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 a) dependent
b) independent
c) extraneous
d) confounding
Answer: A
Page number: 52
Feedback: The dependent variable is the aspect of an experiment that is allowed to vary freely to see if it is
affected by changes in the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable is what is measured in
an experiment.

5. Cause is to effect as _____ variable is to _____ variable.

a) extraneous; dependent
b) dependent; extraneous
c) dependent; independent
d) independent; dependent
Answer: D
Page number: 52
Feedback: Changes in the dependent variable are dependent upon changes in the independent variable.

6. The outcome or effect in an experiment is the _____variable.

a) independent
b) dependent
c) extraneous
d) confounding
Answer: B
Page number: 52
Feedback: The dependent variable is the aspect of an experiment that is allowed to vary freely to see if it is
affected by changes in the independent variable.
QZ

7. In an experiment concerning the effect of food deprivation on activity level, food deprivation is the _____
variable.
a) dependent
b) confounding
c) independent
d) extraneous
Answer: C
Page number: 52
Feedback: Food deprivation is the independent variable in the experiment.
MD

8. In an experiment concerning the effect of food deprivation on activity level, activity level is the _____ variable.
a) dependent
b) confounding
c) independent
d) extraneous
Answer: A
Page number: 52
Feedback: In the experiment concerning the effect of food deprivation on activity level, activity level is the
dependent variable.

9. In the experiment with the rats and the goal box, the _____ is the independent variable.
a) level of activity
b) food
c) goal box

2 CHAPTER 2
 d) rat
Answer: B
Page number: 52
Feedback: In the experiment with the rats and the goal box, depending on the “experimental condition” to which
rats have been randomly assigned, they receive one, two, or three pellets of food each time they reach the goal
box. Thus, the independent variable in this experiment is the number of food pellets the rats in each group
receive when they reach the goal box.

10. Suppose you are experimenting with the effects of sleep deprivation on memory. In this case, sleep deprivation
is a(n):
a) extraneous variable.
b) dependent variable.
c) independent variable.
d) mediating variable.
Answer: C
Page number: 52
Feedback: If you are experimenting with the effects of sleep deprivation on memory, sleep deprivation is an
independent variable. The independent variable is the aspect of an experiment that is made to systematically
vary across the different conditions in the experiment. In other words, the independent variable is what is
manipulated in an experiment.

11. In the experiment with the rats and the goal box, the _____ is the dependent variable.
a) rat
b) goal box
c) level of activity
d) food
Answer: C
Page number: 52
Feedback: In the rat experiment, the dependent variable could be the total number of errors (i.e., number of
wrong turns) the rat makes while trying to find its way to the goal box. Alternatively, the speed with which the
rat reaches the goal box is also the dependent variable in the experiment.

12. In the experiment with the rats and the goal box, the number of food pellets given when the rats reach the goal
box is the:
a) extraneous variable.
b) confounding variable.
c) dependent variable.
d) independent variable.
Answer: D
Page number: 52
Feedback: The independent variable in this experiment is the number of food pellets the rats in each group
receive when they reach the goal box.
WWW

Functional Relationships

13. The relationship between changes in an independent variable and changes in a dependent variable is known as
a(n) _____ relationship.
a) operational
b) variable
c) mechanistic
d) functional
Answer: D
Page number: 52

RESEARCH METHODS 3
 Feedback: The relationship between changes in an independent variable and changes in a dependent variable is
known as a functional relationship.

14. If a certain diet affects the extent to which one is likely to acquire a certain disease, then there is a(n) _____
relationship between the diet and the disease.
a) operational
b) mechanistic
c) functional
d) independent
Answer: C
Page number: 52
Feedback: If a certain diet affects the extent to which one is likely to acquire a certain disease, then there is a
functional relationship between the diet and the disease. The relationship between changes in an independent
variable and changes in a dependent variable is known as a functional relationship.
FN

15. A cause-and-effect relationship could also be called a(n) _____ relationship.

a) independent
b) functional
c) derivative
d) mechanistic
Answer: B
Page number: 53
Feedback: A functional relationship can also be thought of as a cause-and-effect relationship, with changes in
the independent variable being the cause and changes in the dependent variable being the effect.

16. Every time Randy watches a horror movie, he has a nightmare that same evening. If he never has a nightmare
except when he watches a horror movie, it would indicate a(n) _____ between watching horror movies and
having nightmares.
a) spurious relationship
b) functional relationship
c) establishing operation
d) operational relationship
Answer: B
Page number: 52–53
Feedback: If Randy never has a nightmare except when he watches a horror movie, it would indicate a
functional relationship between watching horror movies and having nightmares. A functional relationship can
also be thought of as a cause-and-effect relationship, with changes in the independent variable being the cause
and changes in the dependent variable being the effect. Behaviorists are typically interested in discovering
functional relationships between changes in environmental events and changes in behavior.
QZ

17. Mosquito repellents that contain the chemical agent DEET are significantly more effective than those that do
not contain DEET. In other words, there is a _____ relationship between the presence of DEET and the number
of mosquito bites.
a) formational
b) nonformational
c) functional
d) nonfunctional
Answer: C
Page number: 52
Feedback: There is a functional relationship between the presence of DEET and the number of mosquito bites.
The relationship between changes in an independent variable and changes in a dependent variable is known as a
functional relationship.

4 CHAPTER 2
Stimulus and Response

18. A stimulus is any event that can:

a) potentially influence behavior.
b) be transformed into a behavior.
c) be measured.
d) be detected.
Answer: A
Page number: 53
Feedback: A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior.

19. A flashing light, a loud bang, and a bad smell are all:
a) extraneous variables.
b) stimuli.
c) confounding variables.
d) responses.
Answer: B
Page number: 53
Feedback: A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior. Light, sound, and odor are examples
of stimuli.

20. The sound of a door slam causes your cat to jump off the couch. The sound of the door slamming is a(n):
a) confounding variable.
b) stimulus.
c) extraneous variable.
d) reaction.
Answer: B
Page number: 53
Feedback: The sound of door slamming is a stimulus. A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence
behavior. Light, sound, and odor are examples of stimuli.

21. A _____ is a specific instance of behavior.

a) stimulus
b) releaser
c) response
d) operation
Answer: C
Page number: 53
Feedback: A response is a particular instance of a behavior.

22. With respect to a rat’s behavior of pressing a lever for food, a single lever press is an example of a(n):
a) operation.
b) stimulus.
c) independent variable.
d) response.
Answer: D
Page number: 53
Feedback: A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior, and a response is a particular
instance of a behavior. With respect to a rat’s behavior of pressing a lever for food, a single lever press is an
example of a response.

23. Jan winks at Tyler. The wink is an example of a(n) _____ by Jan and a _____ for Tyler.
a) response; stimulus
b) stimulus; response
c) operation; dependent variable

RESEARCH METHODS 5
 d) response; response
Answer: A
Page number: 53
Feedback: A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior, and a response is a particular instance
of a behavior. The wink is an example of a response by Jan and a stimulus for Tyler.

Overt and Covert Behavior

24. The term _____ behavior refers to any behavior that has the potential for being directly observed by another
individual.
a) covert
b) dependent
c) overt
d) independent
Answer: C
Page number: 54
Feedback: Overt behavior is behavior that can potentially be observed by an individual other than the one
performing the behavior.

25. The push-ups that I did this morning are best described as an example of a(n):
a) extraneous behavior.
b) impulsive behavior.
c) covert behavior.
d) overt behavior.
Answer: D
Page number: 54
Feedback: The push-ups that I did this morning are best described as an example of an overt behavior. Overt
behavior is behavior that can potentially be observed by an individual other than the one performing the
behavior.
QZ

26. The term _____ behavior refers to any behavior that can be subjectively perceived only by the person
performing the behavior.
a) covert
b) extraneous
c) overt
d) implosive
Answer: A
Page number: 54
Feedback: Covert behavior is behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.

27. The dream I had last night is best described as an example of a(n):
a) extraneous behavior.
b) establishing operation.
c) covert behavior.
d) overt behavior.
Answer: C
Page number: 54
Feedback: The dream I had last night is best described as an example of a covert behavior. Covert behavior is
behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.

28. Whenever Mehmed listens to a lecture by Dr. Dull, he begins to daydream. From Mehmed’s perspective, the
daydreaming is a(n) _____, while the lecture by Dr. Dull is a _____.
a) overt response; covert response
b) stimulus; covert response

6 CHAPTER 2
 c) overt response; stimulus
d) covert response; stimulus
Answer: D
Page number: 53–54
Feedback: From Mehmed’s perspective, the daydreaming is a covert response, while the lecture by Dr. Dull is a
stimulus. A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior, and a response is a particular instance
of a behavior. Covert behavior is behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.
WWW

29. Overt behavior is to _____ as covert behavior is to _____.

a) talking; daydreaming
b) thinking; acting
c) establishing; reacting
d) dreaming; thinking
Answer: A
Page number: 54
Feedback: Overt behavior is to talking as covert behavior is to daydreaming. Overt behavior is behavior that can
potentially be observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior. Covert behavior is
behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.

Appetitive and Aversive Stimuli

30. A(n) _____ stimulus is one that an organism will move toward.
a) functional
b) adversive
c) appetitive
d) aversive
Answer: C
Page number: 54
Feedback: An appetitive stimulus is an event that an organism will seek out.

31. A(n) _____ stimulus is one that an animal will move away from.
a) functional
b) aversive
c) appetitive
d) imperative
Answer: B
Page number: 54
Feedback: An aversive stimulus is an event that an organism will avoid.

32. Pleasant is to _____ as unpleasant is to _____.

a) functional; imperative
b) imperative; adversive
c) adversive; appetitive
d) appetitive; aversive
Answer: D
Page number: 54
Feedback: Pleasant is to appetitive as unpleasant is to aversive. An appetitive stimulus is an event that an
organism will seek out. An aversive stimulus is an event that an organism will avoid.

33. For most children, a bee sting is to _____ as candy is to _____.

a) adversive; imperative
b) appetitive; aversive
c) aversive; appetitive
d) adversive; appetitive

RESEARCH METHODS 7
 Answer: C
Page number: 54
Feedback: For most children, a bee sting is to aversive as candy is to appetitive. An appetitive stimulus is an
event that an organism will seek out. An aversive stimulus is an event that an organism will avoid.

34. If someone goes “looking for a fight,” then fighting must be a(n) _____ stimulus for that individual.
a) aversive
b) appositive
c) appetitive
d) nonfunctional
Answer: C
Page number: 54
Feedback: If someone goes “looking for a fight,” then fighting must be an appetitive stimulus for that
individual. An appetitive stimulus is an event that an organism will seek out.

Motivating Operations

35. Depriving an animal of food is an example of a(n):

a) functional operation.
b) establishing operation.
c) establishing response.
d) stimulus operation.
Answer: B
Page number: 56
Feedback: Depriving an animal of food is an example of an establishing operation. An establishing operation is
a procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.

36. A procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of a stimulus is called a(n):
a) establishing procedure.
b) establishing operation.
c) consequence strengthening procedure.
d) consequence strengthening operation.
Answer: B
Page number: 56
Feedback: An establishing operation is a procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.

37. Jared got sick after eating too much cake. From then onward, he could no longer eat cake. The act of eating too
much cake functioned as a(n) _____ with respect to the subsequent likelihood of again eating cake.
a) establishing response
b) dependent variable
c) extraneous operation
d) establishing operation
Answer: D
Page number: 56
Feedback: Jared getting sick after eating too much cake is an example of an establishing operation. An
establishing operation is a procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.
MD

38. Joanna does not feed her dog during the day to ensure that he eats all of his dinner that evening. This is an
example of:
a) shaping.
b) negative punishment.
c) extinction.
d) an establishing operation.
Answer: D

8 CHAPTER 2
 Page number: 56
Feedback: Joanna feeding her dog only in the evening to ensure he eats all his dinner illustrates an establishing
operation. An establishing operation is a procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.
FN

39. A(n) _____ is a procedure that decreases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.
a) deprivation procedure
b) establishing operation
c) abolishing operation
d) extinction procedure
Answer: C
Page number: 56
Feedback: An abolishing operation is a procedure that decreases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.

40. Too much is to very little as _____ is to _____.

a) divestiture ; deprivation
b) deprivation; divestiture
c) satiation; deprivation
d) deprivation; satiation
Answer: C
Page number: 56
Feedback: Too much is to very little as satiation is to deprivation. Deprivation is the prolonged absence of an
event, and satiation is the prolonged exposure to or consumption of an event.

41. Deprivation usually _____ the _____ of an event.

a) decreases; appetitiveness
b) increases; appetitiveness
c) decreases; adversiveness
d) increases; imperativeness
Answer: B
Page number: 56
Feedback: Deprivation is an establishing operation that increases the appetitiveness of an event.

42. After eating a dozen hot dogs in one sitting, chances are that you would feel quite:
a) deprived.
b) famished.
c) satiated.
d) deviated.
Answer: C
Page number: 56
Feedback: After eating a dozen hot dogs in one sitting, chances are that you would feel quite satiated. Satiation
is the prolonged exposure to or consumption of an event.
QZ

43. Satiation usually _____ the _____ of an event.

a) decreases; appetitiveness
b) decreases; aversiveness
c) decreases; imperativeness
d) increases; appetitiveness
Answer: A
Page number: 56
Feedback: Satiation is the prolonged exposure to or consumption of an event that results in decrease in the
appetitiveness of an event.

