
14
Poonam Seth, “Effect of parental interaction and educational interaction for optimizing the integrated
development of pre-school children”, Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to Panjab University, Chandigarh,
1989.
15
H. S. Birdi, “The Implementation of National Educational Policies in India”, Ph.D Thesis, Submitted
to Punjabi University, Patiala, 1989.

34
 Brundaban Ch. Mishhra (1991)16 highlighted the wide disparity of education
development of Tribal literacy with other population among the various states and within the
districts of Orissa and observed the differences due to late exposure to formal education,
different approaches in different state, socio-economic and culture. He further highlighted
that lack of adequate educational development with high drop-out rate and less rate of
retention led the Tribal population continue to remain traditional and he feels a need of new
approach for educational of Tribals by bringing overall change in our society as the earlier
efforts progress are slow in Tribal education.
R. Bovina, and N.V. Varghese (1993)17 assessed the status of primary schools in
regard to the facilities provided and the local environment in which they function, making
comprehensive analysis of the quality of primary schools functioning in varying conditions
ranging from urbanized locality to rural locality, measure the outcomes schooling in terms of
achievement of levels of the learners with specified reference to literacy and skills and
identify various inputs and process factors associated with students achievement.
Bussell, Susan Scott (1994)18 highlighted on the relationship between mothers and
students attitudes towards education and the academic performance of the students. The study
was conducted to investigate the relationship between mothers’ attitudes towards education
and the attitude of their children towards education, the relationship between mother’s
attitude towards education and the academic performance of their children in grade one
through eight and the relationship between children attitudes towards education and their
academic performance in grade one through eight. Attitude was measured using the parents’
attitude towards education scale. Results did not indicate that a relationship exist between
mother’s attitude and students academic performance and between students attitudes and their
academic performance were positive however were not significant at the 0.05 level.
Canon Joshep Micheal (1994)19 studied on a comparison of parents, teachers and
students in their attitudes towards three different type of school schedules with a focus on the
45-15 years round schedules. The purpose of this study was to identify and compare
differences among students, parents and teachers in their attitude towards three different

16
Brundaban ch. Mishra, “Tribal Literacy in India: A Case Study of Orissa”, Vision, 11(1-2), July-
December, 1991, pp. 67-77.
17
R. Bovina, and N.V. Varghese (1993), Quality of Primary Schooling in India, A case Study of Madhya
Pradesh, IIEP, Paris, 1993
18
N.N.G. Mathur, Problems of tribal education past, present, future, Shava Publishers and Distributors,
Udaipur, 1994, p. 29.
19
Canon Joshep Micheal, Problems of Tribals Education Past, Present, Future, Shiva Publisher
Distributors, Udaipur, 1994, p. 30.

35
types of school schedules with a focus on the 45-15 years round school schedule. The study
revealed that studies are most positive towards monthly school schedule and least positive
towards the 45-15 years round schedule.
Choudhary and Muni (1995)20 observed that parental support had positive effect on
their children’s academic performance. They study on the role of parental support in
children’s need for satisfaction and academic achievement. The sample consisted of fifty
children from 7th grade to 9th grade of equal number of boys and girls. Family effectiveness
and need satisfaction, inventory and academic marks were used as measures in this study.
Singh and Singh (1995)21 investigated the study habits of advantaged and
disadvantaged college students. Based on socio economic status criteria family income,
education and occupation of the parents, caste, rural urban residence 150 advantaged and 150
disadvantaged male college students were identified. The study habits questionnaire use was
developed by the authors. The chi-square test indicated significant difference between two
groups. The advantaged group compared to disadvantaged group, had better study
mechanisms, regularity in study, attentiveness in the classroom and habit of seeking help
from teachers and classmates.
UNESCO (1995)22 had stated that in the poorest regions of the world, women and
girls are locked into vicious circles. Illiterate mothers produces illiterate daughters who are
married off too early enters into another cycle of poverty, illiteracy, high fertility and early
mortality rate. Most analysts and scholars have stressed out of-school factors i.e. the family
and community is probably more important than in school factors. Among school factors in a
global perspective, the educational participation of girls relative to that of boys certainly is
correlated with the presence of female teachers. Female teachers are in the minority in first
level education in Sub-Saharan African and Southern Asia, especially the latter. It is in these
two regions that the challenge to increase the school attendance of girls is most pronounced.
P. Micheal Penn (1997)23 explained the inter-relation between education and
development of the society. He also discussed the role of World Bank in developing
education which identifies various challenges in developing countries such as assist to school,
equity of schooling, quality of schools and delays in educational policy not only that it

20
Chowdhary, A. and Muni, A.K., Role of parental support in children’s need satisfaction and academic
achievement, Journal of Comm. Gui. Res., 12(2), 1995, pp. 135-144.
21
Singh, R. K. and Singh, A.K., Study habits of the advantaged and disadvantaged college students,
Indian Psy. Rev., Vol. 44(9-10), 1995, pp. 33-40.
22
UNESCO, “World Education Report”, Oxford, 1995.
23
Micheal P.Penn, Priorities and Strategies for Education in Developing Countries, New Frontiers in
Education, 27(1), January-March, 1997, pp. 51-62.

36
recognized variety of policies and practices for effective and efficient school to meet the
challenges of education i.e. higher priority for education, greater attentions to outcomes,
public investment focused on basic education, equity, house involvement and autonomous
institutions. Though the national governments of the developing countries had taken
decisions on the education the author feels that external development agency especially the
World Bank, not only through its loans but by also assistant in policy framework and
consultation for effective education sector.
The World Bank’s Report (1997)24 highlighted the major problems in the primary
education such as non-enrolment, drop-out, stagnation and wastage and refers the National
Policy on Education and Programmes of Action, 1992 in India as a step to cope with the
historical inequalities. It has also lays emphasis on the primary education to reduce drop-out
rates, improve learning achievement and expand access for un-served students. Then, further
it gave greater priority to girls and SC/STs Students to be enrolled at the primary levels.
Harbindar Kaur (1999)25 studied the different perceptions of parents of public and
government primary schools with regard to problem of primary education and the difference
on their children of different gender in the primary school. The researcher found as to what
the levels of income and education of the parents affect on the perceptions about the primary
education. It was found that parents respond differently on their perceptions to the problems
in primary education on public and government schools, attitude of different genders with the
difference on income and educational levels of the parents.
Dipesh Bhagabati (2001)26 examined the status of Tribal women’s education in
Assam and found the disparity of gender in education with non-Tribal groups even though
there was some progress. He discussed major causes of their educational backwardness such
as the geographical isolation, domination of males, lack of female teachers, women’s role in
family and limited aspiration for education. Thus, he further suggested a sensitization
programmes and redesigned curriculum which would suit them and have the holistic
approach with the state government and the Autonomous Councils to identify necessary
facilities to make available to the needful areas.

