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Java Programming 9th

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1. Is each of the following class identifiers (a) legal and conventional, (b) legal but
unconventional, or (c) illegal?

a. myClass b

b. void c

c. Golden Retriever c

d. invoice# c

e. 36542ZipCode c

f. Apartment a

g. Fruit a

h. 8888 c

i. displayTotal() c

j. Accounts_Receivable b

2. Is each of the following method identifiers (a) legal and conventional, (b) legal but
unconventional, or (c) illegal?

a. associationRules() a

b. void() c

c. Golden Retriever() c

d. invoice#() c

e. 36542ZipCode() c

f. PayrollApp() b

g. getReady() a

h. 911() c
 i. displayTotal() a

j. Accounts_Receivable() b

3. Name at least three attributes that might be appropriate for each of the following classes:

a. RealEstateisting

streetAddress, numberOfBedrooms, price

b. Vacation

lengthInDays, destination, cost

c. CreditCardBill

creditCardNumber, nameOnAccount, amountDue

4. Name at least three real-life objects that are instances of each of the following classes:

a. Song

Happy Birthday, Star Spangled Banner, All You Need is Love

b. CollegeCourse

History 102, English 200, Math 101

c. Musician

Yo-Yo Ma, Vladimir Horowitz, Eric Clapton

5. Name at least three classes to which each of these objects might belong:

a. myGrandmothersBrooch

Jewelry, Antique, Possession

b. eggsBenedict

Breakfast, EggDish, ExpensiveMeals

c. cookieMonster

SesameStreetCharacter, BlueCharacter ChildrensCharacter

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Reproduced by Permission of the Philadelphia Museums
A State Elephant of India with Howdah
 Baby-elephants also can be taught to play many tricks, such as to
sit at table, use the fan, and the like. We are told of two of them
named Jock and Jenny, that would come in, bow to the audience,
mount on a plank, and see-saw like a couple of children. One of
them would then walk on the tops of a double row of bottles. They
would also play on an organ and drum, dance to the sound of bells,
and do other clever tricks.
If we seek elephant stories of another kind there are a number of
cases in which the animals have been hurt and borne surgical
treatment with great patience. There is a case where one went blind
through some disease in its eyes. Nitrate of silver was applied to one
eye and caused so great a pain that the animal roared wildly. But the
treatment did the eyes so much good that when the doctor came
the next day to try it on the other eye, the animal lay down, placed
his head quietly to one side, and drew in his breath as we would do
when expecting to be hurt. When it was over he gave a sigh of
relief, and showed how grateful he was by movements of his trunk.
This is one out of various tales of this kind that could be told. The
elephant here learned by the good done to one eye that he was
going to be helped with the other, and made up his mind to bear the
pain for the good it would bring him.
Not many animals can learn things without being taught, but the
elephant can. One thing a tamed elephant is taught to do is to pick
up things from the ground and hand them to the driver on his
shoulders. At first he is made to pick up only soft articles, for he is
apt to throw them up with force and might hurt the man above.
After a time the animal gets to notice the difference between soft
things and hard things. A bundle of clothes may still be thrown up
with force, but a hard and heavy thing, such as a piece of iron chain,
will be handed up gently. The wise creature learns in time to pick up
a sharp knife by its handle and lay it on his head so that the driver
can also take it up by the handle, and when made to pick up things
it has never seen before it shows that it knows how to deal with
them.
 We might go on and give many other examples of the mental
powers of the elephant, but enough have been given to show that
this great creature is one of the most sensible of all beasts and is as
quick at learning the best way to do things as any others of the
animal tribe. And it can think out things for itself, which shows finer
thought than to have them taught it by others.
 IV
ANIMALS USED FOR FOOD AND CLOTHING
When we think of the many things man does with the animals he
has tamed, the first that comes into our minds is their use in hunting
and as house guards and pets. But we must not forget how useful
they are as workers, in the fields and in the roads, in war and in
peace. For long ages they were the only helpers that men had in
work and travel. Only within our own times have we found out how
to put the forces of nature at work for us and how much stronger
those are than any animals. The animals kept by us have one value
for which the forces of nature can never serve. That is their value for
food. While we can use the power of the winds and of coal and iron
in doing work, we cannot feed upon these or anything of this kind.
To live we must have food, and this we can get only from the world
of plants and animals. We also use the skins and furs of animals for
clothing, and weave warm cloths out of their wool and hair. These
are the things I now propose to talk about.