Contiguity and Contingency

RESEARCH METHODS 9
44. Closeness is to _____ as prediction is to _____.
a) functionality; contiguity
b) contingency; functionality
c) contingency; contiguity
d) contiguity; contingency
Answer: D
Page number: 56–57
Feedback: Closeness is to contiguity as prediction is to contingency. Contiguity means “closeness or nearness,”
while contingency is a predictive (or functional) relationship between two events.

45. Prediction is to nearness as:

a) contingent is to noncontingent.
b) noncontingent is to contingent.
c) contiguous is to contingent.
d) contingent is to contiguous.
Answer: D
Page number: 56–57
Feedback: Prediction is to nearness as contingent is to contiguous. Contiguity means “closeness or nearness,”
while contingency is a predictive (or functional) relationship between two events.

46. The term _____ refers to the extent to which events occur close together in time.
a) temporal contiguity
b) spatial contiguity
c) temporal contingency
d) spatial contingency
Answer: A
Page number: 56
Feedback: Temporal contiguity is the extent to which events occur close together in time.

47. The term _____ refers to the extent to which events occur in close physical proximity to each other.
a) temporal contiguity
b) spatial contiguity
c) temporal contingency
d) spatial contingency
Answer: B
Page number: 57
Feedback: Spatial contiguity is the extent to which events are situated close to each other in space.

48. In a residence, students are often most likely to date those who live in units that are relatively near to their own.
In other words, _____ seems to be an important factor in the formation of relationships.
a) spatial contiguity
b) temporal contiguity
c) temporal contingency
d) spatial contingency
Answer: A
Page number: 57
Feedback: In the residence, spatial contiguity seems to be an important factor in the formation of relationships.
Spatial contiguity is the extent to which events are situated close to each other in space.

49. At the sound of the starter’s pistol, the sprinters quickly start running. Thus, the sound of the pistol and the start
of running are:
a) temporally conjunctive.
b) spatially contiguous.
c) temporally contiguous.

10 CHAPTER 2
 d) spatially contingent.
Answer: C
Page number: 56
Feedback: The sound of the pistol and the start of running are temporally contiguous. Temporal contiguity is
the extent to which events occur close together in time.

50. A chair and a table are side by side. This means that they are:
a) temporally contingent.
b) temporally contiguous.
c) spatially contingent.
d) spatially contiguous.
Answer: D
Page number: 57
Feedback: The chair and the table are spatially contiguous. Spatial contiguity is the extent to which events are
situated close to each other in space.
WWW

51. The term _____ refers to a predictive relationship between two events.
a) covariance
b) contiguity
c) contingency
d) correlation
Answer: C
Page number: 57
Feedback: A contingency is a predictive (or functional) relationship between two events, such that the
occurrence of one event predicts the probable occurrence of another.

52. Debbie suffers from insomnia whenever she drinks coffee in the evening. In other words, her insomnia is _____
upon coffee drinking.
a) spatially contiguous
b) contingent
c) covariable
d) functionally contiguous
Answer: B
Page number: 57
Feedback: Debbie’s insomnia is contingent upon coffee drinking. A contingency is a predictive (or functional)
relationship between two events, such that the occurrence of one event predicts the probable occurrence of
another.
FN

53. If there exists a causal relationship between event A and outcome B, then:
a) A is contingent on B.
b) B is contingent on A.
c) A is spatially contiguous with B.
d) B is spatially contiguous with A.
Answer: B
Page number: 57
Feedback: If there exists a causal relationship between event A and outcome B, then B is contingent on A. A
contingency is a predictive (or functional) relationship between two events, such that the occurrence of one
event predicts the probable occurrence of another.

Measurement of Behavior
Behavioral Definitions

54. A good behavioral definition should refer to some _____ aspect of the behavior.

RESEARCH METHODS 11
 a) subjective
b) covert
c) abstract
d) observable
Answer: D
Page number: 58
Feedback: Good behavioral definitions should be objective in the sense that they refer to some observable
aspect of an individual’s behavior.

55. A good behavioral definition should be:

a) objective and ambiguous.
b) subjective and abstract.
c) objective and unambiguous.
d) unambiguous and abstract.
Answer: C
Page number: 58
Feedback: Good behavioral definitions should be objective in the sense that they refer to some observable
aspect of an individual’s behavior.

56. Which of the following would constitute the most important aspect of a good behavioral definition of shyness?
a) Avoidance of groups of individuals
b) Feelings of shyness
c) Thoughts of shyness
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: A
Page number: 58
Feedback: Avoidance of groups of individuals would constitute the most important aspect of a good behavioral
definition of shyness. Good behavioral definitions should be objective in the sense that they refer to some
observable aspect of an individual’s behavior.

Recording Methods

57. A(n) _____ measure of behavior is the frequency with which a behavior occurs in a set period of time.
a) duration
b) interval
c) latency
d) rate
Answer: D
Page number: 59
Feedback: Rate of response is the frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time.

58. A useful device for measuring the _____ of a behavior is a cumulative recorder.
a) topography
b) rate
c) latency
d) intensity
Answer: B
Page number: 59–60
Feedback: Rate of response is the frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time. A
cumulative recorder is a classic device that measures the total number of responses over time and provides a
graphic depiction of the rate of behavior.

59. Rate of response is a favorite measure of behavior for some researchers because it is:
a) a very salient measure of behavior.
b) a very sensitive measure of behavior.

12 CHAPTER 2
 c) a very robust measure of behavior.
d) a very subjective measure of behavior.
Answer: B
Page number: 59
Feedback: Rate is a particularly favored measure among some behaviorists, because it tends to be highly
sensitive to the influence of other variables.

60. If I wish to measure the effect of slight changes in caffeine level on a rat’s behavior, I would need a sensitive
measure of behavior. I should consider using a(n) _____ measure of response.
a) interval
b) latency
c) rate
d) topography
Answer: C
Page number: 59
Feedback: Rate is a particularly favored measure among some behaviorists, because it tends to be highly
sensitive to the influence of other variables.

61. If I wish to test the effects of minor sleep deprivation on a rat’s behavior, it would probably be wise to use a
_____ measure of behavior, because it is very sensitive.
a) duration
b) rate
c) speed
d) topographical
Answer: B
Page number: 59
Feedback: Rate is a particularly favored measure among some behaviorists, because it tends to be highly
sensitive to the influence of other variables.
WWW

62. On a cumulative record, a _____ indicates a _____ of response.

a) flat line; high rate
b) steep line; low rate
c) shallow line; high rate
d) None of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 60
Feedback: On a cumulative record, a low rate of response produces a line that slopes upward at a shallow angle
(because the pen is slowly moving upward while the paper passes beneath it), whereas a high rate of response
produces a line that slopes upward at a steep angle.

63. On a cumulative record, a _____ indicates a _____ of response.

a) flat line; lack of
b) steep line; low rate
c) shallow line: high rate
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: A
Page number: 60
Feedback: On a cumulative record, if there are no responses for a period of time, the pen remains stationary
while the paper unrolls beneath it. This results in a flat, horizontal line along the paper, with longer lines
indicating longer periods of no responding.
QZ

64. On a cumulative record, a _____ indicates a _____ of response.

a) flat line; high rate

RESEARCH METHODS 13
 b) steep line; high rate
c) shallow line; low rate
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 60
Feedback: On a cumulative record, a low rate of response produces a line that slopes upward at a shallow angle
(because the pen is slowly moving upward while the paper passes beneath it), whereas a high rate of response
produces a line that slopes upward at a steep angle.
MD

65. On a cumulative record, a _____ indicates a _____ of response.

a) flat line; high rate
b) steep line; lack of
c) shallow line; low rate
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 60
Feedback: On a cumulative record, a low rate of response produces a line that slopes upward at a shallow angle
(because the pen is slowly moving upward while the paper passes beneath it), whereas a high rate of response
produces a line that slopes upward at a steep angle.
FN

66. On a cumulative record, a _____ line indicates a period of _____ response.

a) vertical; no
b) shallow; rapid
c) steep; slow
d) horizontal; no
Answer: D
Page number: 60
Feedback: On a cumulative record, if there are no responses for a period of time, the pen remains stationary
while the paper unrolls beneath it. This results in a flat, horizontal line along the paper, with longer lines
indicating longer periods of no responding.
WWW

67. The _____ of a behavior is its force or magnitude.

a) topography
b) latency
c) intensity
d) rate
Answer: C
Page number: 60
Feedback: The intensity of a behavior is the force or magnitude of the behavior.

68. The loudness of my voice when I am in a stressful situation would be a(n) _____ measure of my stress level.
a) topography
b) latency
c) duration
d) intensity
Answer: D
Page number: 60
Feedback: The loudness of my voice when I am in a stressful situation would be an intensity measure of my
stress level. The intensity of a behavior is the force or magnitude of the behavior.

69. The number of hours that I clean house each week is a _____ measure of behavior, while the length of time that
I procrastinate before starting to clean house on a particular evening is a _____ measure of behavior.

14 CHAPTER 2
 a) latency; speed
b) duration; latency
c) speed; latency
d) duration; speed
Answer: B
Page number: 61–62
Feedback: The number of hours that I clean house each week is a duration measure of behavior, while the
length of time that I procrastinate before starting to clean house on a particular evening is a latency measure of
behavior. Duration is the length of time that an individual repeatedly or continuously performs a behavior. The
latency of a behavior is the length of time required for a behavior to begin.

70. The amount of time that I spend driving my car each week is an example of a _____ measure of behavior.
a) speed
b) duration
c) latency
d) rate
Answer: B
Page number: 61
Feedback: The amount of time that I spend driving my car each week is an example of a duration measure of
behavior. Duration is the length of time that an individual repeatedly or continuously performs a behavior.
WWW

71. Jonah’s piano teacher is trying to get him to shorten the time it takes for him to learn to play a Beethoven
sonata. The appropriate behavioral measure is therefore:
a) duration.
b) latency.
c) topography.
d) speed.
Answer: D
Page number: 61
Feedback: The appropriate behavioral measure in Jonah’s case is speed. Speed is the length of time it takes for
an episode of behavior to occur from start to finish.

72. In assessing a person’s sleep patterns, you include a measure of how long it takes before the person falls asleep
after he or she goes to bed. This would be regarded as a(n) _____ measure of his or her sleep behavior.
a) speed
b) intensity
c) topography
d) latency
Answer: D
Page number: 62
Feedback: The length of time it takes before a person falls asleep after he or she goes to bed would be regarded
as a latency measure of his or her sleep behavior. The latency of a behavior is the length of time required for a
behavior to begin.
FN

73. The length of time it takes me to finish cleaning my apartment, from start to finish, is a _____ measure of
behavior.
a) duration
b) latency
c) speed
d) interval
Answer: C
Page number: 61
Feedback: Speed is the length of time it takes for an episode of behavior to occur from start to finish.

RESEARCH METHODS 15
74. The amount of time it takes before I get out of bed in the morning is an example of _____; the amount of time it
takes me to finish shaving is an example of _____.
a) latency; speed
b) duration; latency
c) speed; duration
d) latency; duration
Answer: A
Page number: 61–62
Feedback: The amount of time it takes before I get out of bed in the morning is an example of latency; the
amount of time it takes me to finish shaving is an example of speed. The latency of a behavior is the length of
time required for a behavior to begin. Speed is the length of time it takes for an episode of behavior to occur
from start to finish.
QZ

75. As I watch television for four hours one evening, I make a record of whether there occurred at least one
example of sexual humor during each half-hour segment. This is an example of a(n) _____ method of
recording.
a) time-sample
b) duration
c) interval
d) rate
Answer: C
Page number: 62
Feedback: The scenario is an example of an interval method of recording. Interval recording is the measurement
of whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of continuous intervals.

76. Laura is concerned that her little daughter is watching too much television, and would, therefore, like to
measure the occurrence of this behavior. Given that Laura has a lot of other things to do each evening, her best
bet would be to use:
a) a rate measure.
b) interval recording.
c) time-sample recording.
d) a topographical procedure.
Answer: C
Page number: 63
Feedback: Since Laura has a lot of other things to do each evening, her best bet would be to use time-sample
recording. In time-sample recording, one measures whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within
a series of discontinuous intervals.
WWW

77. As I watch television for a four-hour stretch one evening, I record the number of aggressive incidents that occur
during each one-hour period. I am taking a(n) _____ measure of the behavior.
a) time-sample
b) interval
c) rate
d) duration
Answer: B
Page number: 62
Feedback: Interval recording is the measurement of whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval
within a series of continuous intervals.

78. At the end of every 30-minute period, Sarah records whether her baby had cried at least once during that 30
minute period. She is using the method of _____ to assess the baby’s tendency to cry.

16 CHAPTER 2
 a) duration recording
b) interval recording
c) time-sample recording
d) latency recording
Answer: B
Page number: 62
Feedback: Sarah is using the method of interval recording to assess the baby’s tendency to cry. Interval
recording is the measurement of whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of
continuous intervals.

