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DATA ANALYTICS IN
FOOTBALL

Data Analytics in Football provides students, researchers and coaches with a firm
grounding in the principles of modern performance analysis. It offers an insight
into the use of positional data, exploring how they can be collected, modelled,
analysed and interpreted. Introducing cutting-edge methods, the book challenges
long-held assumptions and encourages a new way of thinking about football
analysis.
Based on data collected from the German Bundesliga and the UEFA Champions
League, the book seeks to define the role of positional data in football match
analysis by exploring topics such as:

• What is positional data analysis and how did it emerge from conventional
match analysis?
• How can positional data be collected and which technologies can be used?
• What are the benefits of a data-driven approach to decision making in football?
• What Key Performance Indicators based on positional data should be used?
• How can traditional match analysis be complemented by using positional data
and advanced KPIs?
• How can these new methods evolve in the future?

Accessibly written, packed full of examples from elite football and supplemented
with expert interviews (Ralf Rangnick, Urs Siegenthaler and others), Data Analytics
in Football is a thought-provoking, rigorously evidence-based guide to the use of
data analytics in football performance analysis. As such, it is a vital resource for any
student, researcher or coach interested in performance analysis and skill acquisition,
or anyone interested in football more generally.

Daniel Memmert is Professor and Executive Head of the Institute of Training

and Computer Science in Sport at the German Sport University Cologne,
Germany.

Dominik Raabe is Research Assistant at the Institute of Training and Computer

Science in Sport at the German Sport University Cologne, Germany. He is also
studying Scientific Computing (MSc) at the Institute of Mathematics at the
Technical University Berlin.
DATA ANALYTICS
IN FOOTBALL
Positional Data Collection,
Modelling and Analysis

Daniel Memmert and Dominik Raabe

First published in English 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Daniel Memmert and Dominik Raabe
The right of Daniel Memmert and Dominik Raabe to be identified as authors
of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Memmert, Daniel, author. | Raabe, Dominik, author.
Title: Data analytics in football : positional data collection, modelling and
analysis / Daniel Memmert and Dominik Raabe.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2018. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017058008 (print) | LCCN 2018012668 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781351210164 (Master eBk) | ISBN 9781351210157 (Web PDF) |
ISBN 9781351210157 (ePub3) | ISBN 9781351210133 (Mobipocket/
Kindle) | ISBN 9780815381549 (hbk) | ISBN 9780815381556 (pbk) |
ISBN 9781351210164 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Soccer—Data processing. | Soccer—Statistical methods. |
Soccer—Mathematical models. | Quantitative research.
Classification: LCC GV943 (ebook) | LCC GV943 .M385 2018 (print) |
DDC 796.33—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017058008
Translation from the German language edition:
Revolution im Profifußball Mit Big Data zur Spielanalyse 4.0
by Daniel Memmert and Dominik Raabe
Copyright © Springer-Verlag GmbH Deutschland 2017
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature
The registered company is Springer-Verlag GmbH
ISBN: 978-0-8153-8154-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-8153-8155-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-351-21016-4 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo and Stone Sans
by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK
CONTENTS

Preface by Hansi Flick vii

Preface by Ralf Rangnick ix
Acknowledgements xi

1 Where is the revolution? 1

2 A historical perspective on positional data 13

3 Technological background 35

4 Collecting data in the Bundesliga 43

5 In search of the Holy Grail 49

6 Betting and sports analytics 65

7 Where are they running? 71

8 From media to storytelling 77

9 Key properties of long-term success in football 85

10 The key to success 93

11 Reasons for dominance 99

vi Contents

12 FCB versus FCB 105

13 The myth of home advantage 123

14 Managerial influence 127

15 All on attack 133

16 Laws of a derby 137

17 Who will be nominated for the FIFA World Cup 2018? 147

18 Conclusion 153

Index 173
PREFACE
Hansi Flick

Across all levels and age groups there are a variety of factors that are responsible
for long-term fun and success for football teams. Among of these factors are tech-
nique, physical condition and cognition. In recent years especially, tactical aspects
have gained importance. The value of match plans increases—and they have to
cover more and more possible scenarios. As a consequence, coaches and assistant
coaches have to invest more work into the preparation to observe and evaluate all
aspects of the game. And this takes time, a lot of time.
Therefore a specific field of profession has developed: game analytics. This
offers a wide range of options in diagnosis and training control for the coaching
staff, not least because of the technical developments in this field. However,
“traditional” video analyses are time consuming even for these specialists, in
particular because complex game situations have to be determined and decoded
manually.
This book gives an overview of the genesis of the “game analysis.” In addition
to this, it shows that information about the complexity of the game can be
generated automatically and in seconds with the help of a new methodological
approach. Its basis is data that we have been collecting from Die Mannschaft
(German Men’s Football National Team) for more than ten years at the German
Football Association (Deutscher Fußball Bund, DFB): positional data! Now these
can be ennobled thanks to new technical developments.
In practice the value of positional data is mainly in regard to the control of
work load and physical stress. The integration of positional data in tactical analyses
has been not yet been utilized—although it would be possible to use these. At this
point, sport science and sports computer science, as well as the analysts, are equally
in high demand. Their task is to translate these data into a practical context: the
challenge is to not only use the technical possibilities to generate Big Data, but
also to purposively manage the development of players and teams.
viii Prefance by Hansi Flick

In the sportive mission statement of the DFB we rooted the game vision as our
fundament. Besides the individual game concept that each coach can shape
according to his or her team’s abilities, we have defined independent guidelines
in our concept of the game and put these at the forefront of the conception. These
form a kind of “quality characteristic” for the understanding of the game. According
to the idea of the game (to score goals) it is, for example, indispensable for us to
recognize and use spaces behind opponents when attacking.This applies to anyone
who plays football, no matter where and at what age.
It is important to be able to assess the skills based on the guidelines quickly,
reliably and objectively. And this requires the inclusion of positional data beyond
the video-based approach. Ultimately, we are talking about geometry and physics,
in other words cofigurations, directions, angles and speeds. All of this makes up
positional data. When we take advantage of this potential, we can completely
redefine and maybe even revolutionize in particular the spotting of talent.
Dear football fans, I hope you have a good time and gain new knowledge
through reading this great book.

Yours,
Hansi Flick
Former Sports director of the German Football Association
PREFACE
Ralf Rangnick

Today, modern match analysis must offer more than the bare evaluation of tackle
rates and distances covered, as it has become obvious that these are not, per se, the
difference between victory and defeat. Rather, it is a significantly more complex
analysis with more performance indicators that is going to provide new insights
into elite football. Big Data—or the so called “positional data”—help in recognizing
tactical patterns, as nowadays these are able to track the position of each player
and the ball very accurately. As a consequence, I have always put emphasis on the
importance of a competent and well-equipped analysis department for modern
match analysis, at all my previous coaching jobs as well as in my current profession
as sports director. So I constantly tried rapidly to adapt to new methodological and
digital trends to use these for our games during my time with VfB Stuttgart,
Hannover 96, 1899 Hoffenheim, Schalke 04 and recently in Leipzig.
The Institute of Training and Computer Science in Sport has been one of the
leading institutions in the development and testing of advanced key performance
indicators based on positional data. Therefore it is only consequent and logical that
the first book about Big Data in elite sports is presented by these authors. To apply
this knowledge systematically to our regular training and practices is going to be
the next step.

Dear readers, I wish you much pleasure in reading this book, and success and
joy with the world’s greatest pastime.

Yours,
Ralf Rangnick
Sports Director, RB Leipzig
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

At this point, we would like to thank our experts for their knowledge:

Ralf Rangnick (Sports Director, RB Leipzig)

Urs Siegenthaler (Head Scout, German National Team)
Prof. Martin Lames (TU Munich)
Lars O.D. Christensen (Talent Development and Training, FC Midtjylland)
Prof. Jürgen Perl (University of Mainz)
Tim Bagner (ChyronHego, Account Manager Deutsche Fußball-Liga (German
Football League))
Hansi Flick (Former Sports Director of the German Football Association)
Ulrich Forstner (National Coach ‘Science and Education’, German Hockey Asso-
ciation)
Dr Holger Broich (Head of Health and Fitness of Bayern Munich)
Ernst Tanner (Head of Youth Department, FC Red Bull Salzburg)
Dr Hendrik Weber (Head of Technology and Innovation, Deutsche Fußball-Liga
(German Football League))
Dr Daniel Link (TU Munich)
Prof. Arnold Baca (University of Vienna)
Dominik Meffert (German Sports University Cologne)
Prof. Dr Matthias Lochmann (University of Erlangen)
Chuck Korb (Senior Analyst, Boston Bruins)
Stefan Wagner (Global General Manager Sports & Entertainment, SAP SE)
Joachim Holzmüller (FIFA, Head of Football Technology Innovation)
1
WHERE IS THE REVOLUTION?

Big Data in professional sports

“We want a revolution,” says Christofer Clemens, head analyst of the Germany
national football team in an interview with the football magazine 11Freunde. And
he carries on: “We want to completely scrutinize match analysis.” The heart of this
revolution is constituted by the huge amount of data which high performance
football has been diligently accumulating for years now. Big Data has football under
control, just like in many other areas of our daily lives. It is about time to draw the
right conclusions from this treasure of information. Already by 2015, the Institute
of Training and Computer Science in Sport at the German Sport University in
Cologne had started the first post-professional Master’s degree, M.A. Game Analysis.
Central aims: nurturing innovation and creativity in working with game data.
It is only possible to innovatively work in practice and understand constant
changes as continuity with scientific know-how. The requirements of game
analysis as a professional field have risen since athletic demands have evolved, due
to increasing professionalization in sports games. Therefore, it involves finding
new paths for the analysis and interpretation of video and positional data.
In the future, match analysts will be involved more frequently in the athletic
performance of their teams. They will be involved in the development of game
ideas and the generation of solutions for specific problems in particular. The
demand of game analysis data is further growing with intensive usage in
broadcasting. Media professionals will have to be able to comprehend data in the
context of the game and understandably communicate these. Last, but not least,
it takes highly qualified specialists to develop analysis methods for evaluation,
analysis and presentation of analysis data on an advanced level.
As Ralf Rangnick mentioned in his Foreword, match analysis nowadays includes
more than the counting of tackles, received passes, or distance completed. These
2 Where is the revolution?

conventional parameters, collectively called event-data, provide quite concrete

insights into the world’s favorite sport. However, scientific studies demonstrate
that they hardly deliver any clues regarding the final outcome of a game. Yet,
guided by the large-scale introduction of positional data in professional football
during the last years, a completely new perspective has opened up which only
waits to be utilized.
The German Hockey federation, which has been promoting innovative game
analysis for several years, has also recognized this:

Take Bayern Munich in football: Recently, their opponents had it very

comfortable with Bayern’s constant passing game in which personal elements
did not play a role anymore. Every now and then we have also experienced
it like this: We constantly work but remain completely ineffective. The aim
has to be to unsettle the opponent much more frequently. At the end not
even the opponent analysts that evaluate everything and present it in 50 page
glossy brochures to their teams should know what will happen with the
Germans.
Valentin Altenburg, August 7, 2016, 4:45 p.m.;
source: ZeitOnline

This statement on the game analysis of tomorrow was given by the Germany
national hockey team coach Valentin Altenburg, just before the XXXIst Olympic
Games, 2016, in Brazil. Afterwards he won the bronze medal with his team. He
indirectly encouraged the fact that we need new impulses and innovations despite
the knowledge of quantitative and qualitative game analysis. How reliable are our
key performance indicators (KPIs)? Which interpretation is possible? What does
it mean for the training schedule?
One possibility of realization can be found within the term Big Data. Positional
data have been providing a new standard for a couple of years now, in order to
view teams’ variability and flexibility in a better way and extract constant patterns
more precisely. Advanced techniques nowadays enable us to detect the location
of every player on the field. Thereby, every action of the players on the field can
be registered manually or with the use of (semi)-automated methods.
In practice, various technical procedures show the position of all players in the
form of X–Y-coordinates—and at best in real time. The captured data are described
as positional or tracking data. Either special camera systems or mobile devices, which
the players wear under their shirts, are used for data collection. The subsequent
analysis based on these positional data can be generated in just a few seconds.
Whenever a team accomplishes a successful move, it is divided into its component
parts in the blink of an eye—including tactical details of offensive as well as
defensive behavior of their own and the opposing team.
Predominantly based on video data, the modern standard is that analysts and
coaches use the information gathered on physical, technical, and tactical player
and team performance to optimize training processes or for game preparation.
 Where is the revolution? 3

However, objective performance acquisition using digital data is still not living up
to its full potential. The experiences of recent years have clearly shown that the
capability of theories and methods based on sport sciences, especially in the area
of positional data, does not yet cover the needs of high-performance sport.
Current research focuses on how robust findings in football and other team and
racket sports can be generated by means of modern procedures using computer
science and statistics. The heart of this is the highly complex, but for practical
issues indispensable, question of how the tactical and technical components of a
match can be analyzed in such a way that relevant conclusions for coaching
decisions can be made. Only in this way is it possible to optimally utilize the ever-
growing flood of data to increase competitiveness (Memmert et al., 2016a;
Memmert & Rein, 2018).
To get one step closer to this goal, sport scientists are constantly developing
and testing elaborate KPIs, which are supposed to deliver information on player
performance. Even though promising approaches can be detected within these,
there is still a visible deficit in the practical establishment of such performance
parameters. To date, only a small number of procedures and methods have brought
it close to marketability, as empirical testing is behind schedule. There is an
obvious lack of field studies in the professional realm that would complement
theory with practical insights (Memmert et al., 2016b).