24
The World Bank, Primary Education in India, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1997.
25
Harbindar Kuar, “Problem of Primary Education as Perceived by Parents in Relation to their
Attitude towards Primary Education”, Ph.D Thesis, Submitted to Panjab University, Chandigarh,
1999.
26
Dipesh Ch. Bhagabati, “Education of the Tribal Women in Assam: Status, Problem and Hope”,
Journal of North-East Council for Social Science Research, 25(1), April 2001, pp.49-52.

37
 C. Thangamuthu (2001)27 opined that providing teachers with learning materials and
by encouraging parents to get more involved in the schooling of their children are more
effective that a school-feeding programme in reducing dropout rates and increasing learning.
The teaching-learning environment and quality are so unsatisfactory that teachers themselves
would arrange for their own children’s education in better-run schools, in the private sector,
either aided or unaided matriculation schools paying hefty fees. Further, while quoting India
Development Report, the author says that private sector initiatives in the production of
educational services would fit well with the desire on the part of the government to fund
education. The best way to achieve this was to empower parents.
Madhu R. Sekhar (2001)28 viewed that social development depends on good
education. Female education has an impact on health and other social issues like sex ratio,
birth rate, infant and mortality rate etc. Sex ratio was very low in almost all states where
female literacy rates are low. She feels that the windows and doors of education are to be
opened widely, so that girls and women get the bright light of knowledge in abundance. A
literate mother can do wonders in building up a healthy society and a bright future for our
nation. She further highlighted the importance of girls’ education and various initiatives to
promote literacy especially for the girls by the government found that they were still denied
access in education. So, the author feels the need of educating girls should be given priority
as women can do wonders in building healthy society and bright future for the nation. In the
last the author suggests that the NGOs and the Media can come forward to create awareness
among the Tribal population.
Amartya Sen (2002)29 studied the three districts namely Birbhum, Midnapur and
Purulia of West Bengal and found that 96 per cent of the respondents believed that boys
should acquire elementary education, and 82 per cent affirmed their belief that girls too
should acquire the same.
Kishore Adhav (2002)30 opined the essentiality of overcoming the mental block that
education was not required to be the best in the world. Education as a rewarding input of
social change and it needs to be given a priority position on the national agenda. He

27
C. Thangamuthu, “A Dismal Scenario of primary education: Need for market approach”, Yojana, 45,
November 2001, pp. 15-17.
28
Madhu R. Sekhar, “Girls education: Opening the window on to the world”, Yojana, 45, November
2001, pp. 46-47.
29
Amaratya Sen, “The delivery of primary education: Preliminary findings of Pratichi Bhawan”,
Education and Literature, 81(1), February 2002, pp. 31-39.
30
Kishor Adhav, “Higher education in the 21st century”, University News, 40(24), June 17-23, 2002, pp.
1-3.

38
highlighted the necessary of our planners and education administrators to expedite the
process of reforms and encourage the innovation.
C. Janyanthi (2002)31 opined that in India, large portion of the population living in
the rural areas are denied of basic education due to lack of resources, infrastructure, with
social inequality problems and create wide disparities within the nations even though the state
had taken several steps to tackle it. So for rural reconstruction not only infrastructure and
capital investment but education, central policy initiatives is needed as it help in breaking the
social injustice. With stepping into 21st century, the communication revolution, the author
emphasizes the importance of communication technology which can play a vital role in
enhancing human resources and quality of life with easy access of knowledge and awareness
for rural development. It will be very beneficial if used properly as it does not require heavy
infrastructure investment which is seen successful in some part of the country.
Devi and Mayuri (2003)32 reported that a study of family and school factors that
affect the academic achievement of residential school children studying IX and X classes.
The sample consisted of 120 children of Hyderabad city. An interview schedule was
developed by the investigator to study the family factors; the questionnaire administered to
the teachers was developed by the second author to study school factors. The result indicated
that girls were superior to boys. Family factors like parental aspirations and socio economic
status significantly contributed to academic achievement.
J.C. Aggarwal (2003)33 examined the development and planning of modern
education in India for the 21st century. In his book, he presents comments on various
commissions, committees, reports, Five-Year Plans and policies on education. He further
discussed the role by the Centre and State Government and different issues on education at
different stages. Apart from formal education he also discussed the diverse issues on
education. Then, he highlighted the achievement and failure of educational planning and
present new initiatives undertaken for educational development.
Saliabala Debi (2003)34 highlighted the scenario of rural literacy and the wide
disparity by gender and across social groups i.e. Schedule Tribes and Scheduled Caste in
various districts. The author discussed the factors that determinate literacy by dividing into

31
C. Janyanthi, “Rural Education and Rural Reconstruction”, Yojana, No. 46, January, 2002.
32
Devi, S. and Mayuri, K., The effects of family and school on the Academic Achievement of residential
school children, Journal of Comm. Guid. Res., Vol. 20(2), 2003, pp. 139-148.
33
J. C. Aggarwal, Development and Planning of Modern Education, Vikas Publishing House, New
Delhi, 2003.
34
Saliabala Debi, “Growth, Disparity and Possible Determinants of Literacy rate in Rural Orissa”,
Vision, 23(1-2), July-December, 2003, pp 13-32