79. In an interval recording procedure, instances of noncompliant behavior are recorded within 4 of the 12 intervals;
no instances of noncompliant behavior are recorded within 8 of the 12 intervals. As a result, the level of
noncompliant behavior calculated is:
a) 33.3%.
b) 50%.
c) 66.7%.
d) This cannot be calculated without knowing the number of noncompliant behaviors within each interval.
Answer: A
Page number: 62
Feedback: The level of noncompliant behavior calculated is 33.3%. The percentage of intervals during which at
least one incident occurred is our overall measure of the behavior.
MD

80. The number of incidents of swearing occurring in each of ten 5-minute intervals is 2, 4, 0, 1, 1, 3, 2, 2, 5, 0.
Using an interval recording procedure, the overall level of swearing calculated is:
a) 2%.
b) 20%.
c) 8%.
d) 80%.
Answer: D
Page number: 62
Feedback: The overall level of swearing calculated is 80%. The percentage of intervals during which at least
one incident occurred is our overall measure of the behavior.

81. In a series of twenty intervals, John bites his nails the following number of times: 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 2,
1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 0. Using an interval recording procedure, the overall level of nail-biting calculated is:
a) 1%.
b) 20%.
c) 100%.
d) 75%.
Answer: D
Page number: 62
Feedback: The overall level of nail-biting calculated is 75%. The percentage of intervals during which at least
one incident occurred is our overall measure of the behavior.
FN

82. I watch television for several one-hour periods randomly dispersed throughout the month. Each time I watch it,
I also make a note of whether at least one murder was depicted during that period of time. This is best described
as a(n) _____ method of determining the overall depiction of homicide on television.
a) time-sample
b) duration
c) interval
d) rate
Answer: A
Page number: 63

RESEARCH METHODS 17
 Feedback: The scenario illustrates a time-sample method of determining the overall depiction of homicide on
television. In time-sample recording, one measures whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within
a series of discontinuous intervals.

83. The judges at a high diving competition are mostly concerned with the _____ of the behavior.
a) intensity
b) rate
c) duration
d) topography
Answer: D
Page number: 63
Feedback: The judges at a high diving competition are mostly concerned with the topography of the behavior.
The topography of a behavior is the physical form of the behavior.

84. Learning how to write neatly is an example of a change in:

a) rate.
b) speed.
c) latency.
d) topography.
Answer: D
Page number: 63
Feedback: Learning how to write neatly is an example of a change in topography. The topography of a
behavior is the physical form of the behavior.

85. The topography of a behavior is the:

a) physical intensity of the behavior.
b) physical form of the behavior.
c) amount of time it takes to complete a behavioral episode.
d) amount of time it takes to begin a behavioral episode.
Answer: B
Page number: 63
Feedback: The topography of a behavior is the physical form of the behavior.

86. In a dance competition, the judges are mostly concerned with the _____ of the behavior.
a) topography
b) latency
c) duration
d) intensity
Answer: A
Page number: 63
Feedback: In a dance competition, the judges are mostly concerned with the topography of the behavior. The
topography of a behavior is the physical form of the behavior.

87. If a dog trainer determines whether a dog is correctly performing a complicated trick by examining the physical
form of the behavior, she is measuring the behavior’s _____, but if she records the number of times the dog
makes a mistake, then she is measuring _____.
a) topography; intensity
b) intensity; rate
c) topography; error rate
d) interval; error rate
Answer: C
Page number: 63
Feedback: The topography of a behavior is the physical form of the behavior. Any behavior in which responses
can be categorized as right or wrong can be assessed in terms of the number of errors.

18 CHAPTER 2
88. A restaurant manager keeps track of the number of incorrect orders sent back to the kitchen. In this scenario, the
manager records the:
a) fault ratio.
b) error rate.
c) interval recording.
d) topography.
Answer: B
Page number: 63
Feedback: In the given scenario, the manager records the error rate. Any behavior in which responses can be
categorized as right or wrong can be assessed in terms of the number of errors.

Assessing Reliability

89. Which of the following is an acceptable rate of interobserver reliability?

a) 10%
b) 25%
c) 50%
d) 80%
Answer: D
Page number: 64
Feedback: 80% is often regarded as the minimum acceptable level of interobserver reliability and 90% as the
preferred level.

90. Two researchers have watched the same video in order to determine if incidents of aggression occurred during
various intervals of time during a single day in a daycare. One researcher saw incidents of aggression in 8 out of
10 intervals, and the second researcher saw incidents of aggression in 7 out of 10 intervals. They disagreed on 1
out of the 10 intervals. What is being measured in this example?
a) Fault ratio
b) Error rate
c) Interobserver reliability
d) Topography
Answer: C
Page number: 63–64
Feedback: Interobserver reliability is being measured in this example. This is an important issue when the data
is being gathered by observers who might vary widely in their judgments as to whether or not a particular
behavior has occurred.

Research Designs
Descriptive Research

91. The _____ methods of research do not involve the manipulation of variables.
a) single-subject
b) experimental
c) control group
d) descriptive
Answer: D
Page number: 65
Feedback: Descriptive research involves gathering information about a behavior and the circumstances within
which it occurs. It does not involve the manipulation of any variables.

92. Bird-watching is most similar to what type of research?

a) Case study
b) Naturalistic observation
c) Descriptive research
d) Both b and c are correct.

RESEARCH METHODS 19
 Answer: D
Page number: 65
Feedback: Bird watching is similar to both naturalistic observation and descriptive research. Descriptive
research involves gathering information about a behavior and the circumstances within which it occurs.
Naturalistic observation is one in which one systematically observes and records the occurrence of a behavior in
its natural environment.

93. Innate patterns of behavior in animals are often studied using the:
a) naturalistic observation approach.
b) case study approach.
c) control group design.
d) single-subject design.
Answer: A
Page number: 66
Feedback: Naturalistic observation is one in which one systematically observes and records the occurrence of a
behavior in its natural environment. It is a commonly used approach in ethology (or behavioral ecology), a
branch of zoology that focuses on the study of inherited behavior patterns in animals.

94. Descriptive research methods include:

a) single-subject designs and case studies.
b) the case study approach and the survey approach.
c) naturalistic observation and single-subject designs.
d) control group designs and single-subject designs.
Answer: B
Page number: 65
Feedback: Descriptive methods include the survey approach, in which individuals answer a series of questions,
and the case study approach, which involves the intensive study of a single individual.

95. A rare type of psychiatric disorder is most likely to be studied using the:
a) naturalistic observation approach.
b) case study approach.
c) control group design.
d) comparative design.
Answer: B
Page number: 65
Feedback: A rare type of psychiatric disorder is most likely to be studied using the case study approach. The
case study approach involves the intensive study of a single individual.

96. The intensive examination of a person’s life both prior to and after they have experienced an unpredictable
traumatic event is an example of the:
a) naturalistic approach.
b) case study approach.
c) simple comparison design.
d) reversal design.
Answer: B
Page number: 65
Feedback: The intensive examination of a person’s life both prior to and after they have experienced an
unpredictable traumatic event is an example of the case study approach. The case study approach involves the
intensive study of a single individual.

97. Problems with the descriptive research approach include:

a) the possibility of oversimplifying the behavior pattern.
b) the inability to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
c) the need for sophisticated statistical analysis of the results.
d) Both b and c are correct.

20 CHAPTER 2
 Answer: B
Page number: 66
Feedback: The main problem with descriptive research is that it often leaves us uncertain as to which variables
affect the occurrence of a behavior; in other words, it is difficult to determine cause-and-effect (or functional)
relationships.

Experimental Research

98. The main advantage of experimental research over descriptive research is the ability to:
a) discover salient variables.
b) apply statistical procedures to the results.
c) discover cause-and-effect relationships.
d) study the influence of dependent variables.
Answer: C
Page number: 67
Feedback: In their quest to discover functional relationships between environmental events and behavior,
behavioral researchers have a strong preference for the experimental approach to research. In experimental
research, one or more independent variables are systematically varied to determine their effect on a dependent
variable. Any differences in behavior across the different conditions of the experiment are presumed to be
caused by the differences in the independent variable.

99. The _____ research approach is distinguished by the _____ of variables.

a) experimental; manipulation
b) experimental; systematic observation
c) descriptive; elimination
d) descriptive; manipulation
Answer: A
Page number: 67
Feedback: In experimental research, one or more independent variables are systematically varied to determine
their effect on a dependent variable.

100. If we wish to discover functional relationships, we are likely to use the _____ research approach.
a) descriptive
b) experimental
c) naturalistic
d) deterministic
Answer: B
Page number: 67
Feedback: In order to discover functional relationships between environmental events and behavior, behavioral
researchers have a strong preference for the experimental approach to research.

Group Designs

101. A common control procedure in a group design is:

a) random assignment of subjects to groups.
b) alternating assignment of subjects to groups.
c) recording a 1-week baseline period.
d) recording a 2-week baseline period.
Answer: A
Page number: 67
Feedback: In a simple control group design, individuals are randomly assigned to either an experimental (or
treatment) group or a control group.

102. In a simple group experiment on the effects of food deprivation on activity level, the control group would:

RESEARCH METHODS 21
 a) show increased activity level.
b) show decreased activity level.
c) be subjected to food deprivation.
d) eat normally.
Answer: D
Page number: 67
Feedback: In a simple control group design, individuals are randomly assigned to either an experimental (or
treatment) group or a control group; the experimental group is then exposed to a certain manipulation or
treatment, while the control group is not.

103. In a simple group experiment on the effects of punishment on response suppression in rats, the experimental
group would:
a) show decreased responding.
b) show increased responding.
c) be subjected to punishment.
d) not be subjected to punishment.
Answer: C
Page number: 67
Feedback: In a simple control group design, individuals are randomly assigned to either an experimental (or
treatment) group or a control group; the experimental group is then exposed to a certain manipulation or
treatment, while the control group is not.
QZ

104. In a 2 x 3 factorial group design, there are:

a) 3 treatment groups and 4 control groups.
b) 3 dependent variables and 4 independent variables.
c) two independent variables.
d) two dependent variables.
Answer: C
Page number: 68
Feedback: In a 2 x 3 factorial design, there are two independent variables, the first of which has two levels and
the second of which has three levels.

105. In a 2 x 2 factorial group design, there are:

a) 2 treatment groups.
b) 2 independent variables and 2 dependent variables.
c) 2 independent variables.
d) 2 dependent variables.
Answer: C
Page number: 69
Feedback: In a 2x2 factorial control group design, there are two independent variables, each of which has two
levels.

106. A new teaching method is being tested on students. Three age groups of students will receive either the new
method, or a standard (control) method. If the new method is only effective on the youngest age group of
students, you would say that there is _____between the effects of the teaching method and the effects of age.
a) no relationship
b) an interaction
c) a partial effect
d) a control effect
Answer: B
Page number: 68
Feedback: Since the new teaching method is found effective only on the youngest age group of students, it
would imply an interaction between the effects of the teaching method and the effects of age.

22 CHAPTER 2
107. A(n) _____is a type of group design in which the species of animals within the study constitutes one of the
independent variables.
a) evolutionary design
b) comparative design
c) no-treatment design
d) 2 x 2 design
Answer: B
Page number: 68
Feedback: A comparative design is a type of group design in which different species constitute one of the
independent variables.

108. In which of the following studies would you expect to find a control group?
a) Case study
b) Survey
c) A factorial design
d) Naturalistic observation
Answer: C
Page number: 67–68
Feedback: One would expect to find a control group in a factorial design. In a factorial design, one examines
the effects of two or more independent variables (or factors) across groups of subjects.

109. In which of the following designs would you NOT expect to have random assignment to groups?
a) A simple-comparison design
b) A factorial design
c) A comparative design
d) None of these are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 68
Feedback: A comparative design is a type of group design in which different species constitute one of the
independent variables.

110. Limitations of group designs include:

a) the need for a large number of subjects.
b) an overly strong focus on individual results.
c) an inability to measure interaction effects.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: A
Page number: 69
Feedback: Group designs usually require a large number of subjects. For statistical reasons, the larger the
number of subjects in a group, the more trustworthy the results.

111. Limitations of group designs include:

a) little attention given to the behavior of individual subjects.
b) the need for a large number of subjects.
c) the fact that results are often interpreted only at the end of a study.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 69–70
Feedback: Group designs usually require a large number of subjects; they typically focus on the average
performance of all subjects in each group; the results are often analyzed and interpreted only at the end of an
experiment, rather than during the experiment.

112. Control group designs are useful for studying:

a) the behavior of one individual.
b) the average effect of a variable on a large number of individuals.

RESEARCH METHODS 23
 c) changing patterns of behavior throughout an experiment.
d) Both a and c are correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 69
Feedback: Group designs are excellent for assessing the average effects of certain variables. Cause-and-effect
conclusions are possible due to the strict control over the environment that allows an experimenter to rule out
alternative explanations.

113. Which of the following designs requires the largest number of subjects?
a) A simple-comparison design
b) A control group design
c) A reversal design
d) A multiple baseline design
Answer: B
Page number: 69
Feedback: A control group design requires the largest number of subjects. Group designs usually require a
large number of subjects. For statistical reasons, the larger the number of subjects in a group, the more
trustworthy the results.
WWW

Single-Subject Designs

114. Single-subject designs are research designs that require:

a) random assignment of subjects to groups.
b) sophisticated statistical analysis.
c) only one or a few subjects.
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 70
Feedback: Single-subject designs require only one or a few subjects to conduct an entire experiment.

Simple-Comparison Design

115. In a simple-comparison design, one compares the level of behavior in a(n) _____ with the level of behavior in
a _____.
a) experimental group; control group
b) control group; baseline group
c) baseline group; treatment group
d) baseline condition; treatment condition
Answer: D
Page number: 70
Feedback: In a simple-comparison design, behavior in a baseline condition is compared to behavior in a
treatment condition.