FIGURE 1.1 FIFA World Cup Final 2006: Italy 6, France 4 (a.e.t.). To our
knowledge, this is one of the first games in which positional data were
measured (a. Zinedine Zidane (FRA) and Gennaro Gattuso (ITA);
b. positional data; c. graphic map of positional data)
Source: Eddy Lemaistre/Corbis Sport/Getty Images
continued . . .
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;To
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52.04,33.13,0.00;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.97;28.97,30.00;28.25,39.00;29.97,50.00;50.97,60.93;51.00,12.00;40.00,31.00;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.02;51
52.04,33.13,0.00;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.97;28.97,30.00;28.27,39.00;29.97,50.00;50.97,60.93;51.00,12.00;40.00,31.00;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.02;51
52.04,33.13,0.00;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.96;28.97,30.00;28.30,39.00;29.97,50.00;50.97,60.94;51.00,12.00;40.00,31.00;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.04;51
52.04,33.13,0.00;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.96;28.97,30.00;28.34,39.00;29.97,50.00;50.97,60.96;51.02,12.00;40.00,31.00;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.04;51
52.04,33.13,0.00;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.95;28.97,30.00;28.38,39.00;29.97,50.00;50.97,61.00;51.02,12.00;40.00,31.00;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.05;51
52.04,33.13,0.00;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.95;28.97,30.00;28.43,39.00;29.97,50.00;50.97,61.02;51.02,12.00;40.00,31.00;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.06;51
52.04,33.13,0.00;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.94;28.97,30.00;28.46,39.00;29.97,50.00;50.97,61.02;51.02,12.00;40.00,31.00;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.09;51
52.04,33.13,0.00;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.93;28.97,30.00;28.51,39.00;29.97,50.00;50.97,61.03;51.03,12.00;40.00,30.97;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.11;51
52.04,33.13,0.00;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.93;28.97,30.00;28.54,39.00;29.97,50.00;50.97,61.05;51.05,12.00;40.00,30.97;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.13;51
52.03,33.25,0.00;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.92;28.97,30.00;28.59,39.00;29.97,50.00;50.97,61.09;51.06,12.00;40.00,30.97;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.14;51
52.02,33.48,0.05;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.89;28.97,30.00;28.62,39.00;29.97,50.00;50.97,61.10;51.09,12.00;40.00,30.97;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.18;51
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52.00,33.79,0.14;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.85;28.97,30.00;28.72,38.97;29.97,50.00;50.97,61.18;51.14,12.00;40.00,30.95;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.29;51
52.00,33.91,0.15;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.81;28.97,30.00;28.76,38.97;29.97,50.02;50.97,61.10;51.18,12.01;40.00,30.95;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.30;51
52.00,34.04,0.15;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.78;28.97,30.00;28.78,38.97;29.97,50.02;50.97,61.25;51.20,12.02;40.00,30.94;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.36;51
51.98,34.18,0.14;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.76;28.97,30.00;28.81,38.96;29.97,50.02;50.97,61.27;51.25,12.05;40.00,30.93;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.38;51
51.98,34.31,0.12;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.72;28.97,30.00;28.84,38.96;29.97,50.02;50.97,61.30;51.27,12.05;40.00,30.92;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.43;51
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51.97,34.61,0.00;10.00,36.00;34.00,22.53;28.97,30.00;28.93,38.93;29.97,50.11;50.97,61.52;51.47,12.14;40.00,30.84;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.63;51
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51.97,34.54,0.00;10.00,36.00;33.97,22.45;28.97,30.00;28.94,38.89;29.97,50.15;50.97,61.59;51.59,12.21;40.00,30.78;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.70;51
51.97,34.52,0.00;10.00,36.00;33.97,22.43;28.97,30.00;28.95,38.87;29.97,50.15;50.97,61.62;51.61,12.25;40.00,30.76;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.72;51
51.97,34.45,0.00;10.00,36.00;33.97,22.36;28.97,30.00;28.96,38.86;29.97,50.21;50.97,61.65;51.68,12.27;40.00,30.72;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.00,36.77;51
51.97,34.42,0.00;10.00,36.00;33.97,22.34;28.97,30.00;28.96,38.84;29.97,50.25;50.97,61.69;51.71,12.30;40.00,30.68;–65000.00,–65000.00;40.02,36.79;51

FIGURE 1.1 Continued

Source: Eddy Lemaistre/Corbis Sport/Getty Images
 16

10
17

15
10
4
7
2
14
1 22
8
13 8
11
13

17
9

6
7

25

24

FIGURE 1.1 Continued

Source: Eddy Lemaistre/Corbis Sport/Getty Images
6 Where is the revolution?

Video data
Match Analysis 1.0
(from 1950) Match Analysis 2.0
(from 1988) Match Analysis 3.0

Position data
Quantitative Evaluation
(Frequencies) (from 1996) Match
Qualitative Evaluation
(Expert assessment of Analysis 4.0
match situations) Physiological and
technical Evaluation
(from 2011)
(Pass routes, running Dynamic tactical
distance, sprints, evaluation (Patterns,
passes etc.) constellations,
interactions, complex
KPIs)

FIGURE 1.2 From game analysis 1.0 to game analysis 4.0

FIGURE 1.3 The digital revolution in elite football: game analysis provided in a matter
of seconds thanks to Big Data

The fundamentals have nevertheless been established, and the data era has
already grabbed football in its claws. On the following pages we will describe some
exciting results, from which game analysis 1.0–4.0 and in the future even 5.0 can
change and develop football (see Table 1.1). At first we will follow the development
of game analysis in general and match analysis based on positional data, in particular
from its infancy to the status quo. Subsequently, we take a look behind the curtain
regarding the techniques used, data material, situation in both the Bundesliga and
European football, as well as an outlook on the everyday life of game analysts in
other types of sport.
 Where is the revolution? 7

On this journey, we will not forget to look frequently at how technological

progress can further impact football as we know it. The catalyst of the proliferated
usage of data is the fact that analyses with positional data can be run completely
automatically and can deliver insights into the game online. Numerous expert
interviews from both theory and practice also deliver new perspectives and how
the data revolution is about to sustainably redefine modern sports.
The second major component of this book is the elaboration of findings that
computer-based game analysis already provides us with today. The data used are
based on a competitive project, tendered by the German Football League (DFL),
with the title: Positional Data in High Performance Football. This project, which
was carried out in 2015 by the Institute of Training and Computer Science in
Sport of the German Sport University, is, to our knowledge one of the first large-
scale field studies in the area of positional data analysis. A team of mathematicians,
computer scientists, and match analysts worked on this project with the central
aim of evaluating a selection of KPIs, newly developed automatically with the use
of neuronal networks, and to test them over a whole season of Bundesliga football.

Nowadays we are able to extract distinctive tactical patterns from positional

data (Grunz, Memmert, & Perl, 2012). To do so, specific neuronal networks
that help to classify single predefined moves are used. In larger validation
studies, for example, short and long game openings, throw-ins, corners, and
free kicks were extracted from the positional data in fractions of seconds
and connected with the respective video sequence. In this way the tactical
pattern, which was read out by a computer, could be compared to the
patterns which were found manually by a match analyst. As you can see from
Table 1.1, congruities greater than 80 per cent can be recognized. Considering
that if two or three match analysts and their results were compared to each
other, there would also be congruity rates of this level, one can assume good
accuracy.

TABLE 1.1 Congruity rates between human and machine regarding detection of
tactical patterns in football matches (Grunz, Memert, & Perl, 2012)

Category Number of cases of Congruity with Detection rate

conventional match net-based match
analysis analysis

Game openings 131 110 91 %

Throw-ins 27 27 100 %
Free kicks 16 14 92 %
Corners 12 12 100 %
8 Where is the revolution?

The study consisted of 50 matches taken from the 2014–2015 season. The
matches were analyzed and over 11,000 performance values were automatically
generated and subsequently evaluated in terms of various exploratory hypotheses.
The core of the analysis formed the in-house-developed analysis tool SOCCER
(© Perl, 2011), which combines conventional data analysis, dynamic state-event-
modeling, and artificial neuronal networks. The latter is the offspring of modern
neurosciences and has also turned out to be highly beneficial in data analysis and
machine learning.
The SOCCER package has been developed in the context of four projects,
which were funded by the German Research Foundation (PE 445/7–1, ME
2678/3–1, ME 2678/3–2, ME 2678/3–3), and of two projects of the Federal
Institute for Sport Science (VF 0407/06/12/2001–2002, VF 07/06/04/2005–2006),
since 2001. The projects proceeded through cooperation between the Institute for
Computer Science of the University of Mainz (Prof. Jürgen Perl) and the Institute
of Sports and Sports Sciences of the Heidelberg University (Dr. Daniel Memmert),
and have been continued at the German Sport University in Cologne (Dr. Daniel
Memmert) since 2011 (see also the publications at www.dshs-koeln.de/en/institut-
fuer-trainingswissenschaft-und-sportinformatik/).
On the basis of numerous examples from the Bundesliga and other leagues in
European top-class sport, we want to give you a detailed insight on how different
tactical aspects can be modeled, and how individual matches or even entire seasons
can be analyzed by a single mouse-click and subsequently interpreted. The results
should not only provide an exciting glance behind the scenes of professional
football, but also question one’s beliefs and convictions concerning football tactics
at the highest level in sports and initiate new ways of thinking.

INTERVIEW WITH THE HEAD SCOUT OF THE

GERMAN MEN’S NATIONAL FOOTBALL TEAM,
URS SIEGENTHALER

In a similar vein to the men’s hockey national coach Valentin Altenburg, the
head scout of the Germany national football team, Urs Siegenthaler, likewise
judges the situation of match analysis. With FC Basel, Siegenthaler won the
national championship five times and the cup twice. He ended his career after
seasons at Neuchâtel Xamax and Young Boys Bern at FC Basel. In 1978, he
completed his coaching certificate at the German Sport University Cologne,
and from 1987 to 1990 he was head coach of FC Basel then assistant coach
of the Swiss National Team. Since 2005, Urs Siegenthaler has been chief scout
for the German national team. In the following interview, he talks about a
new vision that he connects to scouting and match analysis: ideas that can
be approached on the basis of positional data in the near or remote future,
or even solved and implemented.
 Where is the revolution? 9

Dear Mr. Siegenthaler, how exactly do you prepare for tournaments?

In the months before a big tournament, I always try to experience the develop-
ment of different sports in order to get a different, possibly new picture on
the development of sports. Development is an observation, linked to per-
ception. This gets me motivated to check and question my own past theses
and work.

How do you look upon your task as a scout?

How often did I ask myself in the past: What am I doing here? Put my foot
in it with my interrogation “what do I mean by this is a good one?” Especially
the last tournaments, UEFA EC, FIFA WC and the XXXIth Olympics should be
a hint for us that the other nations are not sleeping!

How exactly can scouting be understood? In play, doesn’t a lot happen

just by chance or by something different?

What got my attention in the recent past? Is it just teams or players, who
couldn’t perform? Did the football god turn against these ‘losers’? Or was
there a change, a development in sports in general and especially in the sport
of football after all? If the answer is yes, what and how did the sport, the
players, the observation of a match, a perceived development change? Should
we still link the match observation to the aspect that we watch and evaluate
matches in a well-tried form?

So, should we understand something different by match observation?

Yes. My intuition tells me that the term is outdated and that match observation
by itself is outworn. Wouldn’t “trend observer” be a better expression and
“further research” another, maybe even better, description for my work for
the DFB?

Plenty of questions, but what exactly do we know about it currently?

The sport of football has changed at the level of the Top 100 and this to the
disadvantage of the supposedly better ones! However, there was one simple,
small change.

Why is this to the disadvantage of the supposedly better one?

The stronger one is forced to face defensive superiority! Everyone, teams and
players, have leveled out at this general standard – good technique, good
tactical guidelines, stamina and willingness to run, good coordinative skills
and, ultimately, a good personal attitude and a commitment to the task
respectively!
10 Where is the revolution?

And referring to the training: Are the changes here as well just very
moderate?

Yes, also the training business has just changed moderately and has barely
adapted. We are still exercising intensity, procedures, consistency concerning
passing, paths and so on. Football is played as ever, no matter how this game
is interpreted. Nevertheless, we are struggling with this simple change.

Which changes do you mean?

My impatience, my obstinacy searches for something to adhere to. I feel

something, but I can’t put it into words yet! Does it perceive something,
followed by the decision, followed by the implementation? In the end, my
actions during the match are bound to these three factors and steps.
On closer inspection, they are responsible for good or bad, for successful
or less successful play. And returning to the mentioned question concerning
the modification of training, here is the definite announcement: This is to be
exercised in the youth sector.

Back to match observation or, better, to the theme of observation once

again. What exactly do we perceive and what do we ascertain in the end?

Against Team B, Team A experienced this, what we are experiencing against

every opponent at the moment: One Team (B) just tries to maintain the result
and to prevent a goal against them with all their might, the other team (A),
which feels called upon as the fancied team because of their situation, for
example as the home team, higher rated in the table, because of the history,
and so on, struggles with creating the game. Any deficiencies of the idea, the
“Why” and subsequently the “How,” are revealed relentlessly while playing
with the ball and frequently, it is just negligence of the opponent, thus
sensible errors of Team B, which let chances arise.

If the same team (A) has to compete against us now, it is situated in front of
its own goal area with ten players and grows beyond itself at every counter.
It is an easy game for them against us because it needs neither an idea of
creating the game—the “Why” and “How”—nor does it put its back into the
game and is nevertheless able to win everything with one action! We should
be aware of this if we look at these matches and if we want to gain knowledge
for the clash with us. We will find this, which is expecting us, Team Germany,
just very partly in these matches—but much more likely in the underdog (B)
than in the supposed favorite (A)!

This sounds logical. What should Team A, the ‘good one,’ take into
account in this case?

We’ve come full circle. Just the “good one” can find a solution. The less
“good one” only joins in! Another fact is that the sport of football has changed
 Where is the revolution? 11

to the effect that at the level Germany joins the ranks, the “good one”
doesn’t only mark himself off from the “less good one,” but that just the
“good one” is able to give the game deciding stimuli. Only if we perceive
these solutions in the trend observation, we can draw conclusions from this
which type of player, which array and tactical alignment is suitable for the
solution!

Is it a problem then that the game strategy of good teams will become
transparent?

Of course, the game of former top teams has become so transparent that
deficiencies—not having acknowledged or accepted the development—can
be compensated not only with more force, more stamina and more technique.
Keywords such as speed and efficiency mixed with lots of creativity: this is the
recipe to success, the general response! But how does one acquire these
skills?

For me this seems to be too simple and too easy! And then I recall Franz
Beckenbauer’s words: ‘go out there, play football and score goals! (“geht’s
raus und spielts Fußball und schießt Tore!”) We need to ask ourselves: What
do I perceive? Which decisions do we make? And we need to know that
everybody perceives and makes decisions, but everybody follows a different
realization. Not all of them can be followed at the same time!

Do you have an example for us?

The best example for me at hand is Team Brazil! If there hadn’t been any
changes in football, then Brazil would still be the measure of all things in
football. For there are hardly better and technically more talented football
players than Brazilians. When we perceive these changes during game
observation, then we can draw conclusions from this, see solutions and we
know how to train this change. How should coaching be handled? When we
see solutions, we can express these by knowing—not only intuitively—which
player is suitable for this solution. Aspects, which have been forgotten during
the development of football.

How can these perspectives be summarized?

This is how I pose the question and regarding Team Brazil not since yesterday:
why does Team Brazil have so many difficulties keeping up? Why do the
U-Teams everywhere else wake up from a bad dream? The aim everywhere
is set high and stated with belief and certainty. Indeed, but why? Is the
answer “we’ve had a bad day” sufficient? The game, the interpretation and
own actions adds to the perception of changes, speaking about solutions
preemptively and wanting and being able to train them—keyword coaching.
12 Where is the revolution?

It is not the absolute stars, which possess these abilities, or have acquired
them during their career. There are two, three, four players that are a good
example for an appropriate game understanding: Diego Godín, central
defender of Atlético Madrid. During game initiation from defense to offense
he has a very good choice of position. He recognizes the area in which one
has to stand and be free and initiator for offense.

Or Busquets from FC Barcelona, who can read, recognize, and sense his own
team’s game and the opponent’s game very well as a defensive midfielder
and who is thus almost always at the right place. Michael Bradley of Team
USA, who has an excellent and very diverse repertoire of actions. He invests
a lot of running time in his game, is game designer and completes the
actions, as he also goes into the box. Miro Klose, a center forward, who thinks
and collaborates! He always knew where his opponent was standing or not.
He had a feel for where his opponent was looking for a solution and where
he did not find any!