39
two groups. Firstly, the demand side factors like non-agriculture population, social groups
and religious composition in district, work participation, and development of district.
Secondly, the supply side factors like availability of school facilities i.e. distance, teachers,
building, books etc. which plays an important part in the progress of literacy. She suggested
some measures like adequate care for backward district, availability of school within the
habitants and massive scale of government approach to achieved universalisation of literacy.
C. Jayanthi (2003)35 felt the need to increase the allocation of budget on education
and ensure to spread evenly which every citizen had equal opportunity to realize his or her
full potential, as it would also enable the women to have decision of their lives and achieve
equal social status advancement.
Nandini Manjrekar (2003)36 emphasized the need of the women’s movement to
engage and give more importance in the field of education particularly of school rather than
other issues around. With the new challenges of serious issues affecting girl education,
multiple pressure like the influence of market, media, new consumptions, physical security
and with the reforms in India. Also privatization in the field of education came into existence
which further brings inequalities between the genders. She suggested such as need for
intensive monitoring of new development which impact girls’ education, a training course,
need of government to improve the quality system for girls to attend but still lot to do to
overcome.
B.B. Mohanty (2003)37 attempted to present the aspects of the educational progress
of the Scheduled Tribes among the major states of India. He viewed the life of a Tribal in
various perspectives from before the time of Independence and till date and emphasizes on
various provisions for the Tribal in their education. He analyzed that the progress of
education was inadequate because of the kind of education imparted were difficult for the
Tribal children to accept and impressed the Tribal mass to organize themselves and put
pressure on the ruling elites for a Tribal friendly educational policy which would help them to
participate more and developed themselves to tackle the problems.
Lla Patel (2003)38 observed that female illiteracy was mainly due to social inequality
and unequal distribution of power and resources in the society. The author calls for creating a

35
C. Jayanthi, “Role of Education and Social Change”, Yojana, 47(3), March, 2003, pp. 15-17.
36
Nandini Manjrekar, “Contemporary Challenges to Women’s Education: Towards an Elusive Goal?”,
Economic and Political Weekly, 38(43), October, 2003.
37
B. B. Mohanty, “Educational Progress of Scheduled Tribes: A Discursive Review”, Man and
Development, 25(2), June 2003, pp. 91-107.
38
Lla Patel, Literacy as Freedom for Women in India, New Frontiers in Education, 33(2), April-June
2003, pp 95-108.

40
suitable relevant environment enable to mobilize, develop and motivate women in their life
and make efforts to change the mindset of the society which would provide tools to break the
vicious cycle of powerless poverty. In 21st century the challenges for government
development planners was how to link women literacy with livelihoods and empowerment.
Bhaskar A. Yerroju (2003)39 highlighted the exploitation and discrimination of the
girl child even before their birth. The author considers the important of quality education
which can fight with the evils in the society, if imparted to children. He further suggests that
such an involvement of social organizations and voluntary agencies, incentive for child girl’s
parents, property rights for girls and adequate law to safeguard the child, and the important
role of teacher and school education for them.
K. Madhu Babu and K. Shiva Prasad (2004)40 attempted to study the impact of
education on the quality of population and life expectancy of the country. The impressive
progress of the literacy rate during 1991-2001 both male and female needs to be sustained.
They found out that the female literacy had greater variation on the increase of life
expectancy than male literacy and suggested giving more concern to the women.
Bhaskar Chatterjee and Qutub Khan (2004)41 in their paper examined the rural
scenario and its challenges among the rural communities. It further discussed the trends in the
rural areas, the role and brought out four Ps strategies as a measures- planning, participation,
parity and progress to break the problem barriers with active collaboration of the government
and international agencies to built a quality educational system in the society to meet the
basic learning needs for positive change which would able to close down the gap with the
developed countries.
Arun C. Mehta (2004)42 analyzed the increase of literacy rate specially the female
population during the decade 1991-2001 as initiated with various programmes in 1990’s for
creating positive environment for education. He further discussed the contribution of formal
education to total literates and the National Literacy Mission’s influence for enrollment.
Though there was decline in the number of illiterates still the number was huge. He feels that
the census does not provide the true picture of literacy status as its method of conducting

39
Bhaskar A.Yerroju, “The Rights of the Girl Child: Law, Policy, Education and Enforcement, New
Frontiers in Education, 33(2), April-June, 2003. pp 109-112.
40
K. Madhu Babu and K.Siva Prasad, Literacy and Life Expectancy in India: An Empirical Analysis in
Census- 2001 and Human development in India by G. Ramachandrudu and M. Prasada Rao(ed),
Serials Publications, New Delhi, 2004, pp 169-176.
41
Bhaskar Chatterjee and Qutub Khan, Rural Education: Status and Trends, ICSSR discussion paper,
No.1, New Delhi, 2004.
42
Arun C. Mehta, “Primary Education and Literacy: An Analysis of Census 2001 Data”, Man and
Development, 26(1), March 2004, pp. 1-20.

41
being over estimated and he further compares it with the National Sample Survey
Organisation data (NSSO) for the year 1997. It shows that still a large gap between both the
gender and variation among the states.
K. Sreerama Murthy and K.V. Jagannadha Rao (2004)43 highlighted a number of
programmes being implemented for promoting education among the Tribal over the year. The
study revealed that enrollment of Tribal children is comparatively lower outside the Sub-Plan
areas as compared to inside Sub-Plan area and the proportion of enrolment of Tribal boys was
higher than that of Tribal girls. The drop-out rate of Tribal boys was much lower than that of
Tribal girls. Due to collection of forest produce, inadequate hostel facilities, assistance to
parents in domestic chores and agricultural activities and even the lack of school
infrastructure and teachers absentees too are detriment of drop out from primary education.
D. Pani Naidu (2004)44 observed various problems in Tribal areas due to lack of
literacy which keep them as under developed areas. The author calls for awareness of
programmes, imparting training, involvement of the communities to encourage the Tribal for
education in order to improve their life economically and socially.
S. Sundara Rao and D. Rambabu (2004)45 highlighted the variation of literacy rate
in various Tribes living in plains, which was much higher than that of hilly areas and shows
the changing attitudes of parents towards education i.e. rate of literacy of the children was
much higher compare to adult rate. They suggested more emphasized on need of the
Government and NGOs to promote both formal and informal education towards the hilly and
remote areas where high dropout and literacy was low. They also pointed the potential of
education to improve their social and economic life.
Malini Sur (2004)46 outlined the international legal framework on education
especially for enforcing women’s right to education without discrimination. Provisions in the
international law rely extensively on the state to implemented and obliged of these rights. The
author further discussed on Indian context, its various constitutional provisions, policy

43
K. Sreerama Murthy and K.V. Jagannadha Rao, Primary Education of Tribals in a Backward Region
in Andhra Prasdesh- A Case Study of Vizianagaram District in Census- 2001 and Human
development in India by G. Ramachandrudu and M. Prasada Rao (Ed), Serials Publications, New
Delhi, 2004, pp 185-200.
44
D. Pari Naidu, Literacy Trends and Variations in Tribal Sub-Plan Area, Parvathepuram in Census-
2001 and Human development in India by G. Ramachandrudu and M. Prasada Rao(ed), Serials
Publications, New Delhi, 2004, pp 251- 253.
45
S. Sundara Rao and D. Rambabu, Inter-Tribe Variations in Literacy Levels- A Study of Tribes in
Srikakulam District AP, in Census- 2001 and Human development in India by G. Ramachandrudu and
M. Prasada Rao (Ed), Serials Publications, New Delhi, 2004, pp 177-184.
46
Malini Sur, “Women’s Right to Education – A Narrative on International Law”, Indian Journal of
Gender Studies, 11(3), September-December, 2004, pp. 255-274.