116. Which of the following is a disadvantage of the single-comparison design?

a) It requires constant monitoring of a subject’s behavior throughout the experiment.
b) It requires a large numbers of subjects to conduct an entire experiment.
c) It requires sophisticated statistical analysis.
d) It does not clearly demonstrate a functional relationship between the independent variable and the
dependent variable.
Answer: D
Page number: 72

24 CHAPTER 2
 Feedback: The major problem with the simple-comparison design is that it does not control for the possibility
that some other event occurred at the same time that a treatment was implemented, and it was this other event
that caused the change in the behavior. The simple-comparison design does not allow us to assess this
possibility and thus constitutes a poor experimental design. In other words, it does not clearly demonstrate a
functional relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.

117. We measure a child’s homework completion during a week, in which he is consistently rewarded for doing his
homework; versus the following week when he is completely ignored while doing his homework. This is an
example of a _____ design.
a) reversal
b) simple-comparison
c) multiple-baseline-across-time
d) changing-criterion
Answer: B
Page number: 70
Feedback: In a simple-comparison design, behavior in a baseline condition is compared to behavior in a
treatment condition. The condition where the child is consistently rewarded for homework completion is the
baseline condition, and the condition where he is ignored while doing his homework is the treatment condition.

118. The baseline of a behavior is the:

a) normal frequency of that behavior following an intervention.
b) enhanced frequency of that behavior following an intervention.
c) normal frequency of that behavior prior to an intervention.
d) suppressed frequency of that behavior prior to an intervention.
Answer: C
Page number: 71
Feedback: The baseline of a behavior is the normal frequency of the behavior that occurs before some type of
intervention.

119. Murielle has been feeling a lot better these past few weeks after she started avoiding caffeine. The procedure
that Murielle has used to test the effects of caffeine is most similar to the _____ design, which is _____ for
drawing firm conclusions about the effects of caffeine.
a) simple-comparison; inadequate
b) reversal; inadequate
c) multiple-baseline; excellent
d) simple-comparison; excellent
Answer: A
Page number: 70
Feedback: Murielle uses the simple-comparison design, which is inadequate for drawing firm conclusions
about the effects of caffeine. In a simple-comparison design, behavior in a baseline condition is compared to
behavior in a treatment condition.
MD

120. The problem with a simple-comparison design is that:

a) it does not fully control for the influence of other variables.
b) it is insufficient for demonstrating a clear functional relationship.
c) the independent variable cannot be manipulated.
d) Both a and b are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 72
Feedback: The major problem with the simple-comparison design is that it does not control for the possibility
that some other event occurred at the same time that the treatment was implemented, and it was this other event
that caused the change in the behavior. In other words, it does not clearly demonstrate a functional relationship
between the independent variable and the dependent variable.

RESEARCH METHODS 25
Reversal Design

121. A(n) _____ design involves repeated alternations between a baseline condition and a treatment condition.
a) multiple-baseline
b) ABAB
c) changing-criterion
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 73
Feedback: A reversal design, or ABAB design, consists of repeated alternations between a baseline phase and a
treatment phase.

122. A reversal design is sometimes also called an:

a) AB design
b) ABA design
c) ABAB design
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 73
Feedback: A reversal design, sometimes also called an ABA or ABAB design, consists of repeated
alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase.

123. If I want to convince someone that his habit of watching exciting television shows each evening is causing his
insomnia, it would be best to use which type of experimental design?
a) A changing-criterion design
b) A reversal design
c) A Multiple-baseline across-persons design
d) A simple-comparison design
Answer: B
Page number: 73
Feedback: A reversal design consists of repeated alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase.
If the behavior systematically changes each time the treatment is instituted and later withdrawn, then a
functional relationship has been demonstrated between the treatment and the behavior.
QZ

124. For a reversal design to clearly demonstrate the effectiveness of a certain treatment, the behavior must:
a) return to its original baseline level during the second baseline phase.
b) remain at the treatment level during the second baseline phase.
c) remain at the baseline level during the treatment phase.
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: A
Page number: 73
Feedback: If the behavior systematically changes each time the treatment is instituted and later withdrawn,
then a functional relationship has been demonstrated between the treatment and the behavior.
FN

125. In a reversal design, the level of behavior in the first A phase needs to be _____ the level of behavior in the
second A phase in order to prove that the treatment is effective.
a) greater than
b) less than
c) the same as
d) supplementary to
Answer: C

26 CHAPTER 2
 Page number: 73
Feedback: In a reversal design, the level of behavior in the first A phase needs to be the same as the level of
behavior in the second A phase in order to prove that the treatment is effective. A reversal design consists of
repeated alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase.

126. A reversal design that is conducted across four different subjects:

a) constitutes four separate experiments.
b) constitutes only one experiment.
c) constitutes two separate experiments.
d) is inadequate in the absence of a control group.
Answer: A
Page number: 74
Feedback: Since each subject in the study constitutes an entire experiment, each additional subject constitutes a
replication of that experiment.
MD

127. Dr. Alvarez is treating Marcus for a behavioral problem. First, she records a baseline level of the behavior for
several days. The rate of the behavior is quite high. Next, she implements a behavior modification program
based on punishment. When that approach has little success in reducing the behavior, she tries a second
program based on reinforcement. The second treatment appears to work and the behavior is dramatically
reduced. She then goes back to baseline and the behavior reverts back to pre-treatment levels. When Dr.
Alvarez once again implements the second treatment method, the behavior goes away. This is an example of:
a) an ABBAB design.
b) an ABCAC design.
c) an unsuccessful simple comparison design.
d) a multiple-baseline design.
Answer: B
Page number: 74
Feedback: It is also possible to use a reversal design to assess the effectiveness of more than one treatment.
This would then be called an ABCAC design.

128. A reversal design may be inappropriate when:

a) the behavior is expected to change quickly.
b) the change in behavior may be irreversible.
c) Both a and b are correct.
d) Neither a nor b is correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 74
Feedback: A reversal design may be inappropriate if the behavior does not revert to its original baseline level
when the treatment is withdrawn.

129. In treating a child for a tendency to attack other children, the most ethically problematic design to test the
effectiveness of treatment would be a(n) _____ design.
a) multiple-baseline across behaviors
b) multiple-baseline across settings
c) simple-comparison
d) ABAB
Answer: D
Page number: 76
Feedback: A disadvantage with a reversal design (ABAB design) is that it may be ethically inappropriate to
remove a treatment once some improvement has been obtained. An ABAB design consists of repeated
alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase, and would therefore be ethically problematic in
this scenario.

RESEARCH METHODS 27
130. Which would be the most ethically problematic design for assessing a treatment procedure that seems to
suppress Bob’s tendency to attack other patients on the ward?
a) An ABAB design
b) A simple-comparison design
c) A multiple-baseline-across-persons design
d) A multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design
Answer: A
Page number: 76
Feedback: A disadvantage with a reversal design (ABAB design) is that it may be ethically inappropriate to
remove a treatment once some improvement has been obtained. An ABAB design consists of repeated
alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase, and would therefore be ethically problematic in
this scenario.
WWW

Multiple-Baseline Designs

131. In a multiple-baseline design, the treatment is implemented at different points in times across different:
a) behaviors.
b) situations.
c) persons.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 76
Feedback: In a multiple-baseline design, a treatment is instituted at successive points in time for two or more
persons, settings, or behaviors.

132. Ivan creates a treatment program to alter his family’s tendency to swear at him. He first applies the program to
his sister, then to his mother, and finally to his father. What type of research design is he employing to measure
his family’s improvement?
a) A multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design
b) A multiple-baseline-across-persons design
c) A reversal design across settings
d) A reversal design across behaviors
Answer: B
Page number: 76–77
Feedback: Ivan employs a multiple-baseline-across-persons design across the three individuals. The treatment
is implemented at different points in time. If the improvement in behavior coincides with the implementation
of the treatment for each individual, then a functional relationship between the treatment and the improvement
in behavior has been demonstrated.

133. If you were testing a behavioral treatment for eliminating a severe addiction in a small group of patients, the
most appropriate and ethical design would be a(n) _____ design.
a) multiple-baseline-across-persons
b) control group
c) ABAB
d) ABA
Answer: A
Page number: 77
Feedback: In a multiple-baseline-across-persons design, a treatment is implemented at different points in time.
If the improvement in behavior coincides with the implementation of the treatment for each individual, then a
functional relationship between the treatment and the improvement in behavior has been demonstrated.

134. Jonathan decides to reduce his tendency to crack his knuckles, first at home and then at school. What type of
research design is he employing to measure his improvement?
a) A multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design

28 CHAPTER 2
 b) A multiple-baseline-across-settings design
c) A reversal design across settings
d) A reversal design across behaviors
Answer: B
Page number: 77
Feedback: Jonathan is using a multiple-baseline-across-settings design, since he first tries to reduce his
tendency to crack his knuckles at home and then at school.

135. Bruce decides to first reduce his tendency to smack his lips, then his tendency to spit on the road, and then
finally his tendency to swear. What type of research design is he employing to measure his improvement?
a) A multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design
b) A multiple-baseline-across-settings design
c) A simple-comparison design
d) A changing-criterion design
Answer: A
Page number: 77
Feedback: Bruce uses a multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design. The treatment is implemented at different
times for each behavior. If each behavior shows improvement only when the treatment is implemented, it
shows a functional relationship between the treatment and behavior.

Changing-Criterion Design

136. In a changing-criterion design, one looks to see whether the behavior:

a) matches a particular standard that is being systematically altered.
b) fluctuates between alternating baseline and treatment conditions.
c) changes as the treatment is applied to some other behavior.
d) is in some manner irreversible.
Answer: A
Page number: 79
Feedback: A changing-criterion design is one in which the effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how
closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered.

137. What single-subject design can establish the existence of a cause-and-effect relationship and does not require a
reversal to baseline?
a) A simple comparison design
b) A multiple-baseline-across-persons design
c) A changing-criterion design
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 77–79
Feedback: The multiple-baseline-across-persons design and the changing criterion design can help establish the
existence of a cause-and-effect relationship, and do not require a reversal to baseline.
MD

138. If the intent of your program is to gradually increase the amount of weight you lift each day, the most
appropriate design for measuring your improvement would probably be a _____ design.
a) multiple-baseline
b) simple comparison
c) changing-criterion
d) reversal
Answer: C
Page number: 79
Feedback: A changing-criterion design is one in which the effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how
closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered.

RESEARCH METHODS 29
139. The most appropriate design for slowly increasing the amount of running that you do each day would be a:
a) changing-criterion design.
b) simple-comparison design.
c) multiple-baseline design.
d) reversal design.
Answer: A
Page number: 79
Feedback: A changing-criterion design is one in which the effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how
closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered.

140. A _____ design is most appropriate for situations in which a behavior is expected to change gradually.
a) multiple-baseline-across-persons
b) reversal
c) simple-comparison
d) changing-criterion
Answer: D
Page number: 79
Feedback: A changing-criterion design is one in which the effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how
closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered.
QZ

141. Youcef sets up an exercise program in which he will try to gradually increase the number of push-ups he does
each day. The most appropriate design for assessing the effectiveness of his program would be a:
a) multiple-baseline design.
b) changing-criterion design.
c) reversal design.
d) simple-comparison design.
Answer: B
Page number: 79
Feedback: The most appropriate design for assessing the effectiveness of Youcef’s program would be a
changing-criterion design. A changing-criterion design is one in which the effect of the treatment is
demonstrated by how closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered.
WWW

Use of Animals in Behavioral Research

142. Advantages of using animals in behavioral research include the ability to:
a) control genetic differences.
b) control learning history.
c) control the experimental environment.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 82
Feedback: Advantages of using animals in research are the ability to control their genetic makeup and their
learning history, and the possibility of more strictly controlling the experimental environment for animals than
for humans.

143. Which of the following is a reason for researchers choosing to conduct behavioral research on animals?
a) To control the experimental environment
b) To control learning history
c) To control genetic differences
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 82

30 CHAPTER 2
 Feedback: Advantages of using animals in research are the ability to control their genetic makeup and their
learning history, and the possibility of more strictly controlling the experimental environment for animals than
for humans.

144. Which of the following is a criticism against using animals in psychological research?
a) Learning history is more difficult to control in animals than in humans.
b) Animals are too different from humans for the research to be of much relevance.
c) Neither a nor b is correct.
d) Both a and b are correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 82
Feedback: One criticism against using animals in psychological research is that because animals are not
humans, the findings from animal research necessarily have limited applicability to humans.

145. The most fundamental criticism against animal research is that:

a) it is difficult to assess the animals’ learning history.
b) research with animals has little or no applicability to humans.
c) it is morally wrong.
d) Both a and b are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 83
Feedback: The most fundamental criticism of animal research is that it is morally wrong and that animals have
rights similar to humans.
MD

And Furthermore: Cruel Starvation or a Healthy Diet: The Ethics of Food Deprivation

146. During conditioning experiments involving food rewards, pigeons are often food deprived to the point where
they are at:
a) 80-85% of their free-feeding weight.
b) 90-95% of their natural weight.
c) 80-85% of their natural weight.
d) 90-95% of their free-feeding weight.
Answer: A
Page number: 84
Feedback: Pigeons are typically placed on a diet until their weight is about 80 to 85% of their free-feeding
weight, which is the amount they weigh when food is constantly available.