How could we understand and accept the huge change in football? The
change—paradigm shift—in the realization. Change in efficiency. How
can investors, fans and spectators watch and at the same time compre-
hend this sport?

I will return to the origin of the game with this question. The game with the
ball and the foot on an amateur football field. The center of this sport is about
having joy in the game, scoring goals, as many and as often as possible. This
is the basic idea and the tactics. However, these simple key points are so
extremely difficult to transfer to successful actions on the field and to train
them.

References
Biermann, C. (2015). THEMEN: Spielanalyse, Taktik. 11 Freunde, 160.
Grunz, A., Memmert, D. & Perl, J. (2012). Tactical pattern recognition in soccer games
by means of special self-organizing maps. Human Movement Science, 31, 334–43.
Memmert, D., Raabe, D., Knyazev, A., Franzen, A., Zekas, L., Rein, R., . . . Weber, H.
(2016a). Big Data im Profi-Fußball. Analyse von Positionsdaten der Fußball-Bundesliga
mit neuen innovativen Key Performance Indikatoren. Leistungssport, 1–13.
Memmert, D., Raabe, D., Knyazev, A., Franzen, A., Zekas, L., Rein, R., . . . Weber, H.
(2016b). Innovative Leistungsindikatoren im Profifußball auf Basis von Positionsdaten.
Impulse, 2, 14–21.
Memmert, D. & Rein, R. (2018, in press). Match analysis, Big Data and tactics: current
trends in elite soccer. German Journal of Sport Medicine.
2
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
ON POSITIONAL DATA

Football tactics: as old as the game itself

Anyone who loves football or has even played him-/herself knows how simple
the game is. Two teams of eleven players each, one ball and the common goal to
score more goals than the opponent. This simplicity is one of the main reasons
why the sport enjoys such a great popularity all over the world. And although the
rules of the game can be explained in three lines—perhaps even for that reason—
it spreads an unrivalled fascination. We don’t only like to play. We also love to
watch others while they play, we talk shop about the philosophy of the game and
enjoy its unique aesthetics that arises when 22 players chase the ball. It is not
without reason that since the birth of “the beautiful game” people are discussing
the question of what attractive football is supposed to look like.
Anyone who has also started to think about football will have discovered—in
addition to its beauty—an incredible complexity. A complexity characterised by
movement patterns, match plans and playing philosophies, but also of creativity
(Memmert, 2011, 2015). Nowadays, we are able to understand the mechanisms
of the game with a previously unknown depth. This is possible due to newest
technical developments, as well as a wealth of experience collected over the last
decades. A century-long history precedes the dissemination of automated match
analysis—the most modern form of performance diagnostics and central issue of
this book. This history was shaped by pioneers of sports science, weird inventions,
and technical revolutions.
A glimpse into the history books shows that thinking about football is almost
as old as the game itself. From early on, coaches and observers were concerned
with the question of how to play the game to be successful. What we now
understand by football tactics goes all the way back to the beginning of the sport,
as the sports book author Jonathan Wilson notes. In his excellent book, Inverting
the Pyramid: The History of Football Tactics, he describes in a highly entertaining
14 Historical perspective on positional data

manner combined with a lot of ingenuity the tactical development from the “mob
game of medieval Britain” to the world’s most successful coaches today (Wilson,
2008).
On November 30, 1872, the first international football match took place. The
national teams of England and Scotland faced each other, whereby the latter was
represented by the team of FC Queen’s Park, as the Scottish Football Association
would not be founded until the following year. The match at Hamilton Crescent,
now a cricket ground in Glasgow, Scotland, ended with a goalless draw. Back then

FIGURE 2.1A, B AND C Inernational match England vs. Scotland (30 November, 1872).
Source: Historia del Fútbol by William Ralston (1848–1911), published 1872.
 Historical perspective on positional data 15

FIGURE 2.1A, B AND C Continued

Source: Historia del Fútbol by William Ralston (1848–1911), published 1872.
16 Historical perspective on positional data

the players already played roughly in what we today call a formation, which
Wilson describes as a 1–2–7 on the English and 2–2–6 on the Scottish side.
Up to today’s popular systems, which seem to be much more balanced in
regard to the player’s positions, tactics in football experienced a multitude of
innovations. Concerning playing systems, which constantly adapted to current
developments, strikers gradually moved back to the midfield and finally into the
defense. This can be explained by changes in the rules as well as in the increasing
professionalization and acceleration of the game.

Notepads and measuring instruments

Along with football tactics, the desire to make a player’s performance tangible
matured over the years. In analogy to the tactical ideas of legendary coaches like
Herbert Chapman, the first approaches of what we today call the concept of match
analysis emerged. In the absence of technical tools, at a time when the first
commercial computers hadn’t even been developed, old-fashioned tools were
state-of-the-art: pen and paper. From the first incomprehensible scribbles of move-
ments and passing combinations, so-called manual notation systems emerged—
you can think of it as a kind of guide for the structured documentation of match
games with set symbols and an elaborate grammar.
However, the beginnings of these hand notation systems are not to be found
in football, but in baseball—the sport which is responsible for many other

FIGURE 2.2 The American Hugh Fullerton, first game analyst in baseball
Source: The A. G. Spalding Baseball Collection
 Historical perspective on positional data 17

FIGURE 2.3 The American Lloyd Messersmith in 1930.

Source: DePauw University Archives and Special Collections

revolutions in match analysis, as we will find out later. Already in 1912, the
American Hugh Fullerton published a twelve-page essay in the American Magazine
in which he divided the baseball field into several zones and analyzed the success
probabilities of more than 10,000 balls hit in these zones (Fullerton, 1912).
Although science was involved in sports at various levels at that time already, the
well-known sports journalist Fullerton was the first one to write an article about
the systematic elaboration of match statistics.
Shortly after, scientists from other sports started to develop standardized systems
with which matches could be annotated. With uniform terms and predefined
schemes, they were able to break down the complex gameplay onto single moves
and also to catalog the actions of the players. The gathered information allowed
not only for evaluation, but also to compare between multiple matches.
One of the very first hand notation systems in sports was developed by
the American Lloyd Messersmith around 1930 (Lyons, 1996, cf. Figure 2.3). The
main focus of this multi-talented physical education teacher and coach was
basketball, baseball, and American football. Apart from the documentation of
match actions, Messersmith also dealt with the physical performance of athletes
during the competition. Together with his colleagues, he developed a “tracking-
apparatus,” which allowed measurement of the running distance covered by a
single player.
This self-made electrical device consisted of a miniature pitch, a needle to
record the location of the player on the field, an electric pulse counter, and a large
wooden battery box. It had to be operated by two people: while one person traced
18 Historical perspective on positional data

the running distance of the player on the adjustable pad, the second person wrote
down the output of the pulse counter. Already in 1931, this fancy invention was
able to estimate how many kilometers the center in a basketball game reeled off
on average. According to Messersmith, it was around 5.5 km (all centers of one
team together), at least in college basketball between 1931 and 1941.

Twenty years ahead of his time

Some years later, football found its first match analyst as well: the Briton Charles
Reep, a passionate and controversial personality. Reep was born in 1904 in
Torpoint, a small English town in the southwestern County of Cornwall (Pollard,
2002). Already in his youth he developed an interest in football and regularly
attended the matches of neighboring club Plymouth Argyle. After qualifying as an
accountant he joined the Royal Air Force (RAF), which he left in 1955 as a
lieutenant colonel. During his time with the RAF, he met Charles Jones who was
by then captain of Arsenal (London) and coached by Herbert Chapman. In 1933,
Jones was invited to give a talk at Reep’s base. Inspired by his speeches about
Arsenal’s wing play, Reep began to deal intensively with football tactics. Whenever
he was able to spare some time from his duties at the RAF, he visited a match
between the two north London clubs, Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur, and
meticulously studied their attacking game. Subsequently, he applied his findings
and reflections to some of the RAF teams which he coached.
The start of his career as a match analyst took place in spring 1950 during a
match between Swindon Town and Bristol Rovers. Reep spontaneously pulled
out his notebook during the match and started to capture what he saw with
written symbols and notes. From this point, he was hooked on his new hobby.
By the end of the year he had developed a complete notation system, and a year
later he had begun to produce weekly match reports for Wolverhampton
Wanderers (Wolves)—as a consultant for manager Stan Cullis, under whom
Wolves became one of the dominant clubs in England in the early 1950s. Three
years later he moved on to Sheffield Wednesday, followed by further posts.
Reep’s hobby remained his profession until his death in 2002. Already in 1968
he had analyzed almost 2,500 games using his system—an impressive number of
matches and a huge dataset. He eventually published the results of his analyses,
together with Bertrand Benjamin, in the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society (Reep
& Benjamin, 1968). Among other things, he concluded that 80per cent of all goals
were scored after three or fewer passes had been made. He also calculated that half
of the goals were scored after the ball was regained in the opponent’s half, as well
as an average ratio of 10:1 between shots and goals. These numbers would remain
constant in Reep’s further publications.
Backed up by his analyses, Reep consolidated his conviction that the direct
game utilizing long passes (also called the long ball game, direct play, or route one
football) is the most promising way to play successfully. And he was not alone—
other scientists followed and confirmed his results in their work. Reep went on
 Historical perspective on positional data 19

and gained approval in non-academic circles as well. Among others, Charles

Hughes, later Director of Coaching of the British Football Association, met with
Reep in 1981 for personal instruction.
Nevertheless, the story of Charles Reep is not an immaculate tale of a data
junkie who revolutionized the sport, as it would be done by Bill James years later.
Already during his active time, Reep was not always appreciated. And also
posthumously he has been criticized again and again for his undifferentiated
approach—among others by the aforementioned Wilson. Not without good
reason, since his central doctrine of the three-pass rule came along with a decisive
shortcoming: Reep was right about the fact that most goals resulted from short
pass combinations, but he ignored the fact that in a regular football match,
sequences with fewer passes were becoming much more frequent than those with
more passes. His results consisted only of absolute frequencies and were not an
appropriate measure for effectiveness.
In fact, if one considers the success rates of passing outcomes with respect to
the frequency of their occurrence, it becomes clear that actions involving three
or fewer passes lead far less frequently to a goal major—a misinterpretation of his
findings and symbolic of the somewhat simple models which Reep developed
over the years; let alone the advantages of a playing style involving much ball
possession and long passing combinations resulting in increased fatigue levels of
the opponent, which he did not even consider.
In retrospect, it is difficult to determine whether Reep’s view of successful
football was the result of incorrect analyses or whether he tried to reinforce his
biased ideas with crude mathematics. Nevertheless, he influenced English football.
Over decades, Charles Hughes anchored Reep’s results in the curricula of the
Football Association. Thus, English football was shaped by a game of longer
passes—a fact that can still be seen today in the lower leagues; a development in
which Reep and his analyses played an important role. At the same time, he was
20 years ahead of his colleagues in the field of match analysis. He developed the
first-hand notation system specifically for football and showed an extraordinary
passion in what he did. He spent up to 80 hours evaluating the match reports
produced in the stadium. Even if his achievements in the game of football remain
controversial, his place as the first match analyst in history is undisputed.

The science of paper and pencil

Little is known about the system developed by Reep, but over the years other
systems have continually emerged and had begun to capture more and more detail
on the field. It was recognized quickly that scenes in the offensive third of the
field were crucial for goal-scoring opportunities. Furthermore, the early and late
match analysts were always curious about where on the field the actions took
place. Like pioneer Hugh Fullerton, analysts started to divide the field into zones
and developed fine grid fields to locate events of note. Even today, these so-called
grid field analyses, better known as heat maps, are a popular tool to visualize the
20 Historical perspective on positional data

locations of players. The meaningfulness of these pretty graphics may be discussed,

but it shows the need for and the importance of not only capturing results quan-
titatively, but also conveying the information to the viewer in an appealing
manner.
Yet, the Scottish scientist A. H. Ali carried this to extremes. He had also
developed a hand notation system with which he specifically wanted to examine
the attacking behavior of a team in the top Scottish league (Ali, 1986). Armed
with paper and pencil, he watched 18 games from the main stand in the late 1980s
and documented every single attack. He sketched his diagrams on prepared
drawings of the pitch that he had overlayed with a grid. After the games he labeled
every play with X and Y coordinates—a kind of analog predecessor of the
positional data as we know them today. His results, however, lagged behind the
complexity of his methods: For the team he was investigating, Ali concluded that
attacks down the wings were the most effective while long passes mostly ended
up as offside.

Moving into the digital era

Although hand notation systems were the gold standard over decades and their
extensive use established the first knowledge base in football, they had two distinct
deficiencies: not only were the systems difficult to learn for novices and a certain
period of familiarization was needed, but the process of recording was also
enormously time consuming. Per game, several hours had to be spent recording
and archiving all actions (Pollard, Reep, & Hartley, 1988). This would drastically
change over the course of the 1990s due to increasingly available technical tools.
In this decade, game analysis became almost completely digitalized (Reilly,
2003). Although many scouts and observers still worked with handwritten notes
at the beginning of the new millennium—and they still do today—almost everyone
enters these into the computer or feeds the information into a database at the end
of the day. Especially the recording of match data has only become digital since
the beginning of the 21st century.
First, data entry into the computer was revolutionized, which greatly accelerated
the collection of match information. Already in 1987 the scientists Church and
Hughes developed so-called Concept Keyboards (Church & Hughes, 1987) (at
the same time a similar technology with the name Playpad became popular in
Canada), a special keyboard which had specific keys for game actions such as passes
and saves by the goalkeeper. A rapid acceleration compared to the tedious insertion
of observed actions.
Data entry was even faster with so-called speech recognition systems, which
came on the market a few years later and made keyboards redundant. What was
seen on the field was spoken in a predefined code into a microphone while at the
same time the location of the action was marked on a virtual field on the screen.
Also, the integration of stationary video sources became technically feasible
(e.g., Franks & Nagelkerke, 1988). In Germany, Winkler was the first to try to
 Historical perspective on positional data 21

Foul G.S. G.C.

Tackling 1 G.C G.T.

Run 2

Clear 3

Pass 4

Lost position 5

Throw-in 6

Free kick 7

Corner 8

Pen 9

Shot 10

Shot high 11

Shot far 12

Shot back 13

Shot
deflected End of
GOAL
possession
Shot held

FIGURE 2.4 The so-called “Concept Keyboard” for data input in notation analysis in
football.
Source: Re-sketched by Hughes et al. (1988)
22 Historical perspective on positional data

make the whole game visible on the video screen by using two cameras (Winkler,
1989). This is the only possible way to adequately assess the quality of long passes
as well as the interaction between attacking and defensive players. Nowadays,
video sources that cover the entire pitch are available for almost all top leagues.
In the following years, analysts started to encode information with time stamps
and linked these to the match videos so that mouse-clicks sufficed to access scenes
based on match information or filters. Due to increasingly powerful processors,
video analysis was finally transferred from the VHS recorder to the computer.
With the help of software packages for behavioral analysis, analysts were now able
to tag video sequences, assigning keywords to each game scene in order to organize
them more accurately. To date, video analysis is a crucial part of the everyday
work of every match analyst, and is now widespread. Apart from the top leagues,
even youth team matches are now being recorded on video by service providers—
for example all matches of the under-17 and under-19 Bundesliga teams in
Germany.
Video analysis was also used systematically in Germany in the 2001–2002
season for match post-processing by the Institute for Sports and Sports Science of
the University of Heidelberg, under the direction of the main author in the
context of a cooperation with TSG Hoffenheim (Memmert, 2006, 2014). At that
time, the club still played in the Regionalliga Süd (4th tier in German football). In
cooperation with Flick/Schön (TSG Hoffenheim), arrangements were made
regarding analyses of the home matches of the respective clubs. Prior to that
season, tags were predefined to select relevant game scenes.