THE CATTLE OF THE FIELD

Is there anything that adds more to the beauty of a scene in the

country than the grazing cows that give life to the fields, now
cropping the grass, now resting under the shade of the trees, now
wading in cool streams, now lying in midday rest? They are so mild
and gentle, and look at us so quietly out of their big, kindly eyes that
we cannot help keeping a soft spot for them in our hearts.
 Making Friends with a Guernsey Calf
They wear horns, but they do not use them, and we can walk
through a herd of these large animals as safely as through a grove
of trees; that is, if they are all cows, if there is not a bull among
them. The bull, the male form of the cattle tribe, is a creature we
must watch. If he happens to be cross and bad-tempered, as is
often the case, he is not safe to trust. It is certainly not wise to wear
a red coat or hat in a field where a bull is kept, for he seems to look
on this color as a challenge to battle. To have to run from a bull is no
fun, at least not if he gets close enough to help you over a fence
with his horns.
But we seldom see a savage cow. These are quiet, dull animals,
that have no thought of anything but to crop the grass and flick off
the flies from their skin with their waving tails. They do not have to
take care of themselves. Their masters and mistresses take care of
them, so they have nothing to do or think of but to grow fat and
yield milk.
There are wild cattle in various parts of the earth, and these have
to take care of themselves, but the cattle of our fields have been
kept tame so long that it is hard to tell from what wild species they
came. We know that they were kept by the people of Egypt and
China thousands of years ago, and that the Egyptians had certain
bulls which they worshiped as gods. The bull and the cow are sacred
animals in India and are never killed for food by the Hindu people.
In modern times the cow has been kept chiefly for the milk she
gives. She is also kept as a food animal, but is not made to work,
like the bull and the ox. The animal that is killed for food is a large,
well-fed beast, with straight back and well developed body. As for
the bull, its savage nature is made use of in the bull-fights of Spain
and it is also used in the "bull-races" of the South of France.
Cows, as well as bulls and oxen, have two horns on their head. In
some breeds these are very long and powerful, but there are others
that have no horns and in fighting use their heads to butt with. In
this way they can give a powerful blow. With his head, his horns and
his hoofs an angry bull is an animal that it is best to keep away
from.
Cattle are of many colors and it is this which gives beauty to
many of them. Among them we find such colors as black, white,
yellow, brown, fawn, reddish brown, black-spotted and other hues,
this variety of colors giving new beauty to a herd of grazing cows. It
is a pretty sight to see them strolling up the leafy lane in the evening
to the milking shed, with a boy and a dog to keep them moving.