147. To ensure that pigeons are strongly motivated to respond for food, they are generally:
a) food deprived for at least 12 hours prior to each session.
b) kept at starvation level.
c) kept at 80-85% of their free-feeding weight.
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 84
Feedback: Animals are typically food deprived to ensure that they are well motivated to work for food.
Pigeons, for example, are typically placed on a diet until their weight is about 80 to 85% of their free-feeding
weight, which is the amount they weigh when food is constantly available.

148. Regarding the extent to which food deprivation of pigeons is ethical versus unethical, it is argued that:
a) their deprived weights are actually close to their natural weights.
b) food restriction appears to increase an animal’s sensitivity to pain.
c) a certain degree of food restriction is actually healthy.
d) Both a and c are correct.

RESEARCH METHODS 31
 Answer: D
Page number: 84
Feedback: Free food is an unnatural state of affairs for a pigeon, which in its natural environment must
constantly forage for food. The result is that the weight of a pigeon on free food is well beyond its natural
weight.
QZ

149. Regarding the extent to which food deprivation of pigeons is ethical versus unethical, it is argued that:
a) their deprived weights are much less than their natural weights.
b) food restriction is a natural state of affairs for most pigeons.
c) food restriction is typically unhealthy.
d) Both a and c are correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 84
Feedback: Free food is an unnatural state of affairs for a pigeon, which in its natural environment must
constantly forage for food.

Fill-in-the-Blank Items
Most of these items are taken from or are very similar to the end-of-chapter test items in the text; the items at the end
that are marked WWW are posted on the student resource website.

1. Any characteristic of a person, place, or thing that can change can be called a(n) _________.
Answer: variable
Page number: 51
Feedback: A variable is a characteristic of a person, place, or thing that can change (vary) over time or from one
situation to another.

2. In a classical conditioning experiment, one group of dogs first hears a tone and then receives food, while
another group of dogs receives food and then hears a tone. Following this, the researcher measures how much
the dogs in each group salivate when they simply hear the tone. In this experiment, the order in which tone and
food are presented is the _________ variable, while the amount of salivation to the tone is the _________
variable.
Answer: independent; dependent
Page number: 52
Feedback: In this experiment, the order in which tone and food are presented is the independent variable, while
the amount of salivation to the tone is the dependent variable. The independent variable is the aspect of an
experiment that is made to systematically vary across the different conditions in the experiment. The dependent
variable is the aspect of an experiment that is allowed to vary freely to see if it is affected by changes in the
independent variable.

3. Each time it rains, I see an increased number of umbrellas on the street. There appears to be a(n) _________
relationship between the weather and the appearance of umbrellas.
Answer: functional
Page number: 53
Feedback: There appears to be a functional relationship between the weather and the appearance of umbrellas.
A functional relationship can be thought of as a cause-and-effect relationship, with changes in the independent
variable being the cause and changes in the dependent variable being the effect.

4. A knife and spoon are placed side by side in a dinner setting creating spatial _________ between the two
utensils.
Answer: contiguity
Page number: 57

32 CHAPTER 2
 Feedback: A knife and spoon are placed side by side in a dinner setting creating spatial contiguity between the
two utensils. Spatial contiguity is the extent to which events are situated close to each other in space.

5. You have just eaten a very large pizza. It is likely that the reward value of eating a pizza has now
(increased/decreased) _________ as a function of _________.
Answer: decreased; satiation
Page number: 56
Feedback: It is likely that the reward value of eating a pizza has now decreased as a function of satiation. The
general rule is that deprivation increases the appetitiveness of an event and satiation decreases its appetitiveness.

6. Robbie is afraid of spiders while Naseem finds them interesting. A spider is a(n) _________ stimulus to Robbie,
and a(n) _________ stimulus to Naseem.
Answer: aversive; appetitive
Page number: 54
Feedback: A spider is an aversive stimulus to Robbie, and an appetitive stimulus to Naseem.

7. The number of cigarettes smoked each week is a(n) _________ measure of smoking.
Answer: rate
Page number: 59
Feedback: The number of cigarettes smoked each week is a rate measure of smoking. Rate of response is the
frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time.

8. Using a(n) _________ recording procedure, a school psychologist drops into a classroom for a 10-minute period
four times each day and notes whether some type of disruption occurs during the time that he is there.
Answer: time-sample
Page number: 63
Feedback: The school psychologist uses a time-sample recording procedure. In time-sample recording, one
measures whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of discontinuous intervals.

9. An ABCAC design is a type of _________ design.

Answer: reversal
Page number: 74
Feedback: A reversal design consists of repeated alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase.
When a reversal design assesses more than one treatment method, it is also called an ABCAC design.

10. The reversal design is also known as a(n) _________ design.

Answer: ABAB
Page number: 73
Feedback: The reversal design is sometimes also called an ABA or ABAB design.

11. After Trish told Jennifer that Lorne was the most popular guy in school, Jennifer became extremely interested in
him. Trish’s statement about Lorne apparently functioned as a(n) _________ that increased Lorne’s value as
a(n) _________ stimulus.
Answer: establishing operation; appetitive
Page number: 56
Feedback: Trish’s statement about Lorne apparently functioned as an establishing operation that increased
Lorne’s value as an appetitive stimulus. An establishing operation is a procedure that increases the
appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.

12. On a cumulative recorder, a gradually sloping line indicates a(n) _________ rate of response while a steep line
indicates a(n) _________ rate of response. By contrast, a(n) _________ line indicates no response.
Answer: low; high; flat
Page number: 60

RESEARCH METHODS 33
 Feedback: A low rate of response produces a line that slopes upward at a shallow angle (because the pen is
slowly moving upward while the paper passes beneath it),whereas a high rate of response produces a line that
slopes upward at a steep angle.

13. The amount of time it takes Zak to read a chapter is a(n) _________ measure of behavior, while the amount of
time it took him to begin reading the chapter is a(n) _________ measure of behavior. By contrast, the total
amount of time he spends reading each day is a(n) _________ measure of behavior.
Answer: speed; latency; duration
Page number: 61–62
Feedback: Duration is the length of time that an individual repeatedly or continuously performs a behavior.
Speed is the length of time it takes for an episode of behavior to occur from start to finish. The latency of a
behavior is the length of time required for a behavior to begin.

14. I wish to test a new drug which I believe will permanently remove the symptoms of a rare neurological disorder.
Unfortunately, only three patients who suffer from the disorder have volunteered to take the drug. In this
scenario, _________ design would be the most effective at demonstrating the effectiveness of this drug.
Answer: multiple-baseline (across persons) design
Page number: 76
Feedback: A multiple-baseline design would be the most effective at demonstrating the effectiveness of the
drug. In a multiple-baseline design, a treatment is instituted at successive points in time for two or more
persons, settings, or behaviors.

15. Being quite addicted to computer games, Jules decides to implement a program to gradually reduce the amount
of time that he spends playing these games. A useful design for determining if his program is successful would
be a(n) _________ design.
Answer: changing-criterion
Page number: 79
Feedback: A useful design for determining if Jules’ program is successful would be a changing-criterion design.
In a changing-criterion design, the effect of a treatment is demonstrated by how closely the behavior matches a
criterion that is being systematically altered.

16. We easily associate a table and a chair because there is often close spatial _________ between the two items.
Answer: contiguity
Page number: 57
Feedback: We easily associate a table and a chair because there is often close spatial contiguity between the two
items. Spatial contiguity is the extent to which events are situated close to each other in space.
WWW

17. The number of fish caught each hour during a fishing trip each week would constitute a(n) _________ measure
of catching fish.
Answer: rate
Page number: 59
Feedback: The number of fish caught each hour during a fishing trip each week would constitute a rate measure
of catching fish. Rate of response is the frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time.
WWW

18. Nina loves beans; Jana hates beans. Beans are a(n) _________ stimulus to Nina, and a(n) _________ stimulus
to Jana.
Answer: appetitive; aversive
Page number: 54
Feedback: Beans are an appetitive stimulus to Nina and an aversive stimulus to Jana.
WWW

34 CHAPTER 2
Short-Answer Items
Most of these items are end-of-chapter study questions from the text; those marked WWW are additional items from
the student resource website.

1. Distinguish between independent and dependent variables. What is a functional relationship?

Answer: The independent variable is that aspect of an experiment that systematically varies across the different
conditions in the experiment. The dependent variable is that aspect of an experiment that is allowed to freely
vary to see if it is affected by changes in the independent variable. A functional relationship is the relationship
between changes in an independent variable and changes in a dependent variable.
Page number: 52

2. Define stimulus and response. Differentiate between the terms stimulus and stimuli.

Answer: A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior, while a response is a particular
instance of a behavior. The term stimuli is the plural form of stimulus.
Page number: 53

3. Distinguish between overt and covert behavior. Distinguish between appetitive and aversive stimuli.

Answer: Overt behavior is behavior that has the potential for being directly observed by an individual other
than the one performing the behavior. Covert behavior is behavior that can be subjectively perceived only by
the person performing the behavior. An appetitive stimulus is an event that an organism will seek out. An
aversive stimulus is an event that an organism will avoid.
Page number: 54

4. Define a motivating operation. Name and describe two types of motivating operations.

Answer: A motivating operation is a procedure that affects the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event. There
are two types of motivating operations: establishing operations and abolishing operations. An establishing
operation is a procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event, and an abolishing
operation is a procedure that decreases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.
Page number: 56

5. Distinguish between contiguity and contingency. Name and define two types of contiguity.

Answer: Contiguity means closeness or nearness. A contingency is a dependent relationship between two
events; that is, the occurrence of one event is dependent on another. Temporal contiguity is the extent to which
events occur close together in time. Spatial contiguity is the extent to which events are situated close to each
other in space.
Page number: 56–57

6. Define rate of response. Why is rate of response a particularly favored measure of behavior among radical
behaviorists (include an example)?

Answer: Rate of response is the frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time. Rate is a
very sensitive measure of behavior, and is thus highly favored by some behaviorists (especially radical
behaviorists). The number of words written in a one-hour writing session is an example of rate measure of
behavior.
Page number: 59

7. How does one distinguish a high rate of response versus a low rate of response versus a period of no response
on a cumulative record?

RESEARCH METHODS 35
 Answer: A steep line indicates a high rate of response, a shallow line indicates a low rate of response, and a flat
line indicates a period of time with no response.
Page number: 59–60

8. Define speed, duration, and latency measures of behavior, and give a clear example of each.

Answer: Speed is the amount of time required to perform a complete episode of a behavior from start to finish.
For example, the length of time it takes for a rat to run through a maze from the start box to the goal box is a
measure of speed. Duration is the length of time that an individual repeatedly or continuously performs a
certain behavior. For example, this measure is appropriate when a student attempts to increase the amount of
time he spends studying each week, as well as decrease the amount of time spent watching television. The
latency of a behavior is the length of time required for the behavior to begin. The number of days it takes for a
student to begin working on a term paper after it has been assigned is an example of latency measure.
Page number: 61–62

9. Define the intensity and topography of a behavior, and give a clear example of each.

Answer: The intensity of a behavior is the force or magnitude of the behavior. For example, in Pavlov’s
classical conditioning procedure with dogs, the strength of conditioning was typically measured as the amount
(magnitude) of saliva produced whenever the tone was presented by itself. Topography is the exact physical
form of a behavior. For example, it is the topography of a behavior that is measured when one teaches a child
how to dress appropriately, write neatly, and brush his teeth properly.
Page number: 60, 63

10. Define interval recording and time-sample recording, and give a clear example of each. Specify how the overall
measure of behavior is calculated.

Answer: In interval recording, one measures whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a
series of continuous intervals. For example, if we wish to measure the amount of aggressive behavior in a
classroom, we might make a video record of several hours of class time. We would then have observers view
the video and note whether or not an aggressive incident occurred within each successive 10- minute interval. In
time-sample recording, one measures whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of
discontinuous intervals. For example, to assess the level of aggression in a classroom, we might have an
observer unobtrusively enter the classroom for a 10-minute interval at the start of each half hour and record
whether at least one aggressive incident occurred during that interval. The overall measure of behavior is
calculated as the percentage of intervals within which the behavior occurred.
Page number: 62–63

11. How does one calculate the reliability of observations conducted with an interval recording procedure? Illustrate
your answer with an example.

Answer: To ensure the reliability of observations conducted with an interval recording procedure, two or more
individuals independently observe the behavior being studied. Interobserver reliability is then calculated as the
number of intervals during which the observers agree divided by the total number of intervals that were
observed. For example, in an interval recording procedure in which two observers independently record the
occurrence of aggression in each of 12 consecutive intervals, they may agree on whether or not an incident
occurred in 10 of the intervals and disagree in 2 of the intervals. In this case, interobserver reliability will be
10/12 = 83.3%.
Page number: 64

12. Name and describe two types of descriptive research methods. What is a major limitation of descriptive
research methods?

36 CHAPTER 2
 Answer: Naturalistic observation involves the systematic observation and recording of behavior in its natural
environment. The case study approach involves the intensive examination of one or a few individuals.
Although descriptive research methods often provide detailed information about behavior, they usually do
not allow us to draw firm conclusions about the causes of a behavior. (64-66; Note: For the second part of this
question, some students might instead mention the problem of researcher bias which tends to stand out in the
discussion of the case study approach.)
Page number: 65–66

13. Describe the simplest form of a control group design. How are subjects assigned to the different conditions, and
why is this done?