FIGURE 2.5 Hansi Flick and Alfred Schön; game analysis with dictation machine in
Hoffenheim, 2001
 Historical perspective on positional data 23

FIGURE 2.6 Game analysis software PosiCap, distributed by the company Master-
Coach

During home matches, the respective assistant coach’s job was to mark crucial
and important scenes with tags online. For this purpose, they recorded the
respective abbreviations positive/offensive, positive/defensive, negative/offensive,
and negative/defensive onto a dictation machine. The coach’s four possible
distributions—a 4-field scheme—defined match actions, wherein the home team
was always the focus of interest.
With the referee blowing the starting whistle (synchronization mark), the team
from the Sport Institute simultaneously recorded the games on video in their own
stadium. The trainers finally received video sections of approximately 10 minutes
each, showing important selected match scenes of the latest home fixture.
When Ralf Rangnick subsequently became manager of 1899 Hoffenheim, all
of the Regionalliga (!) teams were extensively recorded on video for pre-match
preparation and subsequently evaluated with the analysis program PosiCap,
distributed by the company Master-Coach. Nowadays, there are numerous
providers worldwide offering match analyses for team and racket sports.
The origin of video analysis can thereby also be linked to a North American.
The Canadian Roger Paul Neilson, born 1934 in Toronto, was probably the first
manager to introduce systematic video analyses to professional sports. He dedi-
cated himself to ice hockey, and in his long career he coached numerous clubs of
the National Hockey League, including the Peterborough Petes, the Toronto
Maple Leafs, and the New York Rangers. He was known for his devotion and
affinity to innovation and thus presented videos to his players with home game
scenes long before many other teams and was therefore given the nickname
“Captain Video.” By his death in 2003, video analysis in many sports had spread
worldwide.
24 Historical perspective on positional data

INTERVIEW WITH PROFESSOR DR. LAMES,

SPORTS SCIENTIST AT TU MUNICH

Team and racket sport research is by now also an integral part of sport
science worldwide. Developments of computer systems for match analyses
or algorithmic evaluations of match data are established elements of the
academic world. We have talked to Professor Dr. Martin Lames on how
exactly research at universities has taken on board the tactical aspects of
football over the past few years.
Professor Lames finished his Ph.D. on simulative performance diagnostics
in tennis in 1989, at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz with the Ph.D.
supervisors Manfred Letzelter and Jürgen Perl. The habilitation was in 1997
at Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, followed by professorial positions at
University Rostock (1996) and Augsburg (2003). Since 2009 he has been
chair of the Institute for Training Sciences and Sport Informatics at TU Munich.

Dear Professor Lames, when was the birth of match analysis as a research
field at universities in Germany?

Even if one can speak neither of a “birth” nor of “match analysis,” one can
see the first approaches in the direction of scientific match analysis in Germany
at the DHfK in Leipzig. Its Institute of Team and Racket Sports was led by
Hugo Döbler. Stiehler published the first publications on methodologies of
systematic game observation in 1962. The work of Köhler in 1967 is another
cornerstone, with which the substantial performance diagnostic tasks of match
analysis were formulated at a very early point. Already back then he knew that
it was important to mathematically solve the complex character of match
performance with the development of a formula on calculating the perform-
ance coefficient, and thus he initiated the search for KPIs as early as 1967.

In the West, the first performance diagnostic approaches for team and racket
sports were made by Hagedorn in 1971. Conceptionally one can already find
here the complete process chain, beginning with system development up to
the transfer to training. Historically also very interesting is the project by
Andresen, Brettschneider, and Hagedorn in 1977, with which a then newly
invented PC from Nixdorf, Paderborn, was used for the registration of actions
in basketball using a barcode scanner.

And abroad?

Internationally the American “Stats” approaches in Baseball go back to the

late 19th century. According to statements from American colleagues,
the stats were taken care of by the media and the fans for a long time and
have more and more developed into a lucrative line of business. Only a short
 Historical perspective on positional data 25

while ago the training and competition control based on match analyses
came to the foreground as a genuine field of application. Today stats and
match analysis form an intensive synthesis, which grants the American high-
class sports a leading position in technology.

Worth mentioning is also the group by led Mike Hughes in Cardiff, UK, who
stood out from the Thomas Reilly School at John Moores University in Liverpool
and who focused especially on objective feedback for coaches regarding
game events. His match observation approach, Notational Analysis (see above)
was developed more or less simultaneously to that in Germany. However, till
the late 1990s neither an exchange nor any contact took place.

Which developments in the universities followed from that time until

now?

Here it is difficult to do justice to all developments, as match analysis with the

increasing technological possibilities has become a widely and internationally
renowned field of work. Absolutely noteworthy though is the TESSY working
group under Jürgen Perl, who explicitly focused on “sport informatics” starting
in the mid-1980s in Mainz. His group created sophisticated hardware develop-
ments for match analysis, such as data base and video connection, voice
input, location entries via digitalization boards, and software developments
such as expert systems, information systems, or classification with neuronal
networks. My own dissertation of 1989 on simulative performance diagnostics
and my monography on systematic game observation of 1994 are probably
just as noteworthy as the practice-oriented contributions of the Institute for
Sport Games at the German Sports University, for example by Prof. Weber.

How did scientific research react to the introduction of positional data?

The availability of positional data constituted a decisive point. At first this key
moment was experimentally realized at the turn of the millennium, then in
academic projects such as projects by Beetz and the author at TU Munich and
the University Augsburg, and finally with large resource support by commercial
providers. With this, the search phase, not yet finalized, of appropriate
evaluations and of a methodological securing of practice-oriented data
generation began.

Which were the central subjects at the national and international

symposia? Which subjects were especially discussed among the experts?

At an early stage, the ever-growing amount of data directed the focus toward
appropriate evaluation methods. The distinction between match analyses for
theoretical and practical purposes, which differ in design, sample, method,
and objective, is a landmark—see my research works with Tim McGarry from
26 Historical perspective on positional data

Canada or the DFG projects of colleagues Perl and Memmert, for example.
Ever new concepts, for instance from the theory of dynamic systems, are
applied in order to capture the nature of sports. In the practical arena, it was
recognized soon that a naive “the-more-the-better” is not applicable for the
assessment of the variables of positional analyses in football (as, for example,
running scope and intensity).

So, all that glisters is not gold?

The search for more practical indicators started here as well, which are just
able to claim reputably to depict partial aspects of the game. Therefore, they
should not be allocated the buzzwords “Key Performance Indicators,” which
come originally from economics. In the English-speaking area, a practical
impact debate can be observed, which searches for more appropriate ways of
match analysis for practical purposes, based on the determination that previous
scientific investigations have little effect on established training, whereby
qualitative methods are an issue as well.

At a bound: What are your conclusions on the present scientific develop-

ments in match analysis despite the above points of criticism?

Altogether, match analysis represents a dynamic and increasingly prosperous

field of application in sport science, considering the wide range of international
conferences and variety of the topics that are covered there.

The birth of X–Y

Like other developments, positional data, as used today, are a child of the
digitization of football. In contrast to other data sources, their development was
not only accelerated by the technological progress but was recently made possible
by it. Indeed, there were analysts, such as Ali, who still drew moves in a coordinate
system by hand (Ali, 1986). Yet, the history of development of data is an interaction
of innovations in the areas of software and hardware.
A particularly creative pilot project was carried out by scientists in the Belgian
region of Flandern in 1984 (Van Gool, Van Gerven, & Boutmans, 1988). The
researchers placed a film camera on one of the surrounding high-rise buildings at
a friendly match between the teams of the Catholic University of Leuven and the
University of Birmingham, from which they could record the entire pitch on 16
mm film. From a height of 57 meters and at five frames per second, they filmed
the entire 7–0 home win by the Belgians. Nevertheless, the recording of the
match from a bird’s eye perspective was not made in order to analyze the match
with conventional video analysis. Instead, with a little ingenuity, they subsequently
managed to extract the first positional dataset in history from their film.
 Historical perspective on positional data 27

To do so, they projected the recordings onto a X–Y coordinate system and
digitized the picture with the help of a Mutoh Drafting and Digitization Machine
CX 3000. The dataset, stored on floppy disks, served to examine the physical
performances of seven selected players. Additionally, their heart rate had been
measured during the 90 minutes at regular intervals. In summary, the Belgian
scientists were able to show at which intensity the average 10.2 kilometers
were run by the players, and correlate the results with heart rate and oxygen
absorption.
The commercial start of “Player Tracking Technologies,” as they are known
today, happened about 10 years after these somewhat improvised pioneer attempts.
The French company Amisco developed a first market-ready system in 1996,
which initially used thermal cameras to locate the athletes.
In 1998, the French national team used this system in preparation for the FIFA
World Cup in their home country (Castellano, Alvarez-Pastor, & Bradley, 2014).
The French company’s greatest rival in those days came from England. At least off
the pitch, as the company Prozone, operating from Leeds since 1995, entered the
market with a similar system. On the pitch, the picture looked a little different in
1998: while France clinched the title, England had failed in the round of 16 against
Argentina.
Amisco and Prozone merged in 2011, both companies had provided their
camera systems to most of the top European leagues over a number of years. Four
years later, in May 2015, the American data giant STATS pur-chased the tracking
provider, who had advanced as a global player and whose databanks created the
profiles of over 100,000 players and 12,000 events per year. In general, the
development has accelerated enormously especially in recent years. The list of
tracking system providers is long and changes almost monthly due to acquisitions
and merges. At the same time, the volume of produced data rises rapidly, as almost
every top club draws on this new data source even for training.
Besides classical camera tracking, which meanwhile has switched from thermal
to HD cameras, further technologies used for the acquisition of positional data
have been regularly established. These include radar-based systems or GNSS
devices, which can be worn by the players. Both methods have developed parallel
to the camera systems recent years up to market saturation.
Military research as well lent a helping hand as these technologies emerged. In
one example, tracking technologies based on radar engineering profited from the
investigation of different missile guidance systems. GNSS transponders, which
work with the help of satellites, frequently collaborate with the American satellite
system GPS. The system for location determination developed from the US
Ministry of Defense had been restricted to the non-military use until the turn of
the millennium. To avoid misuse, the signals delivered were layered by artificial
noise, but from 2000 this precaution was turned off so that there was no longer
any obstacle to its utilization in sports. A detailed description of the various
techniques is given in the following chapter.
28 Historical perspective on positional data

Screenshot taken from a scouting analysis program during a match between England
and Mexico

German English translation

Markierung hinzufügen Add marker
Start Seq. Start sequence
Videozeit Time of video
Match clock Eintrag Match clock entry
Clock nutzen Use clock
Speicherplatz für Videoaufnahme Memory capacity for video recording

FIGURE 2.7 Screenshot of the PosiCap surface

On the way to complete automation

Closely linked to and a constant catalyst of the development of modern tracking
technologies were the noticeable advancements made in the area of software
during recent years. Breakthroughs in the field of image processing were of crucial
importance, making it possible to reliably extract individual players and their
movements from several combined camera perspectives. Today, algorithms for
recognizing persons or faces in (moving) images find application in numerous
fields of technology.
In addition, complex algorithms form the basis for analyzing the collected
information. Without elaborate processing and evaluation of datasets, their value
 Historical perspective on positional data 29

for sports is close to zero. With the right models, on the other hand, it is possible
to automate computer-assisted match analysis so that complex calculations are
even available live during the match.
In the North American area the development of software solutions for analyses
was initially connected to research that was, among others, promoted by the
American Department of Defense. By 2001 American researchers tried to classify
different attacking variations in American Football taken from video recordings of
the New England Patriots (Intille & Bobick, 2001). The idea behind the study
was to automatically recognize and describe movement patterns of groups of
agents.
In general, physical aspects were initially the center of attention in the first
studies based on positional data in football; however, tactics have recently become
more and more important. To draw conclusions regarding tactical behavior from
the available information, complex algorithms are required that we will examine
more thoroughly in the second part of this book.
Yet to reach this point, a few obstacles had to be overcome. At the
beginning of scientific observation of football tactics with the help of positional
data, by the end of 2000 the availability of large datasets at universities was
scarce. Not everybody who wanted was able to gain access to the new datasets.
The coordination of theory and practice still had to be established, but necessity
is the mother of invention. Thus some scientists took the initiative and found
alternatives. While some typed player coordinates taken from video recordings
into the computer, others used virtual football simulations derived from game
consoles.
Others used data taken from robot football, of which two variations are known:
In the “real” version either human-like, so-called humanoid robots, stand opposite
each other on a miniature pitch, or rather small, moving machines take, transport
and throw the ball. The second version is fully virtual and simulated on computer:
eleven machines stand opposite to each other on a virtual field, their physical
behavior copied from the originals.
The main idea behind competitions such as the annual RoboCup is the
promotion of intelligent algorithms for multi-agent control. When watching
internet videos of the rather hectic virtual mini-players, one will at least recognize
a rudimentary similarity to the game on grass, even regarding tactics. Whether this
suffices to derive performance indicators for high-class football remains an open
question.
Nevertheless in recent years good data sources have become more accessible
for scientists. There are still smaller, technical problems with particular systems that
need to be tackled when recording positional data, but finding a solution currently
seems to be just a matter of time. In the coming years further progress regarding
accuracy and availability can be expected. Right now there is an even more
exciting question: How will the algorithmic processing of captured data progress
in the coming years? For only the intelligent utilization of data masses will reveal
the full potential of this new chapter of data analysis.
30 Historical perspective on positional data

FIGURE 2.8A AND B Examples of humanoid robots

Source: Ralf Roletschek/roletschek.at, image licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License
and the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.
 Historical perspective on positional data 31

INTERVIEW WITH GERMANY’S FIRST COMPUTER

SCIENTIST IN SPORTS, PROF. DR. JÜRGEN PERL

In our digital era, the integration of IT techniques in sports is not a pheno-

menon exclusively emerging in the realm of football analyses. Ever since the
1980s sport informatics is constantly growing as a scientific field located
the interface between sport and digital technologies and can safely be
regarded as a substantive subarea of sports science.
One of its founding fathers in Germany is Prof. Dr. em. Jürgen Perl, founder
and first president of the International Association of Computer Science in
Sport (IACSS), as well as founder of the section sport informatics of the
German Association of Sport Sciences. He developed the match analysis tool
SOCCER© among others, which is used in many case studies presented in this
book. In an interview we talked to him about his research areas, the history
of automatized game analysis, and the latest developments in the field of
positional data.