42
framework and programmes on education and observes that still large scale inequalities
occurred as Education Global Monitoring report also place India “at risk” of not even
reaching the goal of gender parity both primary and secondary education even by 2015.
L. Khrisna Veni (2004)47 examined the various trends of literacy during 1991-2001
by classifying stage on the basis of population and regions of India and Andhra Pradesh in
particular with a detailed analyzed of west Godavari district. The study found out that due to
various national literacy missions, literacy rate had increased. Variation of literacy rate of
different state and Andhra Pradesh was lowest in position of all the southern states but had
recorded an impressive growth rate in literacy. West Godavari district received a certificate of
appreciation from the Government of India for its performance in the field of literacy. The
author suggested the need for more of women literate development, compulsory and free
education to all up to 5th standard strictly, enrollment to make compulsory, to restrict the
drop-out rate, more attractive school atmosphere, teaching and learning more lively and
promotion of education in backward and Tribal areas
Sally M. Wade (2004)48 had presented that parenting plays an important role in
determining the intellectual, attitude, behavior, education and social outcome of the children
and youths. The author discusses the parenting on early cognitive development by viewing
divided theorists and suggests for positive parenting practices to promote cognitive
development like emotional and verbal responsiveness of parents, cognitive stimulation in the
home environment, parental use of control and facilitation of independence and the use of
discipline and punishment. The author also brings to light the variations in parenting practices
according to social class and ethnicity. The study highlights the impact of parental
involvement on children’s academic achievement and influence on its development of career
exploration and occupational choice. It further discussed the impact of culture and socio-
economic status on parental involvement in education and presented the suggested activities
that parental can used to promote their child’s academic success.
R. C. Mishra (2005)49 described that the key features of Tribal children to their
education were related to cultural and psychological factors. He found that due to differences

47
L. Krishna Veni, “Literacy in 21st Century: A Study of West Godavari District on Andhra Pradesh” in
Census- 2001 and Human Development in India Edited by G. Ramachandrudu and M. Prasada
Rao(ed), Serials Publications, New Delhi, 2004, pp 234-250
48
Sally M. Wade, “Parenting Influences on Intellectual Development and Educational Achievement” in
Masud Hoghughi and Nicholas Long (Ed.) Handbook of Parenting Theory and Research for Practice,
Sage Publication, London, 2004, pp.198-212.
49
R. C. Mishra, “Cognitive Strengths of Tribal Children: Implication for their Education” in Aradhana
Shukla (Ed.), Indian Tribes: Psychological and Social Perspectives, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi,
2005, pp.53-64.

43
in the demands of Tribal ecology, the cognitive abilities show considerable variations from
that of other groups and came to light that Tribal are neither culturally inferior nor
cognitively less competent than other groups but instead their skills and abilities are highly
developed and extremely sophisticated. He viewed that Tribal children do possess the basic
cognitive abilities and psychological disposition for successful participation in education
spheres and can acquire all those skills that other member groups of the society possess. So,
he suggested developing a positive frame of mind of the Tribal children by sensitizing them
to Tribal culture and life, recognition of the cognitive strength and appreciation of their
personality qualities which will help in the promotion of development of Tribal aspects.
Sura Prasad Pati and Saudamani Acharya (2005)50 in their study analyzed that the
pupils who learn from parents or guardians after the normal school instruction had done much
better achievement in the exam than those learned in group coaching or tuition and learned by
them. The authors recommend the need of parents or guardians to teach their children if
uneducated parents than coaching or tuition instead of self learning to give the required
instruction lacking from the school instructions.
Anita Rastogi and Monica Mehta (2005)51 analyzed various programmes and
policies of government to provide free education to children and universalisation of
education. The authors examined the close link of economic and education and study how
free was in primary education in Delhi. The findings revealed that even though it reduced the
financial burden, still then, the parents have to bear huge expenditure on various others
essentials to complete primary education. Thus, it is felt to need to review the present
schemes with new innovative schemes.
J.P. Singh (2005)52 viewed the current scenario of Indian education on the problems,
hindrance and challenges faced like low literacy, high drop-out rate, gender gap, variation
among the states, inadequate expenditure on education and the role of adult education in
promotion of universal education which due to various reason like rapid rise in population,
poverty, lack of adequate infrastructure, bad governance etc. The author further discussed
various plans and programmes laid by the Central and State Government and external aid
programmes in promotion on universalisation of education and emphasized social
involvement, sincerity, bureaucratic efficiency, empowerment of women, more incentives
50
Sura Prasad Pati and Saudamini Acharya, “Out of School Learning and its Impact on the
Achievement of the Pupils”, Vision, 25(3-4), October-December, 2005, pp 49-54.
51
Anita Rastogi and Monica Mehta, How Free is Free Primary Education in Delhi, New Frontiers in
Education, 35(2), April-June 2005, pp 119-125.
52
J. P. Singh, “Universalisation of education in India: promise and performance”, Man and
Development, 27(1), March 2005, pp.103-124.