Answer: In a control group design, subjects are assigned to either an experimental (or treatment) group or a
control group. Subjects assigned to the experimental group are exposed to a certain manipulation or treatment
while those assigned to the control group are not. Subjects are often randomly assigned to each condition to
ensure that different characteristics of the subjects are likely to be evenly distributed across the experimental
and control conditions.
Page number: 67–69

14. What is a comparative design and, when is it used?

Answer: A comparative design is a type of control group design in which the species of animal used is one of
the independent variables. It is often used to test an evolutionary hypothesis regarding the differences in
selective pressures for a particular trait between species.
Page number: 68

15. What are three limitations of control group designs?

Answer: Control group designs have three main limitations. They require a large number of subjects, they focus
on the average performance of all subjects (and thus ignore the performance of individuals), and results are
often analyzed and interpreted only at the end of an experiment rather than throughout the study.
Page number: 69–70

16. What are single-subject designs? Describe a simple-comparison design. In what sense is it a “flawed” design?

Answer: Single-subject designs are research designs that require only one or a few subjects to conduct an entire
experiment. In a simple-comparison design, behavior in a baseline condition is compared to behavior in a
treatment condition. The major problem with the simple-comparison design is that it does not control for the
possibility that some other event occurred at the same time that the treatment was implemented, and it was this
other event that caused the change in a behavior.
Page number: 70–72

17. Describe a reversal design. What are three disadvantages with this type of design?

Answer: A reversal design is a type of single-subject design that involves repeated alternations between a
baseline period and a treatment period.
The first disadvantage is that the design requires that behavior must revert to its original baseline frequency
when the treatment is withdrawn; otherwise, it will be impossible to determine if the treatment has had an
effect. Second, a reversal design would not be appropriate for assessing the effect of an intervention that is
intended to have permanent effects. Third, it may be ethically inappropriate to remove a treatment (during a
reversal phase) once some improvement has been obtained.
Page number: 73–76

18. Describe a multiple-baseline design. What are the two limitations of this type of design?

RESEARCH METHODS 37
 Answer: In a multiple-baseline design, a treatment is instituted at successive points in time for two or more
persons, settings, or behaviors.
This design is limited in that we need to have more than one person, setting, or behavior to which the
treatment can be applied. The treatment effect might also generalize across behaviors or settings prior to the
treatment being instituted in those behaviors or settings, which would make it difficult to interpret treatment
effectiveness.
Page number: 76–77

19. Describe a changing-criterion design. How can it be strengthened? For what types of situations is this design
appropriate?

Answer: In a changing-criterion design, the effect of a treatment is demonstrated by the extent to which a
behavior matches a criterion that is systematically altered. It can be strengthened by including periods in which
the criterion suddenly changes in the opposite direction. The design is most appropriate for situations in which
the behavior is intended to change gradually by some specified amount.
Page number: 79–81
WWW

20. List four advantages and two disadvantages of using animals as subjects in behavioral research.

Answer: Two advantages of using animals in research are the ability to control their genetic make-up and their
learning history. A third advantage to using animals as subjects is that researchers are often able to more strictly
control the experimental environment for animals than for humans. A fourth reason for using animals in
behavioral research has to do with the fact that some research cannot ethically be conducted with humans.
One criticism is that because animals are not humans, the findings from animal research necessarily have
limited applicability to humans. Perhaps the most fundamental criticism of animal research is that it is morally
wrong, and that animals have “rights” similar to humans.
Page number: 81–83

21. Give examples of rate, latency, and speed measures for the behavior of studying?

Answer: A rate measure of studying could involve the number of math problems solved, the number of pages
read, or the number of pages of study notes taken per hour. A latency measure of studying could involve how
long it takes one to begin studying each evening or how long it takes one to return to studying following a break
(which may be a particular problem for some students). A speed measure of studying could be the time it takes
one to complete, say, five math problems or to read 20 pages in the text.
Page number: 59–62
WWW

22. Imagine that you are carrying out a study, using a 2 x 2 factorial design that looks at the effect of a vitamin C
supplement on hyperactive behavior in both male and female children. Specify the dependent and independent
variables, and the number of groups needed. Create a table similar to Table 2.1 in the text that outlines the
various experimental conditions. What would be an example of an interaction effect in such a study?
Answer: Hyperactivity is the dependent variable, while vitamin C and gender are the independent variables.
There will be four groups of subjects needed. The design can be tabled as follows:
Male Female
Vitamin C VCM VCF
No Vitamin C NVCM NVCF

where VC =vitamin C; NVC-no vitamin C; M=male; F=female

An example of an interaction effect would be if vitamin C has an effect on female children only.
Page number: 68–69

38 CHAPTER 2
23. Describe a two-treatment reversal design involving the effect of drug X and drug Y on hyperactivity. Include a
graph of some hypothetical results for such an experiment. What would be the specific label for your design (in
terms of ABCs)?
Answer: To use an example similar to that given in the text, following a baseline period, the drug X treatment is
implemented. When this proves ineffective in reducing the level of hyperactivity, drug Y treatment is
implemented. When this does prove effective, drug Y is later withdrawn in the return to baseline and then
reinstituted in the return to treatment. This would then be called an ABCAC design. The graph for this design
would look similar to Figure 2.5 in the text. (But other designs are also possible. For example, one could
conduct an ABCBCA design in which the two drugs are alternated back and forth between each other. This
would be useful if both drugs are effective and we wish to determine whether one is more effective than the
other. A graph for this study would, of course, have six different phases involving alternations between the two
drugs and the two treatments).
Page number: 73–75
WWW

RESEARCH METHODS 39
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
everything. What yesterday appeared very good to them now seemed very
bad; guided by their fancies, and forgetful of the obligations of those who
follow the banner of their King. At last a document was prepared with
several signatures, in which the Adelantado was asked to take them away
from that place and find a better one for them, or to take them to the islands
he had talked about. The Adelantado had notice of the paper and signatures,
through the gossip and the post which the Devil always has ready to carry
tales. He fell ill at the trouble of seeing such a bad beginning to what he had
hoped would have a good end. Seeing, however, into what disorder things
were falling, he went on shore. Meeting one of those who had signed the
paper, he said: “Is your worship a ringleader of the party? Do you not know
that it is little less than mutiny to sign that paper?” The man replied, with
the paper in his hand: “Here is what we want, and if anything else has been
said it is a lie.” A soldier put forth another argument, and the Adelantado
said: “Silence, for you have cause to hold your tongues.” He then went on
board again, and ordered the Pilot of the galeot to go on shore, where he
was received by certain of the soldiers. It is reported that he said to them
that they should leave that land, and that in less than thirty days he would
take them to a better one.

In the midst of these troubles our church was built, for which there was a
charitable promise in the future of 10,000 ducats; and each day the priest
said mass in it.

They had to seek for food, and they cut much fibre to make ropes,
collecting all they could get from the natives. Meanwhile the signing of the
paper proceeded, and it was considered certain that there would be eighty
signatures. Those who asked men to sign did not forget to make the most of
the island, and to remind them of their hardships and hard work. Some of
the men answered that there was the need to work everywhere, and that the
work in that land was of a kind which was quite suitable to them.

The deaths of the natives took place in the following way. One of them,
being in friendship with us, a soldier shot him in the neck, of which wound
he presently died. The other, being in conversation, four soldiers called him
apart, and killed him with stabs. These things were done with the object of
inducing the natives to make war upon us, and thus produce a scarcity of
provisions, so as to make it the desire of all to leave the island. Also it was
thought that the natives attacking, the camp would have to be strengthened,
the Adelantado would be applied to for the artillery, and he being disarmed
they would remain strong. It was said that they wanted to kill some of us, I
know not who, but certain persons were followed, with the object of taking
their offices and giving them to friends of the disaffected. It was also said
that it was intended to give a false alarm at night, and, when those who
were loyal to the Adelantado came out of their houses, to set upon them.

It was made public that, one night, a troop of armed malcontents came to
enter a house where some loyal men were watching, and after they had
pointed arquebuses at their breasts, they turned back and went into a tent.
There they tried the beds, and, not finding the owners in them, who from
fear had fled into the woods, they only terrified their wives. At another
place they tried the place in a bed by driving a sword into it, and not feeling
anything they went away. This was related by the people themselves. But as
the stories wanted evidence, nothing was done. I say myself that a soldier
said to me that others had asked him whether he wished to return to Peru;
that he had answered in the affirmative, and seeing what his wishes were,
they asked him to sign the paper they showed him, to be presented to the
Adelantado. As soon as he had signed they said to him: “Now that you have
signed you must have your weapons ready, and if you see the Adelantado
and the Camp Master opposed, take the side of the Camp Master, and act
like a good soldier. Point with your arquebus and fire. You are not told to
kill unless,” etc. The same thing was said on another occasion: “It is a pity,
for at night I am disturbed lest they should not kill as many men as they
want to kill.”

Among the various proposals of the malcontents there was one that they
should make gimlet holes in the ships, because it was not desirable that
news should be taken to Peru, for the islands would not be found, even if
search was made for them they would not be discovered, and thus either all
would go or none. To this a well-intentioned person answered that the
coming had been for the good of the people of those parts, and that if the
King was not informed, so that succour might be sent, the service could not
be performed. This honourable answer so enraged the other that he raised
his arm in anger, and said that “they would not be converted, a flock of
sheep, and as they have been until now, so they will continue to be
henceforward; but we are not going to die here when we can be saved.” The
other, continuing the conversation, said: “I should be fortunate if the Lord
granted that I should be the means of one soul being saved; how much more
when there are so many here to be saved.” This plan of returning to Peru
was so fixed in their minds, that they did not even like the Chief Pilot to go
out to sea on the important business of his calling; saying, that if he went
with the sailors he would not come back again. This had such an effect on
the mind of the Adelantado, that he had all the sails unbent, and put them
under guard. This was not the only false testimony that was borne; for
another lie was told of another person. It was a small thing to take life, so
long as they could gain their ends. But it was seen by experience that
attempts against truth and innocence profit little, because the author of them
is soon discredited. I can well say that the harm they intended me has been
pardoned. A friend said to one of them: “Is your worship one of those who
wish to leave this land?” The reply was: “What can we do here?” The other
answered: “What we came to do! and if all others went away, I should
remain to do my duty; and the friend who should deny this ought to be
answered, without further ado, with a dagger in his blood.”

This confused time was good for each one to declare his good will if he had
it. Discontented and vacillating soldiers, when they saw no firmness, felt
that the door was open for them to try the minds of others, and find out who
was resolved and who was not. One said in public: “the Camp Master is my
cock; all are afraid of him. What he orders is obeyed. Now things are
ripening. Before long we shall see something, and before long we shall
have liberty.” It was also said that the clothes of Doña Isabel were intended
to last two years. Another said that he might think himself fortunate who
could take his wife by the hand. Another said: “Such and such could stay,
but we intend to go, let it give pain to whom it might pain, for in my
kingdom I may rule.” Such like nonsense would lead to death. It was also
said: “We carry such a one as pilot, who is not known to the world. He will
take us to the deserts of Chile, and with that we shall be contented, and we
will go to Potosi.” In short, each word that was said was mutinous and
insubordinate. Well was this tower of confusion built up over the ashes of
vindictiveness, vanity, and disordered ambition and avarice, the pests of
such an enterprise. This it is to want understanding and prudence. Will it not
bring ruin? Further on we shall see.
 Chapter XIV.

How the Adelantado went on shore, and what happened, and what he said to the
Camp Master; and the transaction between the Vicar and the Chief Pilot.

Seeing that there was so much disorder, the Adelantado determined to go on

shore, where he met several soldiers with swords in their hands. He asked
them why they carried them so, and one replied that it was because there
was war. The Camp Master came to the Adelantado, and said: “It is well
that your Lordship has come. It seems to me that these bellicose men go and
come with complaints, and refer me to your Lordship; and if your Lordship
does not apply a remedy, all those will be found some morning hanging
from a tree”; and he pointed with his finger. To this the Adelantado
answered with great patience, and showing much sorrow. The Camp Master
replied: “They are rascals who would not dare to take a crumb from a cat.
Apart from your Lordship, whom I hold to be above my head (this with his
hat in his hand), I do not care for any of them, from the smallest to the
biggest, and I look upon them as the dirt under my feet, and none of them
merits notice except myself, for I am a gentleman. All who are here, except
your Lordship, want to go away and leave this land, but I must obey and
serve your Lordship; God knows that if it had not been for me the honour of
your Lordship would have been in the dust; and last night they would have
killed all those who were in two of the houses if I had not prevented them.
One is the house of such an one, and as to the other I will keep silence.”
They told me that he said more. I am not any longer informed about it. They
can do what they like. On this day a soldier took the liberty to address the
General. The Camp Master was present, and he quarrelled with the man.
The Adelantado, seeing this, and considering the liberties that had been
taken on other days, said: “Now they lose respect for me.” The man was
respectable, and was on the side and held the views of his chief, and would
have stood by him, and for the honour of the King. But the Adelantado took
him by the arm, and said: “This is not the time!”
The General paid several visits to the camp, to see if his presence would
smooth matters. One day he met the Camp Master, and said to him: “For all
that is happening the fault is your worship’s, for you give the soldiers
wings, and they suffer misrepresentation.” The Camp Master answered:
“The false statements are on board the ship, and I show no favour to the
soldiers, but I make them respect your Lordship and obey you as governor.”