Prof. Dr. Perl, you hold a doctorate in mathematics and informatics

granted by the universities of Osnabrück and Mainz and have especially
worked in the field of sport informatics, among others with the German
Association of Sport Sciences (dvs) and the IACSS. Which research areas
are your central ones nowadays?

My central research areas are generally model formation and simulation,

medical informatics, as well as sport informatics. My emphasis lies in physio-
logic performance analysis, with the development of the product family
PerPot, and on pattern and match analysis with the help of neuronal networks
with the product family DyCoN.

You significantly participated in the development of automated game

analysis. Can you give us a brief overview of the general history of auto-
mated match analysis in Germany? When and where did this start?

Match analysis started roughly in 1980 by Hagedorn, who delivered first

approaches for the collection and analysis of match data in basketball based on
online observations. In our collaboration we developed a video-based match
analysis in basketball. In the next step I developed a video-based match analysis
system for tactical pattern optimization in badminton, after which the video
based tennis match analysis system TeSSy was developed in 1985 during
cooperation with Miethling. This system was then expanded onto the sport
games squash, volleyball, basketball, and handball, as well as the martial arts
wrestling and fencing.
32 Historical perspective on positional data

How did the development of automated game analysis continue?

Since 1990 rule-based systems (grammars) have been developed for the
description and simulation of actions and interactions in racket sports, team
sports, and martial arts. Furthermore, we presented first approaches for the
use of neuronal networks to recognize process patterns and tactical patterns.
To be then able to analyze even small, dynamically changing datasets, I
developed the dynamically learning network type DyCoN.

First productive DyCoN analyses succeeded at about 1995 in volleyball

together with Lames, as well as in handball with Pfeiffer. Miethling and I were
also able to generate TeSSY variations for behavior analysis according to
“soft” data in tennis. Based on this we were able to change the TeSSy family
to digital video data since the turn of the millennium and we were thus also
able to expand these to a complete system including automatic analysis, data
base and simulation.

Which further developments have occurred since 2000?

Together with Memmert the first approaches for behavior and process analysis
in football were developed, whereby the fundamental analysis goals were
creativity recognition and simulation. Starting 2005, the cooperation with Dr.
Memmert continued regarding the development of network based and
process oriented analysis methods for football, especially with the development
of concepts of formation patterns. Tilp and I then transferred the formation
pattern approach to handball.

What have been the latest developments since 2010?

At last, automatically generated positional data was available for football.

Furthermore I developed the analysis program SOCCER as a modular
extendable complete system for various analysis concepts, methods and
functionalities. Since last year Memmert and I are concentrating on the
analysis of complex processes and the development of process based KPIs.

When were the first activities regarding the above-mentioned automatic

positional data recognition?

These activities go back to the year 1989, in the context of the first workshop
for sport and informatics in Hochheim, as the intention declaration of the
Fraunhofer-Institute Nürnberg for tennis. First approaches for the collection
of positioning data in football by the Fraunhofer-Institute Nürnberg can be
dated after 2000, with the development of secondary radar for player
registration and a chip for ball registration.

Was the use of robot football and simulation in field studies able to
deliver important findings for positional data and match analysis?
 Historical perspective on positional data 33

In the time between 1995 till approximately 2005, robot football (RoboCup,
see above) was a central subject in the areas of game simulation and robotics.
Tournaments and specific work group activities sponsored by the computer
industry caused rapid initial success. However, they also quickly revealed
possibility limits and the actual goals of industrial use: tactical and technical
abilities of football robots are and remain minimalistic.

Was match analysis and simulation also observed in this program?

Match analysis and simulation without robots were part of the program, but
they were not supported. The orientation was rather in the development of
human like robot movements and robot interaction, with the goal of a “social”
robot. In the past five years we have come closer to this goal.

Do first advanced studies regarding the use of positional data for game
analysis in football exist today?
Yes, these have initially been documented since approximately 2005, and
since 2010 with the help of SOCCER.

References
Ali, A. H. (1986). A statistical analysis of tactical movement patterns in soccer. In T. Reilly,
A. Lees, K. Davids, & W. J. Murphy (Eds.). Science and football (pp. 302–308). London:
E. & F.N. Spon.
Castellano, J., Alvarez-Pastor, D., & Bradley, P. S. (2014). Evaluation of research using
computerised tracking systems (Amisco® and Prozone®) to analyse physical performance
in elite soccer: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 44(5), 701–712.
Church, S. & Hughes, M. (1987, April). Patterns of play in association football—a computerised
analysis. Communication to First World Congress of Science and Football, Liverpool
(pp. 13–17).
Franks, I. M. & Nagelkerke, P. (1988). The use of computer interactive video in sport
analysis. Ergonomics, 31(11), 1593–1603.
Fullerton, H. S. (1912). The inside game: The science of baseball. The American Magazine,
70, 2–13.
Hughes, M. D., Robertson, K., & Nicholson, A. (1988). Comparison of patterns of play of
successful amd unsuccessful teams in the 1986 World Cup for soccer. In T. Reilly,
A. Lees, K. Davids, & W. Murphy (Eds.). Science and football (pp. 363–367). London:
E. & F.N. Spon.
Intille, S. S. & Bobick, A. F. (2001). Recognizing planned, multiperson action. Computer
Vision and Image Understanding, 81(3), 414–445.
Lyons, K. (1996). Lloyd Messersmith. In M. Hughes (ed.) Notational Analysis of Sport—
I & II, 49–59.
Memmert, D. (2006, 2014). Optimales Taktiktraining im Leistungsfußball. Balingen: Spitta
Verlag.
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Memmert D. (2011). Sports and creativity. In M. A. Runco & S. R. Pritzker (Eds.).

Encyclopedia of creativity (pp. 373–378). San Diego: Academic Press.
Memmert, D. (2015). Teaching tactical creativity in team and racket sports: Research and practice.
Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Pollard, R. (2002). Charles Reep (1904–2002): Pioneer of notational and performance
analysis in football. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(10), 853–855.
Pollard, R., Reep, C., & Hartley, S. (1988). The quantitative comparison of playing
styles in soccer. In T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids, & W. J. Murphy (Eds.). Science and
Football (pp. 309–315). London: E. & F.N. Spon.
Reep, C. & Benjamin, B. (1968). Skill and chance in association football. Journal of the Royal
Statistical Society, Series A (General), 131(4), 581–585.
Reilly, T. (2003). Science and soccer (pp. 252–264). London: Routledge.
Van Gool, D., Van Gerven, D., & Boutmans, J. (1988). The physiological load imposed on
soccer players during real match-play. In T. Reilly, A. Lees, K. Davids, & W. J. Murphy
(Eds.). Science and Football (pp. 51–59). London: E. & F.N. Spon.
Wilson, J. (2008). Inverting the Pyramid: A History of Football Tactics. Orion.
Winkler, W. (1989). Neue Wege in der Taktikschulung. Fußballtraining,7(4), 46–50.
3
TECHNOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

The “Big Three” of player tracking technologies

Looking at the entire trajectory of a midfield player in the first half of an ordinary
top-league match, as seen in Figure 3.1, it appears as an inscrutable mesh. From
these raw data the match analysts will eventually draw their conclusions, but until
then, a lot will happen with the data. The initial clump of movement does not
appear very meaningful at first sight. One can roughly determine where on the
pitch the player was operating, but nothing can be said about which role s/he took
while doing so.

FIGURE 3.1 A midfielder’s total running paths in the first half (45 minutes) of a
regular Bundesliga match
36 Technological background

FIGURE 3.2 Argentine international Lionel Messi, possibly the world’s best player,
surrounded by Chile’s Alexis Sanchez, Gary Medel, Arturo Vidal, and
Charles Aranguiz (2016)
Source: Don Emmert/AFP/Getty Images

Yet, before any analysis of those trajectories can be done, the question remains
of how these raw data are acquired. If one of the world’s best dribblers, such as
Lionel Messi, starts another breathtaking solo, the path he takes appears inch-
perfect on the analyst’s laptop within seconds. To do so, the most advanced tech-
nical devices are used in combination with state-of-the-art methods of computer
vision and image processing. Most of the technologies used today to track Messi’s
runs work on such a high level that they do not miss any turn or directional
change. While not many defenders can stop him, even Messi himself is not fast
enough for the computer.
The theory behind modern tracking technologies is enormous and could fill an
entire book by itself. Therefore, we will just provide a rough introduction to the
three major technologies that are being used before returning to the core intention
of this book: What happens with the data.
To this end we spoke with Prof. Dr. Arnold Baca, who is an expert in the field
of positional data analysis. He studied computer science at the Vienna University
of Technology and obtained his Ph.D. in Technical Sciences in 1986. In 1997, he
habilitated at the University of Vienna. In 2008, he was assigned as University
Professor for Kinesiology with a focus on biomechanics and computer science in
sports. He then became head of the Institute of Biomechanics/Movement Sciences
and Computer Sciences in Sport at the Department of Sport Science. The former
 Technological background 37

president of the International Association of Computer Science in Sport knows the

development of different systems for the acquisition of the players’ positions from
its infancy. His research foci are in the field of ubiquitous computing in sports, in
game and competition analysis, as well as in biomechanical movement analysis.
“In the beginning people relied on notational systems and the player’s positions
were recorded manually. The disadvantage was that this procedure was way too
time-consuming,” he explains. One can easily imagine how long it must have
taken to plot the location of 22 players and the ball over the entire course of 90
minutes onto a 2D system.
Yet, a lot has changed since then. Various companies have positioned themselves
on the market and have continuously developed improved systems to track athletes.
According to Baca, the functionality of those systems can be grouped into three
categories: “Currently, there are three different systems available: The ones based
on GPS signals, the video-based systems that rely on image processing technologies,
and finally systems based on radar and microwave technology.” All three come
with different advantages, but all of them also suffer from drawbacks.

GPS-based systems
The first-mentioned system, based on satellite navigation systems like GPS, which
was developed by the US military, can be seen at the training grounds of almost

FIGURE 3.3 Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang and Sokratis of Borussia Dortmund wearing