44
and expenditure as an important process for the success even though data says it is
increasingly difficult.
B.V. Shah (2005)53explained the relationship between education and society. He
regarded a cooperative force in society rather than a conservative approach as an agent of
change in Indian society. He discusses that even though slow growth of education among the
Tribal and variation among the tribes, education has become one of the most influential
instrument of social change among them. It brings changes to political, economy, and cultural
spheres of the Tribal society in spite of their poor socio-economic and cultural environment
to acquire it.
Santosh Mehrotra and Ranjana Srivastava (2005)54 viewed that the rationale for
making good quality education universally available was compelling. It contributes to
economic well-being and cohesive, stable communities; and it empowers poor people to
encourage their incomes and leave the pain of poverty behind. Sustained economic growth
can only be achieved by reaching the peak of literacy rate for its population. Another way
education transforms lives was through equal schooling opportunities for girls, since they
have, the survival rates of their infants, how their children perform at school, and how
productive their livelihoods subsequently become. Thus, directly helps in raising the national
economic growth.
P.R. Panchmukhi (2005)55 highlighted that the income and occupation of the heads
of households played an important role in the household expenditure on primary education.
Further, the size of the familys also had some significant impact particularly for certain
communities. The author opines that the policy makers needs to look for a multi-pronged
strategy of improving the occupational and income status of the households and of
controlling family size seem worthy of serious consideration. An integrated approach
touching upon the different sectors would be necessary to achieve universalization of
elementary education.

53
B. V. Shah, “Education and Social Change Among Tribal in India”, in Pariyaram M. Chacko (Ed.)
Tribal Communities and Social Change, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 2005, pp. 114-133.
54
Santosh Mehrotra and Ranjana Srivastava, “Elementary schools in India: Producing human capital
to unleash human capabilities and economic growth”, as in Santosh Mehrotra, P.R. Panchmukhi et
al, Universalisation of elementary education in India: Uncaging the tiger economy, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi, 2005, pp. 3-29.
55
P.R. Panchmukhi, “Household expenditure on elementary education”, as in Santosh Mehrotra, P.R.
Panchmukhi et al, Universalisation of elementary education in India: Uncaging the tiger economy,
Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2005, pp. 291-340.

45
 N.B. Biswas (2006)56 is of the opinion that the prevailing education system were
difficult to adopt among the Tribal as they live in different culture with distinct physical and
social environment. So the author calls for alternative new systems of education i.e. a
complementary approach with indigenous culture and teachers for Tribal population which
would enable to bridge the gap with other non-Tribal society.
Cynthia Guttman (2006)57 analyzed the 2005 edition of Education for All Global
Monitoring Report published by an independent team based at UNESCO, tracks progress
towards the six goals set in Dakar and spotlight was on quality this year. As many low-
income countries take bold measures to broaden access to schooling the poor quality of
education was emerging as a foremost obstacle to progress and still the goals were very
elusive. Thus, results in sole delivery education for all both quantitative and qualitative must
complement not substitutes in the drive to achieve education for all. The report also reviews
the ways to determine education quality and maps out key strategies for improving teaching
and learning especially in lower-income contexts and present several essential dimensions for
governments. The report also emphasized quality education at school level and draws
attention on the challenges of defining and measuring literacy, topics to be develop in the
2006 report and assess levels of international aid and donors for improving education as it
depend a large extent for achieving Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Anne Jellema and Elaine Unterhalter (2006)58 highlighted that the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) – gender parity in education set to get many girls as boys into
school by 2005 will be missed. It also bring out that though access to education is slowly
increasing it is far too slow to achieve the MDGs and will not attain too even in 2015 if it
goes on as per the current growth rate. So, unless a dramatic action is taken up, it will hamper
the economic, health, social life of the countries and goal was achievable if rapid progress on
girl’s education was increased. Thus, it call upon government and the international
community to agree to a new action plan been laid out to ensure full completion of the
primary education by every girl and boy, with gender equality in learning to achieve by 2015
and increase the expenditure and funds with political attention on education.

56
N.B. Biswas, Development of School Education Among the Tribes of North-East India: A
complementary Approach in Challenges of Development in North-East India edited by David R. et al,
Regency Publications, New Delhi 2006, pp 440-456.
57
Cynthia Guttman, “Education for all: The Quality Imperative”, New Frontiers in Education, 36(1),
January-March, 2006, pp. 7-9.
58
Anne Jellema and Elaine Unterhalter, “Girls Can’t Wait: Why Girls’ Education Matter, and How to
Make it Happen Now”, New Frontiers in Education, 36(1), January-March, 2006, pp. 23-27.

46
 Chaudhuri Kausik and Roy Susmita (2006)59 studied about the gender disparities in
India particularly in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and found out that parents expenditure on
education among gender was not equal which brought out significant gaps. It also brought out
many social factors such as religion, caste, occupation, development of the village and
education of the parents too plays an important role in the expenditure choice of the parents.
It is further suggested that our cultural norm of pro-son needs to be eradicated with the
government intervention, access to schools, quality and schools near the locality need to
established in bringing down the disparities but they believed that unless there is greater
acceptance and acknowledgment of the importance and equal role of women in the society, it
will still prevail.
Anjan Saika and K.C. Kapoor (2006)60 analyzed that wastage among the
elementary school stage learners in Arunachal Pradesh was lesser in gender wise, urban-rural,
district level because of better equipped of school, qualified and sincere teachers, hostel
facilities and financial assistance as compared to those in Assam. The authors feel that there
is need for improvement of quality and tackle various problems in both states but require
more efforts in Assam. They suggested a careful development of curriculum, modern
approach of teaching and learning, effective schemes affecting problem solving, quality
education to improve for enhancement the goal of universalisation of elementary education
N.A. Karim (2006)61 opines that if educational planners and administrators pay equal
attention to maximisation of quality and enhancement of quality right from the beginning it
was possible to achieve the twin ends of quality and equality. Unfortunately Independent
India was being built on the educational structure left behind by the colonial rulers without
any kind of reorganisation worth any name.
Saza Lucy (2006)62 studied on attitude of the parents towards school education in
Mao to find out the factors which influence the attitude of the parents towards school
education and suggest and recommend suitable ways and means towards the improvement of
the school situation. The major findings was that the school education in Mao is gradually
improving, the academic advancement of the private schools and mission schools are better

59
Chaudhuri Kausik and Roy Susmita, “Do Parents Spread Education Expenditure Evenly Across the
Two Genders? Evidence from Two North Indian States”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLI,
No. 51, December, 2006.
60
Anjan Saikai and K.C. Kapoor, “Wastage in Elementary Education: A Comparative Study of Assam
and Arunachal Pradesh” in Challenges of Development in North-East India edited by David R. et al,
Regency Publications, New Delhi 2006, pp 456-466.
61
N.A. Karim, “Quality and equality in higher education”, Mainstream, 44(30), July 15, 2006, pp. 5-6.
62
Saza Lucy, A study on attitude of the parents towards school education in Mao, Dissertation submitted
to the Department of Education, Manipur University, 2006.