On another occasion the Camp Master took the hand of the Adelantado, and
complained of what Doña Isabel had said of him. The Adelantado was more
annoyed this time than on others. The Camp Master went away, and the
Adelantado went to the corps du garde. He laid down on a chest, and
showed much feeling. They had to help him to raise his feet on to it.
Presently, the Chief Pilot and some others came, saying that he should not
be troubled, and that all were his servants and would follow him. Having
rested a little, he went on board, and repeated what he had said to the Camp
Master. With arms in his hand the General came for me, and told me, that
the Camp Master had said also what a thing it was not to have come
provided, as was reasonable, and they had deceived him in not having
brought two hundred axes and three hundred wood knives; for they had
come to a land where neither God nor the King would be served by their
arrival, and if this people were taken to another part it would be a great
advantage. These things about the Camp Master I relate partly from the
reports of others, for I do not myself remember them all very well.

The next time the Adelantado went on shore was to arrange and mark out
with the Camp Master a site for a stockade to be used as a fort. Touching
this, and the ground for sowing, and other matters relating to the
administration of the settlement, he had to give his attention and to hear
much folly. There were questions of entails, titles, relationships, and
ownerships; such demands, replies and settlements; such wasting of time
and breaking of heads. In fine, they did not trust each other. On this day two
arquebusiers left the camp, and the ball of one of them went whizzing over
the Chief Pilot, who was on board the Capitana. The other ball passed over
the frigate, and I know not at what birds they were aiming.
On the following night the Chief Pilot was keeping watch, and at dawn Don
Diego Barreto came in a canoe to speak to his brother-in-law. Having
spoken to him, he said to me that things had come to such a pass in the
camp that it did not promise less than his death, and the deaths of his
brothers and brother-in-law, with all those who remained true to their duty.
At this time the Camp Master was saying on shore, “Arm! Arm!” The Chief
Pilot ordered that the Constable should fire off a piece that was pointed at
the village, sending the ball in the air, to terrify the natives, or at least to let
them understand that we did not sleep without a dog. The noise of all
ceased, and that of one voice sounded, saying that the General should send
them powder and cord. We were deaf for the time, but at dawn we sent them
what they asked for; asking at the same time the cause of the disturbance.
The answer was that the branches of trees rubbed against the posts in one
part of the camp, and, thinking it was the natives, they had sounded to arms.

On the same day the Vicar went on shore to say Mass, according to his
custom; for he also still lived on board, there being no house for him in the
camp. When he returned in the afternoon, he said to the Chief Pilot: “Those
people will go without fail.” The Chief Pilot asked where they would go.
The Vicar replied, “I only know what I say;” and the Pilot said: “What
sailors have they to take them? Will they kill us, or use force?” The Vicar
said Yes; that all were determined to do so. He asked the Chief Pilot to
procure that the soldiers should be appeased, for if they should go the
natives will be the losers. He shrugged his shoulders, saying that with very
good will he would spend four years there, teaching the natives. The Pilot
answered: “A month has not even passed since we arrived. How can there
be so little firmness in honourable men?”
 Chapter XV.

How the Chief Pilot asked leave to go, in the name of the General, to speak to the
soldiers on shore, and what passed between them.

The next day, being a Friday, the Chief Pilot, seeing the determination of
the men in the camp, from what the Vicar had said, and the illness and low
spirits of the Adelantado, asked permission to go on shore and speak to the
soldiers in his name. The Adelantado answered: “I know not whether those
people will listen to anything in my favour and that of the land, being so
determined, and having declared that they would have their own way.” The
Pilot went to him a second time, and at last he consented. So the Chief Pilot
went on shore, and the first person he met, with a scornful gesture, and his
head turned derisively, said: “Are you ordered to go with a report to Peru?
Now is the time to take my letters.” Then a soldier, who was a friend to the
Adelantado, came to the Pilot, and said: “Things look very bad; I know not
what will happen.” Another said: “Though I wish to see you proceeding
with the enterprise, I am very sorry to see you here, because of the menaces
with which you will be received.”

On going further into the camp, many soldiers came to him. Some were
saying: “Where have you brought us to? What place is this whence no man
goes, and to which no man will return? Even if notice was sent, people
would only come to take gold, silver, pearls, or other things of value, and
these are not here. The Adelantado is not to send notice, nor will all of us,
or any of us, consent to it.”

Others said: “We did not come to sow: for that purpose there is plenty of
land in Peru; that is not the way to follow the service of God or of the King.
We have obligations to our own people, not to these savages. These are not
the islands the Adelantado told us of, nor will we remain here. Embark us
and take us to seek those other islands, or take us to Peru or some part
where there are Christians.” Resolute words of people without a master! Of
these and other like things one and the other talked, in the direction whither
their desires guided them, or rather drove them, without attending to
whether the things they wanted were profitable or harmful. For mutineers
have their wills so unrestrained that they have no bridle to check them,
though the words spoken to them may be words of truth.

The Chief Pilot enquired for the reasons which made them think that the
land was bad, to which they answered that it yielded next to nothing. On
this he asked them what they had left in Peru, and what they had brought
from there? and what they sought for to pass this life, unless it was money
to buy a house and sustenance: a thing which few succeed in doing until
late, most men passing their lives in hopes; that the present is good for
working, without knowing what may come after, or what may be
discovered. They said that when that time came twenty years would have
passed away, and they would be old. The Pilot said to them that according
to that, they ought to know how to find cities, vineyards, and gardens; to
enter a house ready furnished, with the tables spread, and to make the
owners give up their property and go into servitude; or they should know
how to find mountains, valleys, and plains of emeralds, rubies, and
diamonds, ready to be loaded and taken away. It should be remembered that
all the provinces in the world had their beginnings; that Seville, Rome, and
Venice, and the other cities of the world, were once forests or bare plains;
and that it had cost the inhabitants what great things cost to create them,
that their successors might enjoy the fruits of their labours, as they do now
enjoy them. “What I understand is that you want others to have worked that
you may rest, without remembering that all have to work, though the first
workers may have made the beginnings.”

But they looked upon the Chief Pilot with suspicion, and they gave for a
reason that it was he who was to go with the news, and he therefore
favoured the settlement of this land that he might remain in the other. He
asked them what riches they had seen him take that they thought this of
him; that he it was who risked most, having to go for their good to discover
routes over unknown seas; besides the labour he had to go through, to look
out for a rock at night, and to complete calculations.
He further addressed them as follows:—“Gentlemen, who is it that deceives
you and makes you discontented? What is the bad conception which makes
you think that you can all leave this place with the ease that you promise
yourselves? Tell me who they are, for I will explain to you the
impossibilities there are in going from here to Peru, or any other part
whatsoever.” One of them answered: “Let that be how it may, for I would
rather die at sea than where I am, and between the two we are in irons.” The
Pilot said to this man: “Know you not that we follow our General, who is in
the place of the King, and that we are bound to desire what he desires for
the King’s service; and to want any other thing is to want to go contrary to
the royal service.” They all answered: “Here we are not going against the
royal service.” To this the Pilot replied: “What is it to go against the will of
your General; to refuse to improve the land which he has settled in the royal
name; and what is it to disobey, incite, and menace those who do not agree
with you?” They answered: “We only desire that notice be not sent to Peru,
and that, as we are a small body of men, we may be taken from here and
taken to the islands of which we are in search, or to some better place.” The
Pilot replied: “The Adelantado is the person whose duty it is to see that all
goes well. It should be left to him, who now wishes a second time to search
for the Admiral at the island of San Cristobal, which he was instructed to
search for. If it should be found all will be well, and if not, a Christian view
of things should be taken. The Adelantado’s person and that of his wife
were in the same place where they all were, and all would share the dangers
together. If the Almiranta was found, all must approve. Moreover, it was not
the Chief Pilot who had to go, but the Adelantado, who was well prepared.”
The Pilot added that their leader was ill, and that it was not reasonable to
expect that his person should be exposed to new risks. But when he should
wish to go, there should be none to contradict, being such honourable men
whose faith could be trusted in this and more.

At this time others had come to give their opinions, but as the music was
loud and so much out of tune, it did not sound well.

Continuing the discussion, the Chief Pilot, whose services in having

navigated the fleet and discovered four islands whence they could take a
new departure with a fair wind and short voyage, were nearly forgotten,
now said: “You should all remember that if God had not given us the island
on which we now are, we should all have perished; and as He gave it, we
ought to be willing to remain here for a time. Now it may be seen that the
same wind which brought us detains us here; the wind that was fair is now
contrary, and a return to Peru is impossible without seeking a very high
latitude. The ships have many defects, and we cannot careen them, we have
no cables, and the rigging is rotten. As for provisions, we have nothing left
but a little flour, and the jars for water are diminished in number, as many
of them have been broken; while the barrels are out of order, there being no
one who can repair them. The route is long and unknown, and we do not
know what would be the duration of such a voyage. These things are
certain, and cannot be avoided, without the risk of your own lives and those
of your comrades.” He said further: “I desire that the wind would change,
but we must go west, being the only course with a fair wind. We may be
certain that we shall not be a longer time on the voyage than we were in
coming here, where we can have as much, in the way of supplies, as we
started with. Why should we have gone through so much labor, wasting our
property and running such great risks, undertaking such an honorable
enterprise, if we do not go through with it?

“Remember well that the King has had and still has other vassals, who have
defended frontiers and maintained provinces against warlike people of great
power, and sometimes eating dogs and cats rather than suffer dishonour;
and all without expecting any reward such as may be hoped for here. At
present neither will supplies be wanting in so fertile a soil, nor will an
enemy cause serious danger; nor are there other drawbacks which we are
obliged to forget, but which others will not forget. For we have an
honourable opportunity which many others would like to have without ever
having it offered to them, which we can perpetuate at the cost of much
careful management. Why should we avoid such a chance? We should show
resolution, for there is time for all things, and it is as well to reach the place
we want in May as in September. In short, where is it desired that we should
be, if we are to say that we only come to seek our own welfare; and even to
procure that we want the spirit, for very soon, and without more cause than
our own cowardice, we should be undone. We should be looked upon as the
enemies of God and the King, and of the honor of our General and our own,
if we abandon such an enterprise and such a land.

“Enemies to God, because we abandon so easily, and without sufficient

cause, the work we came to do for the honour of God and the salvation of
souls. It is the great interest on which we have to turn both our eyes, to
rescue from the captivity of the Devil those whom he looks upon as so
secure; to turn the worship of the natives from him, and turn it to God, to
whom they owe it, and whose it is.

“Enemies of the King, for impeding his service, which may be promoted in
this place, without making other discoveries, incurring fresh expenses, or
risking other fleets. It may be that what was intended will be achieved, for
when the new world was discovered it was not known at first how
important it was, there being only a few small islands of little or no value;
yet, through the constancy of the discoverers, there were afterwards found
the great and rich provinces of New Spain and Peru; while the return to
Spain, for a long time laborious and difficult, is now made easy through the
mercy of God.

“Enemies to the honour of our General, because he has expended his

resources on the enterprise, leaving what he has left in Peru. Do you wish,
solely for your whim, to destroy such Christian aspirations, which have
endured so long?

“Enemies of our own honour, because, from this position where we now
are, there is no place to which we can go that will not be in the dominions
of our King, and whose Ministers will exact a very strict account of whence
we came, where we have left the General, and what reason we had for
abandoning a land which had been settled in the name of the King: more
especially such a land as this which is fertile, with friendly and numerous
inhabitants. In one way or another we cannot escape from offending our
consciences, risking our lives, our honour, and our liberty. For all to go it is
not possible, although we may wish it. To leave women and children, and
helpless persons, would not be just. Would you go to New Spain? The
Adelantado has already taken that route when he was in these parts before,
but many died, and all went through terrible hardships during a long
voyage; moreover, it is not always the season for such navigation. To go to
the Philippines also has its difficulties.” Thinking it all over, and doing his
best to combat their inconsiderate desire, the Chief Pilot concluded by
saying: “Why do you litigate without any grounds, saying that you will
embark presently? I will show, with the Adelantado, that what you want to
do this day is impossible.”

Some of them, opening their eyes, appeared to be convinced by these

arguments; but others were still obdurate. They preferred to trust to the ship
rather than to what the land offered, and the water could be taken in 10,000
cocoa nuts, in joints of the canes, or even in the canoes of the natives,
covering and caulking them; and they proposed other equally feasible
contrivances. But the Chief Pilot said: “This is only a waste of time. Is it not
for the Adelantado to decide what shall be done?” They said that “if the
land will yield much food, how is it that we get nothing to eat from it?”
“What certainty have you,” said the Pilot, “that the provisions obtained here
will not get bad.” They answered that they were ready to risk that. As to
water, they said that they would fall in with other islands on the route
whence they could take in water; and that they would listen to reason, for
they were reasonable beings.