GPS-transponder chest belts during a summer training camp (2017)
Source: Alexandre Simoes/Borussia Dortmund/Getty Images
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Penrine, by Leland, iv. 271
Penrith, ii. 76
Penros, account of, iii. 429
Penrose, i. 132, 346, 386―iv. 97
―― ii. 157. Rev. John, his character 104. Martha 30, 32.
Captain Thomas, his history 25. Journal 26, 27, 28, presented
with a medal by the King of Sweden 27. His scuffle with
Cornish seamen 29. Trial, conviction, pardon, death, and issue
30.―John and Richard, iii. 324. William 324 bis. Mr.
112.―Admiral C. V. iv. 158. Notice of 158, 159
―― of Lefeock, Martha and Thomas, iii. 186
―― of Nance in St. Martin’s in Kerrier, iii. 188
―― of Penrose, Edward, and Richard, iii. 444. Miss 9 bis, 444,
445. Mr. 442, 443. His house and hospitality 443. Family 443,
445. Arms 443
―― of Tregethes, i. 364
―― manor, iii. 445. Account of 443. Possessors 445
Penryn, meaning of, iii. 327
―― borough, account of, ii. 94. Corporation 8, 9. Members for,
F. Basset 243. Sir William Lemon 229. Richard Penwarne 75
―― hundred, ii. 51, 92
―― manor, i. 231―iii. 2 bis, 226.―Bishop of Exeter, Lord of, ii.
51
―― parish, i. 138, 242, 379
―― river, iii. 231
―― town, ii. 2, 17, 69, 96, 100, 113, 140, 215―iii. 62,
64.―Ships obliged to go up to, ii. 9. United with Falmouth
99.―Road from Helston to, iii. 63
Penryn Penwid, iii. 431
Pensandes, by Leland, iv. 265
Pensants, by Leland, iv. 286
Pensiquillis, account of, i. 420
Penstruan, account of, i. 421
Pentavale Fenton, iii. 394. Its etymology 395
Pentavall, ii. 1
Penter’s cross village, iii. 346
Pentewan, account of by Hals, i. 41
―― manor, iii. 190
―― quarry, iv. 104.―By Editor, i. 50. Streamworks 51
―― stone, iv. 104
Pentillie, account of, iii. 163. Fine house built there 166
―― castle, account of, iii. 346. Church aisle belonging to 346
Pentilly, i. 316. Account of 314
Pentine, Avice and Richard, ii. 398
Pentire of Pentire family and heiress, iii. 193
―― of Pentire in Minvor and of Pentewan in Mevagissey, Jane,
iii. 314 bis. Philip and family 314
―― of Petuan, i. 384
―― point, i. 381―iii. 240, 281. Its latitude and longitude 281
Pentnar, i. 419
Pentowen, by Leland, iv. 275
Pentuan, i. 49
―― manor, possessors of, iii. 193
Pentwan, account of, by Tonkin, i. 47
―― Lower, described, i. 47
Pentybers Rok, iv. 238
Penuans, i. 234
Penularick, Miss, iii. 60
Penvose head, iv. 94
Penwarne, i. 236
―― in Mawnan, i. 46―iii. 74 bis. Account of 75, 76. Sold 77
―― in Mevagissey manor, iii. 192. Its possessors 191, 193
―― i. 255.―Richard, ii. 9. He procured copies of the letters of
Sir Nicholas Hals 10.―Richard, iii. 324, 325
―― of Penwarne in Mawnan, John bis iii. 77. Peter 76. His
death 77. Richard 75, 325. Robert, bis, 75. Robert and
Thomas 77. Family 75, 193. Arms 75, 77
―― of Penwarne in Mevagissey, Vivian, iii. 193. The heir, and
family 191
Penwerris, i. 137
Penwinnick manor, iii. 382
Penwith hundred, i. 160, 228, 261, 344―ii. 118 bis, 141, 145,
146, 169, 214, 234, 257, 269, 272, 282, 358―iii. 5, 30, 46,
78, 140, 242, 283, 306, 339, 380, 381, 425 bis, 428―iv. 52,
53 bis, 164 bis, 377.―Stone circles in, i. 141
Penwortha manor, iii. 314, 315. Account of 314
―― village, iii. 314 bis
Penwyne, account of, iii. 66
Penycuick, near Edinburgh, ii. 20
Penydarran on the Taff, ii. 20
Penzance, name explained, iv. 316
―― borough, corporation of, iii. 90
―― manor, iii. 91
―― market, iii. 385
―― town, i. 149―ii. 82, 120, 124 bis, 174, 214, 215 bis, 216,
266, 287, 352―iii. 34, 55, 78, 275, 286, 287, 290, 342,
375―iv. 166.―Account of, iii. 81, 83, 91.―London
newspapers at and post to, i. 59.―Burnt, rebuilt,
incorporated, its jurisdiction, a coinage town, its market, fairs,
it favoured the royalists, and was sacked by the parliament
army, iii. 81. Custom house, arms, and form of writ 82. Dr.
Borlase educated at 51.―Exceeds Truro in beauty and in
trade, iv. 85. Mr. Thompson died at 109
Peran Arwothan, ii. 92
―― Uthno, ii. 169
―― well, ii. 2, 129
Peransabulo, i. 289
Peransand, i. 198―ii. 93, 173, 315, 317
―― church, iii. 176
Peranwell parish, iv. 1
Perceval, Mrs. i. 163, 400
Percivall, John, married Thomasine Bonaventure, lord mayor,
and knighted, his death, iv. 134
Perer, Richard, ii. 209
Pereth, ii. 76
Perin in Cornwall, news from, ii. 100
Perkin, Mr. iii. 87 bis
―― Warbeck took sanctuary at Beaulieu abbey, ii. 329
Pernall, John, iv. 77
Perr river, i. 44, 45
Perran cove, iii. 309
―― St. ii. 113―iii. 304, 309.―Visits St. Keverne, ii. 324.―His
estimation, the supposed discoverer of tin, iii. 330. His history
331, 332. His miracles 313. His great age, his shrine and
banner 332. His day 311
――’s St. chapel or oratory, account of, iii. 329
――’s St. college in Keverne, iii. 332
―― Arworthall church, iii. 304
Perran Arworthall parish, or St. Piran Arworthall, in Kerrier.
Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin and Whitaker, manor of Arworthall,
iii. 302. Quantities of tin upon it, chalybeate spring, Renaudin
family 303. By the Editor, saint, church, Perran Well village,
change of road, smelting-house, extensive use of arsenic, its
sublimation from ores 304. Ironworks of Messrs. Fox,
beautiful valley, impropriation, advowson, statistics 305.
Geology by Dr. Boase 306
―― Arworthall, St. parish, iii. 224. In Kerrier 328
―― Arworthall village, iii. 303
―― Uthno manor, iii. 311
Perran Uthno parish, or Little Perran. Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin,
situation, boundaries, a rectory, value, patron, incumbent, iii.
306. Manor of Uthno 307. By Editor, church, its situation,
memorial to Mr. Davies, the oath of deans rural ibid. Oracular
well, emptied by a mine, good farmhouses, Goldsithney
village, its chapel 308. Image of St. Perran or St. James, fair,
transferred here from Sithney, displaying of a glove at fairs,
destruction of the Lionesse country, and cove where Trevelyan
was borne on shore 309. High tide in 1099, noticed by Stow,
the Godwyn sands, Editor’s opinion of the tale, attempt to
restore the land by incantation 310. Acton castle, Cudden
point, view from it, children go there to seek a silver table,
 manor of Uthno, and of Lan Uthno, in St. Erth, feast, statistics
311. Population increased in consequence of mining and
agriculture, Chapel an Crouse, bowling green, rector, Geology
by Dr. Boase 312
Perran well, or St. Perran’s well, iii. 303, 304. Curious account of
308. Its virtues 329
―― well village, situation, iii. 304
―― Zabuloe parish, iii. 304, 386
Perran Zabuloe, Peransand, or Perran in the Sands. Hals’s MS. lost.
By Tonkin and Whitaker, situation and boundaries, iii. 312.
Ridiculous legend of St. Perran, his great age, patron of the
tinners, tales told of him, fair, value of the benefice, patron,
impropriation, incumbent, manor of Penhall and Halwyn, of
Tywarnhaile, and of Tywarnhaile Tiers 313. Tywarnhaile
house, Chapel Angarder, Penwortha manor, tin and lead upon
it, Lambourne Wigan 314. Its history 315. Manor of
Lambourn, its history 316. Creeg Mear, urns in it, conjectures
respecting it 319. Castle Kaerkief, Whitaker’s opinion of it 320.
Callestock Veor village, other entrenchments of no importance
321. Other two, Tresawsen, or Bosawson, the three barrows
and four barrows, chapel in Callestock, Fenton Berram, manor
of Fenton Gymps 322. Marghessen-foos village, practice of
maids coming to market to offer themselves for hire,
etymology of Marghessen-foos 323. Roman roads, Fenton
Gymps family 324. Chywarton, Callestock-Ruol 325.
Trevellance or Pencaranowe manor, its history, Reenwartha
326. Reen Wollas, Melingybridge 327. Manor of St. Piran,
some tin on it, account of Piran round 328. By Editor,
etymology ibid. Description of Piran round, the Guary Mir, “the
Creation of the World,” and “Mount Calvary,” published by the
Editor, St. Piran’s well supposed to cure diseases,
encroachments of the sand, discovery and description of a
chapel supposed to be St. Perran’s oratory 329. Defaced for
relics, St. Perran esteemed the patron of all Cornwall, his day
celebrated with great hilarity, a Perraner, St. Chiwidden, Dr.
Butler’s Lives of the Saints 330. His history of St. Perran or St.
 Kiaran, went to Rome, was of the clan Osraig, died in
Cornwall 331. Probably an active missionary, his banner the
standard of Cornwall, his shrine, impropriation of tithes,
incumbent 332. Chiverton, statistics, Geology by Dr. Boase
333
Perranbonse cove, ii. 360
Perraner, iii. 330
Perre, Thomas, iii. 387
Perrin, Provost of Taunton, i. 86
Perron, St. Arworthal, ii. 17
Perry, i. 236
Persia, iii. 187
Persius, iv. 87
Perthcolumb, account of, i. 364
Perthcothen, iii. 177
Perthsasnac, ii. 165
Perthtowan, ii. 250
Perwennack, i. 11
Pesaro in Italy, ii. 369, 370, 371, 373. Theodore Paleolagus of
365
Pesseme, Patrick, ii. 160
Peter, Rev. John, ii. 117
―― of Harlyn, Francis, iii. 176, 177. Gregory 175, 176 bis. John
76, 166, 176 bis. William 176 bis, 178 bis, 333. Mr. 178. Mr.
erected a pier 179. Family 177
―― of Porthcuthan, or Perthcothen. Mr. iii. 177. Family 162
―― of Treater, John, ii. 336.―In Padstow, Thomas, iii. 176 bis
―― of Trenaran in Padstow, John, iii. 176 ter. Arms 176
―― St. i. 197, 198 bis―ii. 127.―Younger brother of St. Andrew,
iv. 100
Peter’s spring, iii. 72
―― St. church, Rome, iv. 165
Peterborough, Thomas White, bishop of, one of the seven, iii.
299
Peters, i. 382. Hugh 420. Mr. 296.―Rev. Mr. ii. 218.―Rev.
Charles of St. Maben, his learning and character, iii. 67, 68.
 His biography, his ancestor a royalist 67. Dined his poor
parishioners, his controversy with Warburton, extracts from
his meditations 68. Elizabeth 72. Rev. Hugh 67, 71, 72. His
biography 72. Rev. Jonathan, of St. Clement’s, Dr. Joseph, of
Truro 68. Rev. Thomas and William 71. Biographical notice of
72
Petersfield parish, iii. 206
Petherick, Little, parish, Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin, situation and
boundaries, saint, a rectory, value, patron, incumbent, ancient
name, iii. 334. By the Editor, present patron, church, and
church town, Tregonnen village, St. Ida’s chapel ibid. Account
of St. Ida, her husband a favourite of Charlemagne, another
chapel on Trevelian farm, former name of the parish,
statistics, rector, Geology by Dr. Boase 335
Petherick, Little, parish, iii. 277
Petherwin, North, i. 377
Petherwin, or Pederwin, South, parish, Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin
and Whitaker, situation, boundaries, iii. 335. St. Peternus,
three days dedicated to him, value of benefice, impropriation
336. By the Editor, church, its monuments and situation ib.
Annual fairs, Trecroogo, Tregallen and Trethevy villages,
Trebersey, Mr. Gedy an ancestor of the Editor, Tresmarrow,
Tremeal 337. Death of Mrs. Archer, an epitaph, statistics,
incumbent, Geology by Dr. Boase 338
Petnell, St. or Petronel, iv. 153 bis
Petre, Sir John, obtained church lands, was ancestor of Lord
Petre, founded eight fellowships at Oxford, iii. 155. Sir John
293. Sir William 155. Lord Petre of Exeter, now of Essex 176
―― of Torbryan, Devon, John, iii. 155
Petroc, St. iii. 277, 278 bis. His life 227. His history, i. 95. His
body stolen 98
―― St. church, iii. 408. Bodmin 277. The Cornish see 415. This
is disputed by Mr. Whitaker 408. proved by extracts from a
register kept there in a book containing the four Gospels 408
――’s, St. monastery, iii. 309. At Padstow, destroyed by the
Danes 281
―― St. priory, Bodmin, i. 116
Petrocstow, iii. 277
Pettigrew manor, ii. 57
Petunia nyctaginiflora, iv. 182
―― Phœnicia, iv. 182
Petvin, John, iii. 313
Pevensey marsh, iii. 10
Pever, the heiress of, ii. 109
Peverell, Sir Hugh, and Sir Thomas, i. 92
―― of Hatfield, Jane, wife of Randolph, and concubine of
William the Conqueror, i. 367 ter. William her son 367
―― of park, i. 367. Richard Thomas, and arms 368
Peverell’s crosses, i. 368
Pewterers’ company send a deputy to try the Cornish tin, ii. 30
Peyron, father, i. 192
Philack, i. 344
Philip and Mary, iii. 213, 294, 325
―― King of France invaded Normandy in Richard’s absence, ii.
177
Philipps, i. 78
Philips, Jasper, iii. 339. Sir Jonathan 458. His servant 461
―― of Pendrea, Samuel and Sarah, ii. 352
―― of Poughill, ii. 300
Phillack, i. 355.―Parish, ii. 141, 145, 146 bis, 147
Phillack, parish, Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin and Whitaker,
situation boundaries, saint, a rectory, value, patron,
incumbent, iii. 339. By the Editor, church, situation of village,
danger from the sand, inundations of sand, hillocks of it ibid.
Houses buried under it, Towan, extension of trade,
improvement of the harbour, mining and smelting, Mr.
Edwards 340. Rivalship with Mr. Harvey, both improved the
harbour, bars in the mouths of all rivers, a causeway upon
arches across the entrance of the main estuary 341. Castle
Cayle, and Riviere at Theodore’s castle, Mr. Whitaker’s
invention, new house at Riviere, Trevassack 342. Modern
house on Bodrigy, Penpoll, Treglisson farm, copper works at
 Hoyle, smelting house at Angarrack, fine garden there,
advowson 343. Incumbent, present rector and patron, parish
feast and statistics, Geology by Dr. Boase, Sand hills, sand
restrained by plants 344. Sometimes consolidated into
sandstone. By Editor, copper lodes and elvan courses, Whele
Alfred 345
Philleigh parish, ii. 265
Philley parish, ii. 2, 275 bis, 279―iii. 402, 403
Phillips, Matthew, i. 360, 362.―Rev. Jasper, ii. 146. Mary 269.
Rev. William 386, 406. His monument at Lanteglos 406. Mr.
150, 386, 389
―― of Carnequidden in Gulval, Henry and Jane, ii. 241
―― of Landue, Thomas, ii. 400
―― of Pendrea, Samuel, ii. 269, 352. Sarah 352
―― of Tredrea, Elizabeth, iii. 159
―― of Botreaux castle, T. J. iii. 236 bis
―― of Camelford, Charles, John, and Jonathan, i. 380. Sir
Jonathan 134.―Rev. William 380.―Charles, ii. 399 bis.