47
than the government schools, the schools in Mao follow learner-centered and activity based
approach and the library and laboratory facilities are inadequate.
P. Palanivelu and Hema Balakrishnan (2007)63 advocated investment on girls’
education, as a hope for better future which was the foundation for building stable,
democratic, economically prosperous societies. It would enable them to gain access and
awareness in the society and individual benefits too but need to tackle various factors
influencing in women education which still hamper the potential to reduce many social
problems in our society. The requirement for women now is to respect and empower them.
B.D. Sharma (2007)64 in his article presented some distinctive features of the North-
East region that are both positive as well as negative in terms relevant for education. He
further discussed the aim of education in one’s personality and presents the current status of
education system and preparation for life in the region. He presented the task ahead to deal
for education in North-East region such as in early schooling, elementary education, teachers,
infrastructure, vocational training and linking of education with the agriculture and also
discussed the task ahead for colleges and universities too. He concluded that the morality in
the region was degrading due to corruption, smuggling, drug-addiction, poverty, etc. which
was unknown in the traditional system where there was no significant effort to counter with.
However the author is still hopeful that there was still a lot untapped potential in the region
that needs to be identified at the earliest.
Najma Unnisa (2007)65 honored the teachers as pivotal role players in socio
reconstruction, transmission of wisdom, knowledge and experiences of one generation to
another. The author emphasize the changing role of the teachers in 21st century, globalization,
an explosion of knowledge in science and technology, increased student population, changes
in society and educational system. The author calls for the need of the teachers to perform as
a manager of teaching-learning, as a community leader, protector of the environment,
character builder, builders of the nation, promotion of emotional integration, global
citizenship and promotion of education technology to solve the new problems arising from
rapid development of modernization.

63
P. Palanivelu and Hema Bhalakrishnan, “Education for Women Empowerment”, Third concept,
21(242), April 2007, pp 48-54.
64
B. D. Sharma, “Aspects of Education in the North-East”, Dialogue, 8(4), April-June, 2007, pp.89-115
65
Najma Unnisa, “Role of Teachers in the Emerging Indian Society”, Edutracks, 6(7), March 2007, pp
5-9.

48
 Ved Parkash (2007)66 highlighted about several challenges faced by the Indian
higher education system and further added by the challenge of global competitiveness such as
access, equity, relevance, quality, privatisation and internationalisation in the face of a
resource crunch. The author also overview the trends in the expansion of higher education
and examines variations in participation across states, gender and social groups. He also
discussed the financing of higher education and the required resources to meet the target of
allocating 6 per cent of the GDP to education. The author further argues that without
appropriate policy interventions in school education, it would be of little use to have
interventions at the higher educational level, which discriminate in favour of girls, SCs and
STs.
Rajvir Singh Tyagi (2008)67 discussed the issues of governance of school education
in India at Central and State level. He critically analyzed several weakness/dysfunctions and
major strength in the present system of education of policy support, academic support,
administration and quality improvement. He further highlighted the need for reforms in
educational governance by strengthening policy support, academic management, legal basis,
personnel management, decentralization and consultative mechanism, strengthening
organizational administration and issues of decentralization. In order to achieve the aim and
objectives of the country’s education, the author advocate the need for overhauling the entire
system of the school education administration in respect of structural reforms, policy and
programme formulation and implementation for achieving better outcomes and quality
improvement in education.
Rikil Chyrmong (2008)68 studied on education wastage, dropout and stagnation in
elementary schools in Goa in order to identify the cause and find various preventive
measures. The researcher had taken 30 schools as a sample for study in which it was divided
into four (4) categories; urban-aided, rural-aided, urban government and rural government. It
found out that the urban government school had highest education wastage followed by
urban-aided, rural government and rural-aided school. Further, the rural government school
had the highest education stagnation followed by urban-government, urban aided and rural
aided school. It also highlighted that the person who left school due to financial problems are
working as labourers in factories, garage, farms, waiters and run their own food canteen and
66
Ved Parkash, “Trends in growth and financing of higher education in India”, Economic and Political
Weekly, 42(31), August 4-10, 2007, pp. 3249 – 3258.
67
Rajvir Singh Tyagi, “Governance of school education in India: Need for reforms”, New Frontiers in
Education, Vol. 41(2), April-June, 2008, pp. 180-190.
68
Rikil Chtrmomg, “Wastage and stagnation in elementary schools in Goa”, IASSI Quarterly, Vol. 27
(1 and 2), 2008, pp. 75-103.

49
domestic servants and students who lack interest in studies joined training institute to
develops technical skills while the girls have turned out as housewives who left studies out of
interest. The principals, teachers, NGOs and Government had suggested various ways to
prevent education wastage and stagnation. However, still it had yet to deal effectively with
the problems despite introduction of various measures to prevent dropout like Mid-Day
Meals and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan due to problems of implementations and lack of
monitoring regarding the functioning of the scheme.
Tapan Kumar Basantia (2008)69 viewed the unique characteristics of the north-east
society and thus have unique demands of the region as they had different challenges, needs,
problems, prospects and paths of education than that of the other part of the country. Though
the system of education had expanded but still needs lots to improve in management and on
the other challenges to be face such as challenges of liberlisation, privatization and
globalization, science, technical and mathematics education, demand for peace and harmony,
quality management and quality demand from external world, need for information and
communication base, socio-economic sustainability of the north east region. The author had
recommended plans/programmes/techniques/strategies of management to deal with the
unique challenges of education in the region.
Ravinder Kumar (2008)70 highlighted that the majority of schools were located in
urban or semi urban areas and significant majority of schools were co-educational. The
policies and plans for elementary education were devised, designed and developed at the
national level only and these were implemented by the State. One of the observations was
that the parents enrolled their wards in the school primarily to feed them not to ensure better
educational benefits for them through quality learning.
A.Senthil Nathan and N.Sakul Hameed (2008)71 viewed that education can be a key
factor to bring about attitudinal and behavioural changes and for that the primary education as
very important inspite of any indifference. A country’s Human resources constitute its
greatest asset, Attitudes and skills make a nation. Education provides the key to both.