MILK-GIVING COWS

There are a number of animals from which men get milk, but
chief of all these is the cow. Those are breeds of cows which are
kept only for milk-giving and which have been brought to yield so
much and such rich milk as to make them of great value. In all
history we read of the milkmaid, the girl whose duty it is to milk the
cows, one of the chief duties on a farm. Nowadays we do not hear
so much about the milkmaid. She has for the most part gone out of
business.
No doubt, many of my young friends have seen how milking is
done, the cow with its full udders, the white stream of milk which
flows from the teats when pressed, and the large quantity of this
rich fluid which some cows will give. Perhaps some of you may have
tried the art yourselves, but it is an art that needs to be learned, and
many cows will not yield their milk to awkward fingers. Some of
them, indeed, when they do not like the milker, will kick over the full
bucket and now and then the milker with it.
In some way the cow turns part of the grass she eats into this
rich fluid, so useful to mankind, not only as a drink, but for the
butter and cheese it yields. Nature provides milk to all animals of the
class known as mammals as food for their young, but by long usage
the cow has been brought to give milk at all times and thus helps to
feed her keepers as well as her calves.
I hardly need tell you that milk is a white fluid in which float small
globes of fat. This fat is the butter of which we make so much use.
If the milk is let stand, the butter floats to the top and is skimmed
off in a rich fluid we call cream. By various modes of churning the
butter is got out of the cream, leaving a thin liquid behind called
buttermilk.
Butter is not the only thing got from milk. Cheese is another
product of much use. It is made from the solid parts of the milk.
When an acid, or a substance called rennet, which is obtained from
the calf's stomach, is put into the milk, the solids come together in a
soft, white jelly, leaving a greenish, watery liquid called whey. It is
from this jelly, or curd, that cheese is made by pressing out the
whey and leaving a hard, solid mass. There are many ways of
making cheese and many different kinds of cheese, often so unlike
that we can scarcely think they came from the same source.
 Back to the Pasture After the Milking
Now let me say something about the various breeds of milk-giving
or dairy cows. They differ very much. Some give a great deal of
milk; some much less. There are cows that have given as much as
twenty-four quarts of milk a day. Think of six gallons from one cow
in one day, enough to fill a vessel of large size! Others may give only
ten quarts or even less.
But the cow that gives the most milk does not always give the
best, for there is great difference in the richness of milk. Thus the
best butter makers may not be those that fill the fullest pail. The
quantity of milk depends on the food eaten, the kind and plenty of
grass in the fields or hay in the stables. But the amount of butter in
it seems to come from something in the animal herself.
You have often heard, and perhaps often seen, the different
breeds of dairy cows, the Jerseys and others. There are many of
these breeds. The Dutch cattle, those that come from Holland, are
mostly good milk-givers, also those of Holstein and Friesland yield a
very full pail, and there are splendid milk-givers elsewhere.
All of us must have seen the beautiful cows from the Channel
Islands, near the coast of France, known as Jerseys and Guernseys,
often called Alderneys, now so common in our fields and which give
such rich milk, from which splendid butter is made. We may also
speak of the Ayrshire cow of Scotland, which is of high value to the
cheese-maker. All these and other cows have been brought in
numbers to this country, which has no good breeds of its own.
Did any of my readers ever try to churn cream into butter? Those
who have done so did not find it very easy work. To lift a long rod up
and down or turn a handle till your arms feel ready to drop off is
never the best of fun. In past times all butter-making had to be done
in this way, with some sort of churn, but now in large dairies a small
engine is used to do the work. In our days great part of the butter is
made in creameries to which the farmers take their milk. Here the
cream from 600 or 800 cows may be dealt with by one skilful butter-
maker, who handles it with great care, so that we get a better
quality of butter than was of old made on most of the farms.
 From Davis's Practical Farming
The Holstein Cow, a Great Milk Giver

This way of getting the butter from the cream was started in the
United States, where now there are thousands of creameries in the
many states. From this country it has spread to many parts of
Europe, but there most of the butter is still made on the farm.
Cheese is also made in the same wholesale way and American
cheese is sold in many parts of the world.
 We use here so much milk and butter that it is not easy for us to
see how people anywhere can do without it. Yet there are parts of
the world where cow's milk is not used. Thus if one should go to
China he would find the people making no use of the milk of their
cows. And in India the milk of the buffalo is liked better than that of
the cow. Even in parts of Europe little use is made of milk and
butter. This is the case in Italy, where olive oil takes the place of
butter. But almost everywhere, except in India, much use is made of
cattle for food, and of this something must now be said.

BEEF-MAKING CATTLE

In the United States the raising of cattle for meat is a great

business. For years past this country has fed its own people and
helped to feed those of Europe. The meat of cattle killed in Chicago
and other cities is sold in the markets of London and other parts of
England and the people of that country have long been growing fat
on American beef. This is not so much the case in Germany, France,
and Russia, for great numbers of cattle are raised there, but at times
we could find the beef of our country on the tables of most of these
lands.
When the white man went to America he found no cattle there.
But it was not long before there were plenty of them, brought from
Spain, France, England and other countries. These spread all over
the continent until there were cattle everywhere. But these were not
the best of cattle. There were no fine breeds raised here as in
Europe.
 Reproduced by Permission of the Philadelphia Museums
Ox Team and Native Cart, with Wooden Wheels, Nicaragua