Jonathan, Rev. William, name 399.―Sir Jonathan and T. W. iii.
235
Phillipps, Rev. William and family, i. 3.―J. T., iii. 42
―― of Camelford and Newport family, iii. 42
―― of Landue in Lezant, Mr. iii. 235
―― of Trencares, Charles and Sir Jonathan, iv. 45. Rev. William
45, bis. Story of 46. Miss, Mr. and family property 45
Philological inquiries, ii. 103
Philopatris, age of, ii. 76
Philosophical Transactions, i. 149―iii. 250, 251, 378―iv.
146.―Account of a storm in, ii. 325
Phœnician castles, ii. 423
Phœnicians, ii. 3―iii. 395―iv. 168.―Acquainted with Falmouth
harbour, ii. 19
Phœnix in her Flames, a tragedy, iv. 97
“Phraseologia, Latin and English,” iv. 87
Physalis edulis, iv. 183
Picardy, pronunciation in, ii. 127
Pider hundred, i. 9, 209, 231, 232, 289, 386, 388, 407―ii. 253,
378, 384―iii. 139, 267, 277, 312, 318, 334―iv. 137, 140, 160
bis, 162
Pidre, iv. 376.―Etymology, i. 9
Pig’s street, Penryn, iii. 62
Pilate, iii. 422
Pilchards, nature of, ii. 263. Methods of fishing for 261. Of
preserving, oil from 263. Caught by seine nets at St. Keverne
324
Pillaton, or Pillton manor, iii. 345, 346
―― parish, i. 103, 104, 316―ii. 361, 364―iii. 161, 371
Pillaton parish, Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin, situation, boundaries,
a rectory, value, patron, manor, iii. 345. By the Editor, Lysons
on Pillaton and Hardenfast manors, Pentillie castle, church
and its monuments, one to the Rev. Mr. Eliot, church, town
small, Penter’s cross village, patron 346. Statistics, rector,
Geology by Dr. Boase 347
Pinard, Arthur, ii. 423
Pinaster fir, account of, iii. 11
Pincerna, etymology of, ii. 148
―― Richard, ii. 148. Simon 145, bis, 146 bis.―Simon, iii. 139.
Heir 140 ter. Family 140
Pindar, iii. 34
―― Peter, iii. 220
Pineck parish, i. 414―ii. 142.―St. iv. 128
Pinneck, John, ii. 170
Pinnock, St. parish, iii. 13, 260
Pinnock, St. parish, Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin, situation,
boundaries, a rectory, value, patron, incumbent, iii. 347. By
the Editor, village, and manor of Trevillis, proprietors of land,
advowson, statistics, rector, Geology by Dr. Boase 348
Pinock, ii. 157
Pipe Rolls, ii. 423
Piper, Hugh, and Sir Hugh Constables of Launceston castle,
anecdote of Sir Hugh, ii. 421. His monument in Launceston
church 422.―Miss, iii. 136. Heiress and family 337
Piran bay, iii. 313
―― parish, iii. 324
―― round, iii. 328. Account of 329―iv. 78
―― Arworthall church, iv. 3
―― St. church lands, iii. 328
―― St. family, iii. 328
―― St. manor, account of, iii. 328
―― St. parish, iv. 2 ter. Mr. Reed’s smelting house in 4
―― St. in the Sands parish, iii. 267
―― St. in the Sands town, iii. 332
Piran’s, St. well, iii. 322
Piranes, St. in the Sands, by Leland, iv. 268
―― St. or Keverine, by Leland, iv. 270
Pirran in Treth parish, iii. 323
Piskies or fairies, i. 18
Pitleman, Ralph, ii. 427
Pits’ writings on Britain, ii. 62
Pits, iv. 145 bis, 148, de Illustribus Angliæ Scriptoribus 148
Pitt, Robert, i. 69. Thomas 69 bis. Thomas 1st Lord Camelford
69. His talents 71. Thomas 66, 67. His descent, enterprise in
India, return with diamond, its sale to the Regent Orleans, its
weight, his purchase of Boconnoc and the burgess tenures of
Old Sarum, election for Old Sarum 68. Thomas 2nd Lord
Camelford, his birth and christening, education, history,
character 70. Death 71. William, Earl of Chatham 69.―Family,
ii. 339, 376, 412. Thomas 353, 354, 409, 410. William 339.
Governor 353. Mr. 410. Pleased with Dr. Glynn’s invitations
154.―Thomas, iii. 450. Mr. 207. Governor 450.―Mr. iv. 44
―― of Boconnock, Thomas, ii. 405
Pitz, Rev. Mr. ii. 258―iv. 53
Pius 2nd, pope, iv. 146
Place of death, i. 9
Place or Plase, i. 28
Placentia, iii. 400
―― University, i. 311
Plague at St. Cuthbert, i. 292.―At St. Ives, ii. 271
Plain-an-Guary, iii. 384
Plantagenet, Princess Elizabeth, i. 63. Princess Katherine
64.―Humphrey 4th son of King Henry 4th, ii. 260. Margaret,
Countess of Salisbury 91. Richard Earl or Cornwall
155.―Richard, iii. 27
―― or Beaufort, Edmund, Edmund Marquis of Dorset, and
Henry, ii. 260.―Margaret, iii. 65
―― civil wars, iii. 289
―― house of, ii. 110, 249
Plantagenets, iii. 84, 246. Their times 8, 348―iv. 114
Plants of Cornwall, App. 3, iv. 180
Plase, ii. 40. Account of 43
Plassey, battle of, i. 390―iv. 11
Pleas of the crown, i. 119, 177
Plegmund, Archbishop, i. 95
Plengway village, Amphitheatre at, iii. 384
Plint, i. 316
Pliny, i. 192―ii. 408―iii. 328
Plot’s, Dr. Natural History of Oxford, iii. 323
Plowden, William, iii. 38. Mr. 37. Family 38
Pluwent or Plynt, iii. 291
Plym river, ii. 2
Plymouth breakwater, ii. 245
―― castle, i. 105―ii. 10
―― church, dedicated to St. Charles, ii. 20
―― dockyard, high water at, iii. 375
―― harbour, iii. 101, 105, 108, 164, 375, 461.―Superior to
Falmouth for large ships, ii. 18
―― limestone, iv. 123 bis.―Burnt for manure, ii. 361
―― reef or breakwater described, iii. 108. Compared with the
great Egyptian pyramid 109
―― road, ii. 396
―― sound, i. 189―ii. 45, 108 bis, 164, 375, 379, 380. French
and Spanish fleets in, ii. 245
―― town, i. 113 bis―ii. 10, 224―iii. 21, 45, 98, 109, 110, 121,
183, 189, 196, 253, 254, 283, 378, 399, 426―iv. 32, 115,
 116, 123, 187, 188 ter.―Ruthven, governor of, i. 113.―Relief
of, incompetent to sustain an attack, ii. 245. Cornish miners
marched to defend, open to attack but escaped it, Major
Trelawny, governor of 67. Engagement with Dutch fleet before
25.―Dr. Borlase educated at, iii. 51. Besieged by Charles’s
troops, Earl of Stamford, governor 184.―General Trelawny,
governor of, iv. 94. Siege of 185 ter.
Plympton, i. 170―iv. 185
―― priory, i. 27―ii. 339―iii. 139 bis. Prior of 139 bis.―Godfrey,
prior of, ii. 426
Plynt parish, ii. 409
Pochehelle, iii. 349
Poictiers, Archdeacon of, ii. 415
―― Bishop of, St. Hilary, ii. 168, 169. Died at 169
―― Earl of, Richard, ii. 422
Point, the, iii. 107, 108
Pol, St. de Leon, town, in Brittany, iii. 285
Polamonter, Nicholas, i. 234
Poland, i. 336
Polbenro, account of, iv. 36
Poldice mine, ii. 134
Pole, Sir Courtenay and Penelope, ii. 379.―Rev. Reginald, iii.
440.―De la, Edmund, Earl of Suffolk, i. 86
―― Carew, Mrs. R., iii. 229
Polglase, account of, i. 399
Polgoda, ii. 173
Polgooth mine, iii. 198. Account of 195, 197
Polgorran, account of, ii. 113
Polgover, iii. 252―iv. 3
Poljew cove, ii. 129
Polkerris harbour, iv. 109
Polkinghorne, Roger, iii. 83
Polkinhorn, iii. 387
Polkinhorne, account of, ii. 142
―― Degary, i. 257.―Mr. ii. 157. Rev. Mr. 258, 260
―― of Polkinhorne, family, heir, and arms, iii. 142
Polland, Lewis, ii. 195
Pollard, Peter, i. 216.―Christopher, iii. 358
―― of Treleigh, Hugh, John, John a tribute to, Margaret and
family, iii. 383
Polleowe, iii. 326
Pollephant, i. 308
Pollrewen tower, iv. 229
Pollyfont or Pollifont manor, iii. 38, 39. In Lewannick 233 bis
Polman, ii. 41
Polmanter downs, ii. 271
Polmear cove, iv. 166
Polpear, iii. 7
Polpera or Polperro, iv. 23, 36, 38
Polperro harbour, ii. 400
―― town, ii. 400 bis. Scenery beautiful 400, 401
Polruan, ii. 411―iv. 36.―Account of, ii. 411.―By Leland, iv. 279,
290.―Formerly a corporate borough, ii. 412
Polruddon ruins, by Norden and Lysons, i. 46
Polskatho or Porthskatho, ii. 51
Polston, bridge at, ii. 432.―Bridge, Charles 1st entered Cornwall
by, iv. 185
Poltare, account of, iii. 88
Poltesca, iii. 424
Polton manor, ii. 253
Polvellan, iii. 229. Etymology 230
Polventon, iv. 29
Polvessan, account of, iv. 133. The grounds in a fine state 35
Polvethan manor, ii. 400
Polwhele, account of, i. 205
―― castle, iv. 229
―― i. 56 bis, 58, 205, 255. Degory 19, 293. Arms 205. Motto
206.―Family, ii. 337.―Rev. Richard of Manaccan and Newlyn,
iii. 113, 271. Character of 112.―Rev. Richard came from
Truro, iv. 86. Rev. Richard communicated to the Editor some
missing portions of Hals’s MS. 184
―― of Newland, i. 105
―― of Penhellick, John and Robert, i. 207
―― of Polwhele, i. 207. Degory ibid. Drew 207 bis. John 206,
207. Richard 207. Rev. Rich., 208
―― of Treworgan, i. 396. John ibid.
――’s History of Cornwall, i. 288
Polybius, on Signals, the friend of Scipio Africanus, his general
history, iii. 106
Polychronicon, author of, iv. 93
Polyenetes, or the Martyr, a tragedy, iv. 97
Polyfunt in Trewenn, iv. 68
Polygala speciosa, iv. 183
―― myrtifolia, iv. 183
Pomeray, i. 348
―― Henry de la, ii. 180, 183. Took St. Michael’s mount 177.
Murdered a sergeant-at-arms, his stratagem for surprising
Mount St. Michael 178. Held it out, submitted, his death 180;
or Pomeroye, Henry de la, iii. 22, 78, 90
Pomeroy, Henry de, i. 295, 296. Henry 296 bis. Sir Henry 296.
Sir Hugh 214. Joel 296 bis. Josceline, Ralph de, and Sir Roger
296. Thomas 214. Arms 297.―Rev. John, ii. 279, 339. Mr.
43.―Family, iii. 90. John 260
Pomeroy of Bury Pomeroy, Devon, Sir Richard, iii. 148. Lords of
Bury Pomeroy 90
―― of Tregony Pomeroy, i. 297 bis. Henry 297
Pomery, Rev. Mr. i. 403.―Rev. Joseph, iii. 348 bis.―Mr. iv. 160
Pomier, Lord, ii. 39
Pondicherry, siege of, chief seat of French power in India, iv. 11
Ponsanmouth, iv. 3
Ponsmur, i. 256
Pontis Riale river, source of, iv. 237
Pontus, i. 388 bis
Pool mine, ii. 239
Poole, account of by Hals, iii. 168. By Tonkin 170
Pooley, Rev. Mr. ii. 34.―Rev. Henry of Newlin, iii. 271, 275
Poor Knights of Windsor, Hugh Trevanion one of, ii. 52, 54.
Governor of 55
―― rates at Helston, ii. 159
Pope of Rome, i. 139, 146―ii. 371. Urged Richard to the
crusades 177. Lodged Thomas Paleolagus, and allowed him a
pension 368. His protection of him 371.―Alexander the 4th, i.
176.―Boniface, ii. 288. Gregory 290. Gregory the Great 287.
St. Gregory 288.―Gregory 9th, i. 312. Innocent 3rd 110, 112.
Innocent the 4th 176. Innocent the 5th 110. Leo the 9th 110
ter. Nicholas the 2nd 110. Pelagius the 2nd 393. Victor the
2nd 110 bis
―― Alexander, the poet, i. 58―iii. 53 ter. His letter to Dr.
Borlase 53. Mr. his large fortune, and house called the Vatican
88
――’s annates, ii. 59, 126
―― inquisition into the value of benefices, iv. 185. See
Inquisition
Popham, Sir Home and Captain, iii. 446
Population of Cornwall, App. II. iv. 178. Of all the parishes in
Cornwall from the last parliamentary statements 177. For
several years from 1700 to 1831, 178
―― return for Helston, ii. 161
Porkellis, neighbourhood produced the best tin in Cornwall, ii.
140
Porrown Berry, iii. 202
Port, Hugo de, iii. 115
Port Eliot, ii. 68, 70 bis―iii. 107
―― Isaac, i. 384, 385―iv. 47
―― Looe, iii. 249
―― Looe barton, iv. 25, 26, 37 bis
―― Prior, name changed, iii. 107
Portbend, high water at, iii. 98
Portbyhan, otherwise West Looe, iv. 28
Portello, lands of, iii. 294
Porter, i. 320.―Mr. and arms, iii. 66.―Charles, iv. 62. Rev.
Charles of Warbstow 125
Porth, i. 29
Porth Alla, ii. 250, 324, 330 bis, 331. The stream which
discharges at 330
―― chapel, i. 12
―― Enys, iii. 288. Name changed 286
―― Horne, i. 324―ii. 174, 200
―― Kernow, iii. 32.―Shells at, i. 148
―― Prior, now Port Eliot, ii. 66
―― Talland, iv. 24
―― Treth, ii. 239
Portheran, ii. 41
Porthguin, by Leland, iv. 259
Porthiley, iii. 129
Porthissek, by Leland, iv. 259
Porthleaven, iii. 444
Porthmear, i. 47
Porthmellin cove, iii. 192
Porthoustock, ii. 324―iii. 259.―Extraordinary shoal of pilchards
at, ii. 324
―― rock, ii. 331
Porthpean, i. 49
Porthskatho cove, ii. 58
Porthwrinkle, iii. 439
Portionists, iv. 45
Portnadle bay, iv. 28
Porto Bello, iii. 218
Portreath, ii. 241, 250.―Harbour, iii. 390.―A safe harbour, used
to exchange copper for coal, ii. 241
Portsmouth, ii. 246. Loss of the Mary Rose off 342
―― castle, ii. 10
―― harbour superior to Falmouth for large ships, ii. 18
―― town, ii. 10
Portuan borough, iv. 20, 21
―― manor, iv. 21
Portugal, ii. 227―iii. 187, 423
Post, in Queen Elizabeth’s time, i. 59
Potatoes being introduced into Cornwall, iv. 50
Potstone, iv. 70
Pott, John, iii. 16
Poughill parish, ii. 340, 430―iv. 12, 15
Poughill parish, Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin, situation, boundaries,
a vicarage, value, patron, incumbent, ancient name,
impropriation, Pochehelle manor, iii. 349. By the Editor, small,
its advantages, manor ibid. The charters, murder of Nicholas
Radford 350. Flexbury and Bushill, impropriator of tithes,
Stamford-hill and Sir B. Granville’s victory there, statistics,
incumbent, patron, Geology by Dr. Boase 351
Poul pier, by Leland, iv. 290
Poulpirrhe, by Leland, iv. 279
Poulton manor, iii. 2
Poundstock parish, ii. 232―iii. 114―iv. 15, 136
Poundstock parish, Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin, situation,
boundaries, value of benefice, impropriation, patron,
incumbent, Trebarfoot, Penfoune, manor of Poundstock, iii.
352. By the Editor, situation of church, Tregoll, manors of
Launcels, West Widemouth and Woolston, great tithes,
advowson, statistics, Geology by Dr. Boase 353
Powder hundred, i. 41, 52, 202, 388, 393―iii. 24, 55, 180, 190
bis, 195, 198, 207, 210, 354, 391, 395, 402 ter., 403, 448,
450―iv. 70, 71, 75, 97, 102, 115, 116, 117.―Powdre, i. 242,
251, 294, 413―ii. 24, 36, 50, 88, 105, 275 bis, 298, 315, 352,
356, 390―iv. 376
Powderham hundred, etymology, i. 15
Powell, David, i. 305
Powley, Hugh, iii. 6
Powvallet Coyt manor, ii. 38
Poyctou, iv. 144
Poyntz, of Berkshire, William and William Stephen, ii. 385
―― of Cowdray castle, Sussex, William Stephen, iii.
231.―Family, ii. 354
Pradannack manor, iii. 258, 259
Praed, i. 346, 349. James 349, 350.―Family, ii. 241. Humphrey
Mackworth, M.P. 264. His act for improving the fisheries at St.
 Ives 264.―Arabella and Catherine, iii. 10. Rev. Herbert 9.
James and his marriage 11. Julia and Mary 10. William 9, 10.
Character, marriage, &c. 10. Death 11. Colonel 8. Mr. 7, 8. His
liberality 7. Mr. singular story of, and his death 9. Family,
account of 8. Remark on 11. Name 9
Praed, of Trevethew, Florence and James, i. 357.―H. M., iii. 9