69
Tapan Kumar Basantia, “Management challenges of North-East education”, University News, Vol.
46(26), 23-29 June, 2008, pp. 9-13.
70
R. Kumar, Administration of elementary education in Panjab: A Case Study of District SAS Nagar
unpublished Ph.D Thesis Panjab University, 2008.
71
A.Senthil Nathan and N.Sakul Hameed, “Role of Education in Economic Development”, Education
and Economy, G.Velen,2008,pp 157.

50
 Nanjunda, D.C. (2009)72 reflected the important effort; the NGOs can contribute for
the improvement of educational status of the tribal. However, as of now the impact of various
policies and projects was a failure due to its designed and not geographical and cultural
specification in dealing with the tribal. The author highlighted that the important of the NGOs
in dealing with the children, parents, community and suggested various measures such as
drawing finance, human resources, technologies, expertise, knowledge and specialist skills
for effectiveness on tribal education. Further, the author also recommend to adopt a holistic
approach taking into consideration of socio-economic set up of the people, collaboration with
the Government agencies and the other NGOs and know how to generate employment in non
agricultural sectors.
Smriti Bhosle (2009)73 highlighted the important role of education for development
and improvement in the quality of life and especially a positive impact for the improvement
of women status, empowerment process and the opening up of opportunities, wider horizons
of thoughts and perceptions and new areas of advancement. The author expressed that women
emerged as a major agents of social progress for which education is critical for it as educated
women tend to have fewer children, healthier family, more independent decision and
encourage their children to learn. Equality of women is necessary not merelyon the ground of
social justice but as a basic conditions for social, economic and political development of the
nation for which education must be the highest priority to liberate women to participate in
decision making in society and the opportunity women will be able to play a pivotal role as
equal partners in the development process in the 21st century.
Vandana Mehra (2009)74 explained that India is one of the countries of the world
which are at risk of not achieving gender equality in education by 2015 even though the
Indian Constitutions had promised equality, liberty and justice. The author highlighted the
deliberate gender discrimination against the girl child due to cultural and attitude of the
parents, declining sex ratio, discrimination in healthcare and nutrition, gender gap in literacy
rate, higher dropout rate, priority to boys education and violence against girls and women.
The author reveals the positive impact of the educated/literacy of the mother on their income,
value for education and helping their children to learn. The author further highlighted the
need for gender equality in education and recommends certain strategies for promoting
72
Nanjunda, D.C., “NGOs and education of tribal children”, Third Concept, Vol. 22 (264), February,
2009, pp. 27-29.
73
Smriti Bhosle, “Education for empowerment and development of women”, University News, Vol.
47(2), 12-18 January, 2009, pp. 9-11,18.
74
Vandana Mehra, “Gender disparity in education”, University News, Vol. 47(20), 18-24 May, 2009,
pp. 14-18.

51
gender equality in education and also fells that in order to create an equitable social order for
the coming generation, gender equality to access of quality education for all needs to be
generated.
Ankur Kumar (2010)75 discussed the Gandhian Model of promoting rural
technology and its role in promoting rural education across India. The features of the model
and its implementation in the form of technological innovations for rural development were
also highlighted. The importance of dissemination of rural technology and its role in
imparting rural education have been assessed to bring out the nature of linkage between the
rural education and technologies.
Deepa Sankar (2010)76 highlighted the important role of education for economic
growth and propelling socio-cultural and political reforms of the country. She analyzed
India’s education sector progress in the last six decades in which she regarded the last two
decade had more fruitful though it had a mixed results with some remarkable outcomes and
some nonstarters. Further, she discussed the provision, intervention and policies for the
improvements in access and participation in education especially on elementary education.
She opines that elementary stage of education had improved whereas there still a huge gaps
in access, infrastructure and facilities in secondary education which required considerable
efforts and funds. She further emphasized the major concerned of quality of education and
the quality of the teacher’s education and professional development. It also pointed the needs
to mobilize the political will and resources and targeting them in challenged about quality,
pedagogy, governance and accountability. She reflected that India need to continue the
current level of focus and commitment along with the right amount of resources in improving
governance and service delivery framework to become one of the major knowledge
economies in the world in the near future.
Praveen Jha and Pooja Parvati (2010)77 opine that though the Government of India
had shown a degree of urgency and seriousness in education in the recent years especially a
significant enactment of Right to Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (2009).
The authors expressed that the Act had a rough road ahead as ‘how’ and ‘where to’ had

75
Ankur Kumar, Dissemination of Rural Technology and its Role in Promoting Rural Education
amongst Youth: A Gandhian Approach, YouthKiAwaaz, January 24, 2010.
http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2010/01/dissemination-of-rural-technology-and-its-role-in-promoting-
rural-education-amongst-youth-a-gandhian-approach/
76
Deepa Sankar, “Education sector in India: Progress, challenges and way forward”, Yojana, Vol. 54,
10 January, 2010, pp. 35-38.
77
Praveen Jha and Pooja Parvati, “Right to education Act 2009: Critical gaps and challenges”,
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 45(13), 27 March, 2010, pp. 20-23.

52
remain ambiguous. They highlighted certain concern features for the effectiveness of the Act
such as passing of the RTE Bill by Parliament without accompanying financial
memorandum, spending less amount on education by the Government as much below
recommended by many commissions, committees, etc, the issues of sharing the requisite
costs between the centre and the state, lack of clarity of the Act especially about the meaning
of child, lack of flexibility, eligibility, accountability, quality of education, short term
political gains, poor judgment on the part of politician and policy makers had major
roadblock on accomplishing goals. However, they remained positive that with appropriate
modification and financial provisioning offers a great opportunity to correct the anomaly of
poor education outcomes and can delivered on the long standing commitment of providing
basic and quality education.
Puja Pednekar (2010)78 highlighted how Right to Education had help the parents to
re-admitted their children to the school by demanding the school officials even though the
students had fail in the examinations.
Raju Narayana Swamy (2010)79 had discussed about literacy profile of the tribal,
women literacy and high dropout rate among the tribal people. He further highlighted the
factors which attract or hindrance to the education of the tribal groups such as fear of losing
tribal identity, economic factors, role of the teachers, medium of instruction, location of the
institutions, timing, infrastructure and nature of curriculum. He opines that the policy makers
had failed so far to make quality education available to the tribal people. The holistic manner
and redefine goals and delivery mechanism to suit the needs, culture, values and sensibilities
of the people is the need to look out for education among the tribal. As it is not classroom
transaction alone but the combined mobilization of community, political machinery and the
bureaucracy that holds the key to success.
Gopal Krishan Sanghaik (2010)80 elaborated the important and the need of
Panchayats in our Indian society and its role for women empowerment, higher education and
rural development. Further, he discussed about the role of Rural Development Education in
Himachal Pradesh and highlighted the challenges faced by the Rural Development Education
in ensuring the quality of education and the relevance of curricula offered. Inadequate
funding, excess intake of students, poor infrastructure, declining quality of research and
78
Puja Pednekar, “Right to Education saves 85 students from losing a year,” DNA, Tuesday, June 29,
2010, p.2.
79
Raju Narayana Swamy, “Ignored citizens: A study on tribal education in India”, Yojana, Vol. 54,
June, 2010, pp. 29-32.
80
Gopal Krishan Sanhgaik, “Rural Development Education”, Indian Journal of Public Administration,
Vol. LVI (3), July-September, 2010, pp. 669-678.