This is the reason why so many Jersey, Ayrshire, Dutch and other
fine milk-givers have been brought here from Europe. Meat-making
cattle have also been brought, those known as Shorthorns,
Herefords, and others, and now we can find in our fields great
numbers of fine, fat animals, which are taking the place of the old
poor stock.
Good beef cattle are large and square in shape, full and broad
over the back, with thick legs, short necks, and well rounded bodies.
The eye is bright, the face short, the skin soft, the flesh mellow and
rich.
Cattle of this kind are to be seen now in numbers in our fields.
But the great cattle-raising sections of this country are the broad
grassy plains of the West and the vast fields of Texas. Here may be
seen the great ranges, where for long years past cattle have been
kept by the millions, roaming about, feeding on the rich grass, and
growing fat and juicy.
 Here also is the home of the cowboy, the man who lives on the
horse and rides as if horse and man were one animal. His duty it is
to ride among the great herds, keep them in order, stop them when
they run away in mad fright, and live among them as the sheep-dog
lives among the sheep. Brave fellows and splendid riders are these
cowboys, among the best in the world.
If you should go west to-day you would not find the open cattle
range of the past. The cattle-owners have found it best to fence in
their ground, and wire fences may now be seen all over that once
open country. But the fields thus made are very large and the
cowboy still finds plenty to keep him busy.
If we seek other parts of the world we shall find cattle-ranges like
those of the United States. In South America there are two great
regions of this kind. One of these is in Venezuela. Here are great
open plains called llanos, covered with rich, thick grass on which
millions of cattle feed. The same is the case with the pampas of
Argentina, vast prairies over which cattle roam in countless numbers.
On those great plains dwell the brothers of the cowboy, daring
riders whose lives are spent in the care of the grazing herds. The
Gauchos, as the cattlemen of Argentina are called, are not the sons
of civilized fathers like our cowboys. They are a race by themselves,
bold and hardy, but ignorant, many of them part Indian. But they
are born and bred to the saddle and no riders can surpass them in
handling their swift horses.
Of the other countries where great herds of cattle are to be found
we may name South Africa and Russia. Mongolia, in the Asiatic part
of Russia, is a land of vast plains, called steppes. This may have
been the first region in which cattle were kept. As far back as history
goes the herdsmen of this great region have been roaming about
with their cattle, horses and other animals, living in tents, and
moving from place to place seeking new fields of grass when the old
ones are cropped. This was their life thousands of years ago and this
is their life to-day, and they seem no more civilized now than they
were then.
 We do not care to talk about the killing of these fat herds. That
has nothing to do with Home-Life, except in so far as we find their
meat on our tables, for the killing is mostly done in great sheds and
pens built for that purpose. It will be enough to say that the animals
we have been talking about are of the greatest use to man. They
work for him, they feed him with their milk and flesh, and after their
death nearly every part of them is of use. From their skins leather is
made and we walk upon their hides in our shoes. From the bones
glue and gelatine are obtained, and when the bones are ground they
are used to fertilize our fields. In fact use is made of nearly all parts
of the animal and hardly a scrap of it goes to waste.

An Ox-team on a Florida Plantation

IN THE BULL RING

The bull is not a nice animal to deal with. It is often surly and
savage, and few of us care to be in the same field with it. In some
parts of the world its courage is made use of in a brutal kind of
sport. In former times what was called bull-baiting was very
common in England, and might be to-day only for the laws. A bull
was driven into a closed-in place and dogs were sent in to fight with
him. Sometimes, to make him furious, pepper was blown into his
nose before he was set free.
At times a dozen or more dogs were sent in at once. At other
times the bull was tied to a stake by a rope of some length, and
bulldogs were set upon him, one at a time. They were trained to
seize the fierce animal by the nose, which was called "pinning the
bull." But the best fun to the lookers-on was when the bull lowered
his head to the ground, caught a dog on his horns and tossed him a
long distance away. Bull-baiting was kept up until 1835, when laws
were passed to stop this cruel sport.
But bull-fighting, which has long been very common in Spain, is
still kept up in that country. In ancient times fights between bulls
and men were common in Greece and Rome, but in modern times
they have been held only in Spain and its colonies. They may be
seen to-day in the cities of Spain and Mexico.
As we have a baseball season in this country so they have a bull-
fight season in Spain. In the city of Madrid it lasts from April to
November, there being at least one fight every week. The fights are
held in a kind of circus, with seats for 10,000 or 15,000 people, who
have to pay well to see the brutal game.
There are three classes of men who take part in a bull-fight. The
first of these are the "picadores." These fight on horseback, each of
them with a lance. If the bull is a coward they crowd upon and kill it.
If it is brave they often have to fight for their own lives. The bull
may lift the poor horse on its horns or may throw the rider, who is
sometimes killed.
 Reproduced by Permission of the Philadelphia Museums
Carting Manila Hemp. Philippine Islands

When the picadore is in danger the second class, the "chulos,"

run in. They wear bright-colored cloaks and gay ribbons and draw
the bull after them by waving their bright cloaks in his face. When
the bull shows signs of being tired these men throw darts at him
which stick into his neck. Some of these bear fire-crackers, the noise
of which makes the bull furious.
 Reproduced by Permission of the Philadelphia Museums
Moose in Harness. This is a Rare Use of this Great Deer-like Animal