Finally, they went back to their old song that they wanted to go to Manilla,
which was a land of Christians. The Pilot said to them that Manilla was also
a land of heathens, and that there being Christians was due to the
discoverers who settled there; and that in our expedition a similar duty was
required of us. In Manilla there are only some soldiers stationed by the
King to guard the estates of the settlers; and it is better to remain here where
we might become such as they are in fame and honour, than go marching
there with shouldered arquebus. To this one of them answered that honour
was where the Pope and the King were, and not among Indians. The Pilot
then said that it was better to ask for what they wanted from their General,
who was not a man to close his ears to a just petition; and that they should
consider that their position was very offensive to the General, who desired
to do what the King had ordered. What word soever sounded ill there would
also follow as many more and as free. To this, one of the soldiers said:
“Leave off! leave off! and leave it for he who wants to stay, for we intend to
go, dislike it who may.” I was without a sword, and he with seven or eight
others, went for theirs, and presently came back with heightened colour.
Asking for the Camp Master, they all bowed their heads, with their swords
in their hands, looking very fierce, not wanting much whispering, and
secrets among some who spoke within hearing. They said publicly that they
came to kill the Chief Pilot; and there was one who swore that they came
saying: “Come, let us kill him, for he is the cause of our being in this land;”
and others swore, and went so far with their menaces as to say: “What shall
they drink in his skull.” Things did not look well. God knows what they
intended.

He who had declared that they would go, spoke and said: “There is no one
who does not wish to go from this land; one who keeps most apart was he
who showed most willingness, but it does not signify.” He said most on that
side, and was most resolved, both then and at other times; but as there were
many people, there were as many arguments, and with loud voices. The
Chief Pilot concluded what he had to say by declaring that all he had put
before them was in the service of God and the King, and that he would
sustain it to the death, as he had proved.
 Chapter XVI.

How the Camp Master came on board the ship; what passed with the Adelantado,
and between the Camp Master and the soldiers on shore, where the Chief Pilot
talked to the Camp Master.

This was the state of affairs when the Camp Master came on board the ship
to speak with the Adelantado, who, had he been alone, would have
strangled him and hung him on one of the masts. So Doña Isabel, his wife,
urged him (according to her own account), saying to her husband: “Kill him
or have him killed. What more do you want? He has fallen into your hands,
and if not I will kill him with this knife.” The Adelantado was prudent, and
did not do so. He understood that the desire of the Camp Master was not to
go so far in offences of his own as it was said that he intended. The Camp
Master returned to the shore, and said to the soldiers: “Gentlemen! I come
from speaking to the General respecting his affairs and this settlement; and
he said that it had come to his knowledge that all of you were afflicted and
troubled, saying that this is not a good land, and that you wanted to be taken
to a better one. He says that you ask for a paper, and that he will answer,
which is reasonable, as he is our General.” Presently he said: “This is not
mutiny, but it is when, without saying anything to their superiors, the
soldiers suddenly break out, killing and crying, ‘Down with the rascals!’
Your worships have a right to ask, and to go and seek the Almiranta; for
those on board were our comrades, and it is not just to leave them without
making any search.

“But if I were not the Master of the Camp, I would do and say more, for it
is not understood that in my position I can give consent, when the
Adelantado has said that his friends were those who have most declared
themselves: a reason for giving all to understand that one enjoys his
friendship.

“No soldier, whatever his condition may be, can to-day speak a word
without its coming to the ear of my General; for I have to be subordinate,
though I may be his best friend. My General has given to me his honour and
the service of the King, and they are in that place I have to serve. Each one
watches another. I am watched because I favour your party. I have not to
lose my honour, nor is it ever to be supposed that such evil and unjust
things can ever enter the thoughts of a person with my obligations, position,
and experience. Nor is it reasonable to think that such honourable soldiers
as are in this camp would wish to do by force what is suggested. Each one
performs the duty assigned to him, for we only came here to obey and serve
the King, and he who serves him not will be punished.”

The soldiers began to talk among themselves, saying they need not be
alarmed nor bear it in mind; and one of them said, referring to a search for
the Almiranta, that he would offer to go in search in the name of the rest;
that if he volunteered the thing would be safe, as he was more confident
than the others, not being altogether ignorant of the art of navigation.
Another said that the Adelantado is expert, and could not be deceived; and
said that it should be the Camp Master. Another objected that he was not a
sailor. He laughed, and said: “Gentlemen, I do not understand those affairs,
and can easily be taken in.” He added: “Some one has to go, and some one
has to be trusted in the business.” This ended what was said in public. A
witness swore that, the Chief Pilot being there talking, one soldier said to
another: “Let us choose this traitor; we will kill him.”

The Chief Pilot took the Camp Master aside, and asked him to listen for a
moment; then looked round carefully, and in a short time discussed many
things that have already been referred to. Respecting the navigation, the
Pilot said that, when the time came, he would do the work well in
accordance with instructions of the Adelantado.

The Camp Master said that now he did not value his life, and that he would
say nothing unless he was asked to speak.

The Chief Pilot then took his leave, and went on board to report what had
happened to the General, adding that, in his opinion, it would be well if the
General would go on shore and speak to his people; that he thought it would
be easy to reduce them to obedience by his presence, his will, and by
putting before them the just reasons which actuated him.

On the following day the General went on shore. As he jumped out, a

servant of his said, while he seized his arms: “There are going to be black
puddings.” Some soldiers coming towards the Adelantado said to one
another: “Our General comes with the martingale. He also comes armed.
What think you of the words his servant spoke to him?” That day the
Adelantado had arranged with Don Lorenzo and three other soldiers that the
Camp Master should be put to death. This was very different from what I
had understood that he intended to do, but such things ought to be stated as,
in my opinion, will explain the change. A certain person told me that a bad
third person had said to the Adelantado that if he would have the Camp
Master stabbed (he did not say that he should be killed), but that if he
should be killed—Let those of better understanding judge, for I do not hold
it to be right to sit in judgment on the living and the dead.
 Chapter XVII.

How the Chief Pilot went to seek for provisions, and how Malope came to make
peace, and the friendship that was established.

On the following day the Chief Pilot asked permission from the Adelantado
to go in search of food. Having received it, he went in the boat, with twenty
men, to a village where he only saw one man with a little boy. The rest had
fled into the woods. On entering and searching the houses, nothing to eat
was found. The Pilot followed a path which seemed to lead to the cultivated
patches of the natives, and some pigs were seen, which ran into the woods.
The Chief Pilot then heard the report of an arquebus, and presently another.
On this he went back to the beach, where he had left the boat in charge of
four arquebusiers. Arriving on the beach, he found Malope, who had come
with two canoes, and said: “Friends; let us all come and eat.” These words,
and some others, we had learnt. He then told us by signs that we should
embark, and come with him to a place where he had many pigs and other
food. He sent the other canoe in advance. The Chief Pilot embarked, and
told Malope to call the natives of that village. They came back, and
arranged, on their return, to have food collected. Malope rowed his canoe,
our boat followed, and, arriving at two other villages, a similar arrangement
was made. We then entered the village of the warlike natives. They gave us
a pig, and a few cocoa-nuts and plantains. As this seemed little, the Chief
Pilot asked for more. But the natives took up arms, and retired behind their
houses and the trunks of trees with their bows and arrows, shouting and
apparently calling to Malope. He seemed to be undecided, looking at one
party and then at the other. The Chief Pilot, who always kept Malope by his
side, drew his dagger and threatened Malope if he should attempt to go, or
should not tell the natives not to shoot off their arrows. If they did, they
would all be killed with the arquebuses. With an ignited cord he got ready
to fire them off. Malope went to the village, and induced them to offer that,
when the sun showed it to be three o’clock, they would come with what
they could get ready. Malope called them, and they presently came, giving
us many plantains and cocoa-nuts to eat. They also invited us to come and
shoot natives on the other side of the bay, and to kill pigs. Having
embarked, the boat followed the canoe, but the Chief Pilot marched along
the shore with sixteen men and three native guides. Seeing some birds, the
natives made signs that we should shoot them with the arquebus. The Chief
Pilot would not consent, though some of the men urged it. His reason was
that to shoot a ball at a small object would have a doubtful result; and he
did not wish the natives to think that the result was uncertain; that they
might not lose their fear of the arquebus.

Malope landed, the boat and canoe remaining side by side. All being on
shore, they found the spring which has been mentioned. Malope sat down
by it, and made signs that we should drink. From there we went to a village
where the natives had ready for us a great heap of many plantains, sweet
canes, cocoa-nuts, almonds, roots, biscuits, mats, and two pigs. Thus we
went from village to village, and they gave fourteen pigs and of other things
as much as we could take. The natives were always quiet, with the large
canoes ready with their paddles, and themselves sitting under the shadow of
them. There were some who gave us plantains and roasted roots, open
cocoa-nuts, and water taken from the wells, doing all with as much good
will as if they had been well paid. Malope showed himself to be contented,
and said that we might come further, and he would get more food for us. He
took us to a higher part, and all the natives round heard and respected him
as Lord or great friend.

The Chief Pilot, by signs, told him to make the natives carry that food, and
at a word from him they had it all on their shoulders. It was worth seeing
when more than a hundred natives went along the shore in a line. Having
reached the boat, they put all they carried into it. Malope told the Chief
Pilot to embrace the General for him, and took his leave. The Chief Pilot
embarked, and went to the villages already mentioned, receiving from the
natives what they came out in their canoes to give us.

The provisions that we brought were good, but to some it seemed too small
a supply. They said to the Chief Pilot that he should let them go on shore;
that they would take, burn, and kill; that the natives were dogs, and that
they did not come from Peru to be satisfied with nothing. The Chief Pilot
replied: “Does a boat laden with what has cost no money, and given with
good will by our friend Malope, seem to you to be nothing?” They
answered according to their knowledge, and the Chief Pilot proceeded as
appeared to be necessary.

I have related this in such detail, because it is much to the purpose in this
narrative, as will be seen further on. Having arrived at the ship, Doña Isabel
told the Chief Pilot that the other day the soldiers went from the camp to
kill Malope. The Adelantado sent to tell them of the friendship Malope had
shown, and desiring that notice should be given in the camp not to do him
any harm, as he had done so much good to us. The Adelantado appreciated
what this native had done, praising his good conduct. He rose from his bed
to see what had been brought on board, which was very fairly distributed,
and he said to the Chief Pilot that he only wanted the same share as a
companion.
 Chapter XVIII.

How the Adelantado went on shore with the Chief Pilot, and ordered a squadron
of soldiers who were going in search of food not to kill Malope. It relates the
death of the Camp Master, and other cruelties.

When the night came, the Adelantado sent for the Chief Pilot, and made
him sit by his bedside, where he was lying ill. With very great caution, he
told him that he intended to go on shore the next morning with four men in
whom he had most confidence, all armed, and that he would be
accompanied by the royal standard, and would proclaim the will of the King
at the proper time; for that he had to go and to do justice on the Camp
Master, for reasons which moved him so to act.

That night the Chief Pilot caused the usual careful watch to be kept, and at
dawn they asked for the boat from the camp, with loud voices. On hearing
them, Doña Isabel came from her bed, saying: “Alas! alas! they have killed
my brothers, and they ask for the boat to come and kill us.” The Adelantado
would not listen, and as soon as it was day a squadron of thirty soldiers
came out of the camp. The Adelantado ordered them to be told not to go on
before he had spoken to them. Embarking with his people, he asked who
was their leader, who had sent them, and where they were going. The
Lieutenant answered that he was the leader, and that they were ordered by
the Camp Master to go to the village of Malope and seek for food. The
Adelantado warned them not to kill Malope, nor to do him any harm, nor
take any of his property, as he was our friend, and that they should take him
with them. He knew quite well that they came for food, and, turning to the
Chief Pilot, the Adelantado told him to relate to the soldiers all that had
passed with Malope the day before. They heard it laughing.

The Adelantado had with him the Captain of the galeot, who carried a great
wood-knife.1 On the shore the Captain, Don Lorenzo, his brothers, and a
few sailors, were waiting. Having landed, the Adelantado joined those who
were on the shore, and went to the fort which the Camp Master was
constructing in great haste. Before arriving, there were not wanting those
who asked what was it they were wanted to do there, and one was cleaning
his arquebus. The General arrived at the camp when the Camp Master was
having his breakfast. He came out just as he was, without coat or hat, to
receive the General, and when he found himself among so many who were
not his friends, he called for staff, dagger and sword.

Those who had to do the deed were arriving. The Adelantado raised his eyes
to heaven, and, giving a sigh, put his hand to his sword, saying: “Long live
the King! Death to traitors!” Upon this, without any delay, one Juan
Antonio de la Roca took the Camp Master by the collar, and gave him two
stabs, one in the mouth and the other on the breast. Then a Sergeant, with a
Bohemian knife, gave him another in the side. The Camp Master cried:
“Oh, gentlemen!” He turned to get his sword, but the Captain, with his
wood-knife, nearly cut off his right arm. He fell, saying: “Oh, leave me time
to confess.” One answered that “there was no time. You can well feel
contrition.” The wretched man was palpitating, stretched on the ground, and
crying, “Jesus Maria!” A good woman came up, and helped him to die in
peace. One with a kind heart did no more than draw out the sword, and the
woman gave it up. So the body was left, and the Adelantado approved the
slaughter.

This being done, it was presently ordered to be proclaimed that the Camp
Master was dead, and that all the rest were pardoned in the name of his
Majesty. The Camp Master having expired, the drummer, coveting his
clothes, left him naked.

The Camp Master was very zealous, a hard worker and good soldier, and in
all enterprises he was the first. He appeared to be about sixty years of age,
for his hair was quite white, and, though old, he was vigorous, but very
impetuous. He knew how to think much, but he could not be silent, and I
believe that for no other thing he was killed.

At this time Don Luis and the Chief Pilot were talking near the tent of two
friends of the Camp Master, and Don Luis seized one of them and stabbed
him. The soldier cried out: “For me? For me? What have I done?” Don Luis