ter., 54, 93, 239. His character 9. Improved Trevethow and
the plantations of Cornwall 11. Improved a valley 59. Rev.
Herbert of Ludgvan, his son 54. James 444. Mary 239 bis.
Miss 444. Mr. 85 bis.―Mr. iv. 58. Family 54
Prake, Mr. 110 years old, iv. 24
Pratt, Mr. i. 283
Preaching monks, i. 310
Precays, i. 417
Presbyterians, iv. 73.―Their rupture with Mr. Stephens, ii. 270
Prest, Agnes, her history, i. 108. Place of her martyrdom 111
Prestwood family, ii. 91. Thomas 196
Pretender’s army defeated at Preston, ii. 112
Prewbody, ii. 337
Priam, iii. 418 ter., 420
Price, Piercy, i. 275.―Winifred, ii. 93.―John, iii. 86 bis, 86, 87,
289 bis. Found a ring, and erected a monument in memory of
it 289, 290. Rose 289. Sir Rose 85, 86. Story of 87. Lady 86.
Mr. was of the expedition to Jamaica 85
―― of Trewardreva, Thomas, ii. 93
Prideaux, in Luxilian, the Hearles settled at, ii. 99
―― castle, iii. 56
―― i. 74, 76, 117, 266, 289 bis, 294, 299, 349, 385. Adiston
160. Edmund 399. Matthew 349. William 160.―Dean, ii. 78.
His “Connections” and remarks upon 76.―Notice of him, iii.
278. His house 281. Edmund 278. Family 238. Possess part of
the tithes of Padstow 280
―― of Boswithgye, Peter, i. 43
―― of Devon, Sir Edmund, i. 259
―― of Fewborough, i. 17―ii. 335
―― of Gunlyn, i. 243, 244
―― of Netherton, Devon, Sir Edmund, and arms, ii. 242.―Sir
John, iii. 278. Family 237―iv. 137
Prideaux of Orchardton, Sir John, i. 346, 347
―― of Padstow, i. 172.―Had a staircase from Stowe, ii.
351.―Rev. Charles, iii. 279. Edmund 3. Nicholas, his
character, built his house at Padstow 279. Mr. 56. Family, and
arms 279. Monuments 280
―― of Plase house, Edward, i. 17
―― of Prideaux, Roger, Thomas, bis, family, and arms, iii. 56
―― manor, iii. 57 bis. Account of 56
Prince’s “Worthies of Devon,” i. 144, 346, 348―ii. 61―iii. 184,
222―iv. 15
Prince of Wales, iii. 222
Prior park, i. 57, 58.―A house at Truro built of stone from, ii. 33
Prior’s cross, i. 368
Priory of Bodmin, i. 73. Its dissolution, and value of its revenues
74
Prisk, i. 237
Probus church, iii. 180―iv. 135
―― and Grace Fair, iii. 364
―― parish, iii. 180, 182, 188, 243, 269, 448, 450, 451―iv. 156;
or St. Probus, ii. 2, 305, 353 bis
Probus parish, Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin, situation, boundaries,
value of benefice, impropriation, patron, impropriator,
incumbent, manor of Moresk, Trehane, iii. 354. Carvean,
Trewother, manor of Trelowthes, Trewithgy, Trevorva 355.
Proverb upon it, Trewithan, manor of Wolveden or Golden
356. Ruin of the Tregians, Camden’s mention of it 357. Tonkin
descended from them, list of their forfeited estates 358. The
place where Cuthbert Mayne was found is still shewn, Tregian
twenty years in prison, his son suffered a second loss of
property 360. In consequence of the gunpowder plot, retired
to Spain, the Marquis of St. Angelo, Talbot, Tredenham 361.
Curvoza 362. By the Editor, church and monuments, Mr.
Thomas Hawkins introduced inoculation into Cornwall, church
tower ibid. Compared with others, church was collegiate, a
 fair, Prince Charles visited most gentlemen in the west of
Cornwall, Mr. Williams went up to congratulate the King on his
Restoration 363. Name of the fair, the saints Probus and
Grace, skeletons found in the chancel wall, Whitaker’s
memoranda, parish feast, etymology of Carvean 364. Of
Trewithgy, Trenowith, and Treworgy, manor of Probus,
fortification in Golden 365. Supposed by Whitaker to be a
Roman camp, Caer Voza, a British. Trehane, the two Dr.
Stackhouses 366. Trewithan, its beauty, Mr. Williams fond of
ringing bells, peal at Kenwyn church for the amusement of
the inhabitants of Truro 367. Hawkins family, persecution of
Mr. Tregion, more victims to religious opinions suffered under
Elizabeth than Mary 368. Tregion’s connections, and especially
his wealth incitements to his ruin, his own imprudence the
ultimate means 369. Editor’s remarks on the transaction, and
on the tyranny of the Tudor monarchs, statistics, incumbent,
Geology by Dr. Boase 370. Interesting varieties of rock
formerly to be seen on the road to Grampound, the road now
turned 371
Probus town, i. 242 bis, 251, 294, 393, 420. Tower at 48
―― St. and his skeleton, iii. 364
―― St. vicarage, iii. 182. The vicar 181 quat., 189
―― Groguth, iii. 354
Proclamation for the apprehension of Rogers and Street, i. 279
Prophets, ii. 65
Prospect, Cornish word for, ii. 200
Protestants persecuted in Germany, iii. 67
Prothasius, St. i. 99
Prouse, ii. 54.―Digory, iii. 358
Prout, arms, iii. 66
Prowse, Mrs. Elizabeth, i. 8
Pryce, Dr. William, iii. 323 bis.―His Archæologia Cornu
Britannica, ii. 255―iii. 390. His Mineralogia Cornubiensis ibid.
His Vocabulary 362
Prye, William, i. 215
Prynne’s records, i. 251
Psalms, book of, iii. 262
Psoralia aculeata, iv. 182
―― pinnata, iv. 182
―― spicata, iv. 182
Ptolemy, i. 256―ii. 172, 199.―The Geographer, iii. 24 bis, 25
bis, 395―iv. 39. His geography 8
Puddicombe, Rev. S. ii. 397.―Rev. Stephen of Morval, iii. 253
Puntner, harbour at, i. 48
Purification, feast of, iii. 324
Putta, Bishop of Devon, iii. 415
Pyder hundred, i. 115, 212, 404―ii. 89
Pyderick, Little, parish, i. 212
Pye, i. 62.―Family, line upon, and arms, iii. 449
Pylos, ii. 368
Pyn, Herbert de, iii. 117
Pyne family, iii. 117
Pynnock, St. parish, i. 112―ii. 291
Pyrenees, iv. 159
Pyrrhus’s saying after a hard earned victory, ii. 342
Quaker’s meeting, ii. 35
Quakers, iv. 73
Quaram, Rev. Mr. rector of Falmouth, iv. 72
Quarm, Rev. Mr. ii. 4
Quarme, Robert and Walter, i. 422. Arms ibid.
―― of Creed, Robert, i. 236
―― of Nancar, Rev. Walter, i. 256. Arms ibid.
Quarrier in Leskeard, iii. 21
Queen’s college, Oxford, ii. 139, 239
Question, Mr. iv. 118
Quethiock parish, i. 409―ii. 361
Quethiock parish, Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin, situation,
boundaries, iii. 371. Impropriation, value of benefice, patron,
and incumbent 372. By the Editor, ancient name, Trehunsey
manor, Trehunest village, antiquity of the church, monuments,
appropriation of tithes, once a college, its foundation deed
printed ibid. The rector, now its sole representative, a former
chapel, statistics, vicar, patron, Geology by Dr. Boase 373
Quick, Anthony, James, John, iv. 55
Quincy, Rev. S. i. 366
Quiril, Peter, Bishop of Exeter, i. 300―ii. 412
Radcliffe observatory, S. P. Rigand, director of, ii. 376
Raddon, Richard de, ii. 427
Raddona, Richard de, iv. 77, 82
Radford, Nicholas, iii. 350
Radnor, Earl of, i. 383―iii. 170.― Robarts, Earl of, ii. 377, 380.
John 379, 380. Arms 380.―Last earl, iii. 193. Henry 381
Raile, John, iii. 387
Railway, i. 48.―Railways in Redruth, iii. 390
Rainton rectory, i. 130
Raith and Raithow, etymology of, ii. 394
Ralegh, Piers de, Walter de, iii. 269
Raleigh, Sir Walter, i. 390―ii. 7, 21, 56, 342
Ralph, i. 344. John 352 bis. Rev. John 351, 352, 366. Loveday
352 bis. Mary 352.―John, iii. 2
Ram or Rame head, i. 343―ii. 106―iv. 32.―Description of, iii.
375
Rame, Joanna de, iii. 374 bis, 438 bis. Arms 374
―― manor, account of, iii. 374, 375
―― parish, iii. 101, 108, 110
Rame parish, Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin, situation, boundaries, a
rectory, value, patron, incumbent, manor of Rame, iii. 374. By
the Editor, church peculiarly situated, monuments, manor and
barton of Rame, Rame head, its appearance, and that of the
Lizard, St. Michael’s chapel, description of the head, boundary
of Plymouth harbour, its latitude and longitude, and
establishment of the port, Edystone lighthouse 375. Its
latitude and longitude, former danger of the rocks, description
of the first lighthouse, remarkable storm, lighthouse
disappeared, improved construction of the second 376.
Generosity of Louis XIV. fire, terrible accident 377. Erection of
the third lighthouse, Bond’s description 378. Inscription,
 Cawsand village, and bay, statistics, rector, and patron 379.
Geology by Dr. Boase 380
Rame place, iii. 375
Randall, Thomas, steward of Helston, ii. 160
Randill, Jonathan, iii. 260
Randolph of Withiel, iv. 161
Randyl family, and arms, ii. 353
―― of Tregenno, Richard, i. 421. His arms 421
Raphel manor, ii. 400
Rascow island, iv. 230
Rashleigh, i. 43, 74, 106, 255. Charles, constructs Seaforth
harbour 47. Establishes fishery 48. Origin and history of the
family, and arms 43.―Family, ii. 91, 294. Philip 295. Philip
endowed a hospital at Fowey 43. Made a fortune by
privateering 44. Purchased the manor of Fowey, his ancestors
represented it in parliament 46. Philip, a zealous naturalist,
has published two volumes 47. William 46, 91, 92. Mr.
397.―Miss, iii. 443. Family 57.―Jonathan, iv. 101. Philip 140.
Mr. 114. Family 99 bis, 131, 137 bis
Rashleigh of Disporth, Charles, i. 260, 423
―― of Menabelly, Rachel, i. 257, 259―William, ii. 294, 295. Mr.
400.―William, iii. 290. Miss 367. Mr. 88. Family 57.―Jonathan
and Jonathan, ii. 107. Jonathan and his son ibid. Jonathan
109. Rev. Jonathan 108. John and John 107. Philip 109. Philip,
collector of Cornish minerals, has published specimens,
constructed a curious grotto, his marriage and death 108.
William 108, 109 ter. Family 107, 109. One of them sitting in
almost every parliament of George II. and iii. 107
―― of Penquite, Coleman and John, iii. 57
―― house in Ranelagh parish, Devon, iv. 101
Rat island, iv. 230, 266
Ratcliffe of Franklyn, Devon, Joshua and his daughter, iii, 76
Ravenna in Italy, ii. 75 bis
Ravenscroft of Cheshire, arms, i. 374
Rawe, R. J., iii. 387
―― of Pennant, John, i. 383
Rawle, i. 263―ii. 274. Mr. 273
Rawlegh’s “Relicta Nomen Viri,” iv. 155
Rawlinge, Mr. iii. 82
Rawlings, Thomas, built a house, and William, notice of, iii.
280.―Thomas, iv. 143
―― of Padstow, Thomas, i. 235, 310.―Thomas, ii. 256.―Rev.
William, iii. 282. Mr. 178
Rawlins, Rev. William, jun., ii. 273
Rawlinson, Mary, and T. H. of Lancaster, iii. 137
Rawlyn, John, iii. 358
Ray, the botanist, iii. 173
Raynwood, John, iii. 211
Reading, iii. 10
Rebellion, story of the great, i. 44. History of Flammock’s 86
Red Cross street, London, iv. 86
Red sea, place of banishment for exorcised spirits, iii. 48
Redevers, Earl Baldwin de, ii. 427
Redgate, i. 179 bis. 180 bis
Redinge, i. 206
Rediver mills, iv. 47
Redman, Richard, Bishop of Exeter, ii. 189―iii. 147
Redruth manor, possessors of, iii. 381
―― parish, i. 160, 208, 238, 239―ii. 129, 239 bis, 272, 284―iii.
5, 7―iv. 5
Redruth parish, Hals’s MS. lost. By Tonkin, situation, boundaries,
etymology, a rectory, value, patron, iii. 380. Manor, town,
Carew brief in Penwith hundred, town now considerable, large
corn market, had two weekly markets in the reign of Edward
III., proceeding of Mr. Buller, town chiefly one street 381. Old
chapel, landed proprietors, manors of Treruff and Tollgus 382.
Treleigh manor, Tonkin’s tribute to Mr. Pollard, Park Erisey, the
barton of Treleigh produces tin and copper, the owner
imposed upon 383. Plain an Guary, church beyond the town,
glebe, value of benefice 384. By the Editor, situation and
description of church, St. Uny, advowson, new chapel,
Tavistock abbey ibid. Life of St. Rumon, by Leland and Butler,
 etymological conjecture, copper works and slate, handsome
shops, and good market, quantity of shoes, &c. brought from
Penzance 385. Market much crowded, new market place, Lord
Dunstanville’s clock and bell tower, village of Plengwary,
Amphitheatre adjacent to, etymology, the village called Little
Redruth, parish muster book 386. Great scarcity in 1697, the
Flammock insurrection, manor and honor of Tehidy, Cornish,
Saxon and Norman acre, difference between the common and
statute acre 388. Extent of Tehidy, notice of Lord
Dunstanville’s death, meetings to commemorate his virtues,
monument to be erected on Cambre 389. Landed proprietors,
Dr. Pryce, railways from Portreath harbour, statistics,
incumbent, patron, Geology by Dr. Boase, important mining
district 390
Redruth town, iii. 381. Road to Marazion from 308.―From Truro,
ii. 304
―― Little, village, iii. 386
Reed, Thomas, iv. 3, 4 bis. His ancestors 4
Reenwartha, iii. 328. Account of 326
Reenwollas, iii. 327 bis
Refishoc manor, iii. 195, 196
Reform Act, i. 391―iii. 29.―Change produced by, i.
390.―Remarks on, iii. 272
Reformation, iii. 264, 279, 363
Refry, Henry, iii. 387
Regent street, iii. 205
Reginald, Earl of Cornwall, ii. 427 ter., 428
Regulus an abbot, iv. 105
Reid, i. 259
Rekellythye, iii. 324
Relics of antiquity dug up near Camelford, ii. 402, 403
Religious ceremonies of the Britons, i. 193
Relistion mine, ii. 144
Remfry, Henry, iii. 383. Richard 382
Renaudin, David, John, family, and arms, iii. 303
―― of Arworthal, David, iii. 225 bis
Rendall of Lostwithiel, Elizabeth and Walter, iii. 328
―― of Pelynt, family, iii. 328
Renfry, Sondry and Thomas, iii. 387
Rennie, John, the engineer, iii. 378
Renphry, his son, sold Trewithan, iv. 140
Reperend Brygge, iv. 255
Reschell, iii. 111
Rescorla, i. 49
Reskimer, by Leland, iv. 270
―― iii. 169.―Heir of, iv. 156
Reskymer, account of, iii. 133
―― family, ii. 358―iii. 126, 135, 423.―Arms, iv. 96
―― of Reskymer, John, iii. 133. Sir John 133, 147. John and
four daughters, Richard, Roger and arms 133. Mr. 147 bis
Resogan, Bennet, and John, sen. iii. 325. John, jun., 325, 326
―― of St. Stephen’s in Brannel, iii. 325
Resparva, i. 386
Respiration, Dr. Mayne upon, iii. 250
Restoration, iii. 73
Restormal, iii. 28
Restormalle castle, iv. 229
Restormel, i. 338―iv. 81. By Leland 277
―― castle, ii. 38.―Account of 392
―― hill, ii. 393
―― house, ii. 393
Restowrick, i. 310
Restrongar creek, ii. 24
―― passage, ii. 17
Restonget creek, iii. 224
―― manor, iii. 230, 231. Account of 226
―― passage, iii. 226
―― village, iii. 226
Resurra in St. Minver, ii. 336
Resurrans, i. 214, 215 bis
Retallock, iii. 143
―― barrow, account of, i. 220
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