53
teaching, often failed to meet high employment expectations and empowerment targets are
some constraint faced. The author opines that the content of the Rural Development
Education and the methods of learning facilitated should be contextualized in the sense that it
should be pertinent to the experience, culture and environment and relevant to the needs and
aspirations of the local people at all the levels.
Lalneihzove (2010)81 emphasized about the important of women’s education and
stated as the major issues of concern for the Government of India as well as the society at
large. The author highlighted the historical background on women’s education in India and
the ground reality of the status of women’s education. The women’s education not only helps
in the development of half of the human resources but in improving the quality of life at
home and outside. The author was also of the viewed that educated women not only tend to
promote education of their girl children but also provide better guidance to all their children.
It can also help in the reduction of infant mortality rate and growth of the population. Further,
it brings out some barriers to women’s education and the main reasons were the disparity in
literacy rates between urban and rural women due to the role of cultural and socio-economic
obstacles in the equal access to education for Indian girls.
P. Mohan Rao and C.G.K. Murthy (2010)82 opined that the improvement in the
education system in India was slow due to uneducated parents, an unaffordable education
system and inadequate schooling facilities. The Right to Education Act 2009 envisages for
compulsory and quality education to all children and to equip them with knowledge, skills
and values. Further, they were of the view that without upgrading the standards and
competencies of the teachers and without providing the required infrastructure and facilities,
it is unable to achieve the objectives of the Act or universal education. They suggested
various measures and recommended specific provisions for disadvantaged groups such as
child labourers, migrants’ children, children with special needs and those who have a
disadvantage owing to social, cultural, economical, geographical, linguistic, gender, etc.
Snehalata Panda (2010)83 highlighted that the dictates of caste system dynamics and
retrograde value system had subjected to unfair treatment of women in Indian society, more
widespread in rural societies due to illiteracy and age old religious traditions restrict the
rearing of girl child by which depriving the opportunities to grow as an individual through
81
Lalneihzovi, “Women’s Education in India: An Overview”, Indian Journal of Public Administration,
Vol. LVI (3), July-September, 2010, pp. 584-592.
82
P. Mohan Rao and C.G.K. Murthy, “Right to Education: Investing for a Bright Future”, Indian
Journal of Public Administration, Vol. LVI (3), July-September, 2010, pp. 538-548.
83
Snehalata Panda, “Education and Empowerment of Women: A Comparative Analysis”, Indian
Journal of Public Administration, Vol. LVI (3), July-September, 2010, pp. 561-574.

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education and confining within the house or family eventually marriage being the only goal.
The author observed from field studies that education and awareness play a vital role in
arousing women from the state of ennui and deprivation and elementary education and
exposure to changed environment cast a positive influence and instill a sense of
independence, self sufficiency and courage to face the odds with fortitude. Further, it brings
out the massive contrast between the urban and particularly metropolitan life to the realities
of rural India.
Economic and Political Weekly (2011)84 assessed the effectiveness of Right to
Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009. Though there are improvements in
education especially in physical infrastructure of the schools however the Annual Status of
Education Report (ASER) highlighted the declined of enrolled students present in the class
over the past five years and also declining of quality of learning. Further, suggested to recruit
enough teachers in the school, focus attention on text books, the training of teachers, making
the learning process engaging enough to retain the children who had been persuaded to enroll
in other words, the government needs to focus on quality education.
PTI (2011)85 reported by D. Purandeswari, Minister of State for Human Resource
Development of India that approximately 2.91 lakh classrooms at elementary level and 1.77
lakh classrooms at secondary stage of education was estimated to be required despite the
sanctioned to construct classroom under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and to install water
purification system in rural schools under Jalmani programme. Further, it was also reported
that only 54.82 per cent schools in the country had common toilets while 58.82 per cent
schools had girls toilets and 92.6 per cent had drinking water facilities and also viewed that
the enrolment of Muslim children in both primary and upper primary education had increased
steadily.
Bishwajit Okram (2012)86 opined that education is the strength of a nation’s
however viewed that Manipur as a state is yet to recognized especially in elementary schools
where the system was severely paralyzed and dysfunctional which are regarded as a black
hole in the primary education system. He further highlighted various problems such as
inefficiency and ineffectiveness of the Ministry website, no pupil or less pupils in the schools,
drop out of pupils, improper salary of teachers and also the state government unable to spend

84
The right to learn, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 47(16), April 21, 2012, p.7.
85
PTI, India faces shortages of over 4.6 lakh classroom, Economic Times, December 2, 2011.
86
Bishwajit Okram, “Primary Education in Manipur is not so prime but a fiasco” Kanglaonline,
January 22, 2012.

55
on education. He further highlighted various reports and felt that Manipur need to find a
solution to improved its education system.
Manah Pratim Gohain (2012)87, highlighted that despite of increase in the budget of
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) the learning levels of the students and the grant received by
the schools had declined as indicated by the findings of survey conducted across 14,283 rural
schools in India. Further, it highlighted that the teachers received the largest share in formed
of salary and then the maintenance of building and infrastructure. The children and the
quality of education had the least priorities to spend through the grant. The Meghalaya had
the worst figure of receiving the share of SSA grants followed by Tripura while Daman and
Diu had the highest receiving grants followed by Pondicherry and Himachal Pradesh.

87
Manah Pratim Gohain, “Elementary Education witnesses Negative Trend”, Times of India, TNN,
March 21, 2012.

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