Now the third man comes in, the "matadore." He is on foot and
carries a sword, and in his left hand is a short stick with a piece of
red silk tied to it. When the angry bull sees this red stick he rushes
at it, for he hates anything red. Now the matadore has his chance.
With one quick stroke he thrusts the sword into the animal between
the shoulder-blade and the spine, driving it in to the hilt, and the
poor bull falls dead.
Then a team of mules, gay with flags and bells, enter and drag
out the dead bull, another is driven in, and the fight begins again.
The horses and bulls are the chief sufferers, it being said that about
2500 bulls and 3500 horses are killed every year in the bull-fights of
Spain. The horses used are poor creatures, only fit to end their lives
in a bull-fight.
The people cheer the matadore for his victory; but they are quite
as ready to cheer the bull that has killed his man. But it is a rare
thing for a man to be killed in the fight, usually it is only the poor
animals that suffer. The other nations of Europe and the people of
this country do not like bull-fights. They look on them as cruel and
unfit for civilized times. But the people of Spain love them and will
not give them up.

THE WOOL-CLAD SHEEP

Long, long ago, hundreds of years before men began to write

history, perhaps before they had tamed any other animal, the woolly
creature called the sheep began to share the home-life of man. In
the first pages of the Bible we find its name. Abel, the second son of
Adam and Eve, was a keeper of sheep before he was killed by his
brother Cain. It may have been kept in very early times in all parts
of the earth, for the sheep can live in all climates, from hot to cold,
and its meat and wool are of great use for food and clothing.
Also it is easily tamed, and in the ages of the past it became so
used to being taken care of that it has long forgotten how to take
care of itself. Thus the sheep that crop the grass in our fields have
come to be stupid animals. But this is not the case with the wild
sheep which are found in various parts of the earth. These are quite
able to fight their own battles and are sharp-witted, like most wild
animals.
 It is only the female sheep, the ewe, that is so dull. We all know
that the male sheep, the ram, is much more wide-awake. These
often have very large horns, and the wild ram knows quite well how
to take care of himself and his family. They will run from danger if
they have to, but if cornered can make a very good fight. Even one
of our field rams has at times shown itself a good match for a bull.
While much smaller in size, it is far more active and can hit a very
hard blow with its bony head and big horns.
Have you ever seen a fighting ram? One of them has been known
to throw a bull to the ground at the first rush. It can fight dogs, too,
and is always ready to defend itself and its flock. Rams also fight
one another, and when two of them come together at full run, their
heads crack like the sound of a musket and their hind parts are lifted
into the air. Many sheep have no horns, and these are not so fond of
fighting, as the horns are a great help to them.
Men keep sheep for two things, their wool and their meat. The
same is the case with cattle, which are also kept for two things, their
milk and their meat. All over the earth people are fond of mutton, or
the meat of the sheep, while the wool is used wherever warm
clothes are needed. In some cold countries the skin of the sheep,
with its woolly coat, is used as a cloak and is found a warm
covering.
The wool of wild sheep is short and lies below an outside coat of
long, straight hair. But this hair is lost in the tame animals and a coat
of long, thick wool takes its place. Wool, you should know, differs
from hair in having a scaly surface, which causes its fibres to cling
together. This makes it good for twisting into yarn and weaving into
cloth, also for felting, as in the making of felt hats and rugs.
Of course very many of you have seen the sheep in the field,
walking slowly about all day long, cropping, cropping, cropping, as if
eating were all it lived for. This is the case all over the earth, for
sheep are the most common of our farm animals and are kept in
vast multitudes in various countries. So tame and gentle are they
that the shepherd and his dog can easily keep a large flock in order.
He has to guard them in some countries against wolves and also
against sheep-killing dogs.

Cattle and Sheep of the Scottish Highlands

The sheep is a mountain animal, not a native of the level plains
like the horse and the ox. The wild sheep do not live on level ground
but among the lofty hills and are often found in very high places. We
have one species in our own country, the Big-horn or Rocky
Mountain Sheep, which can climb over the roughest cliffs and plunge
down steep places without hurting itself. There are other species in
Asia and Africa, with the same habits.
From this we know why tame sheep are so fond of hill climbing
and why they do so well in such rough regions as the Highlands of
Scotland. Young lambs are very fond of climbing every little hill they
see. When feeding, sheep like mountain sides better than they do
plains. Here they nibble away at the short, fine grasses, which they
like better than any other food.
You may have read of troubles and fights between the shepherds
and cowboys of our western plains. This comes from the close
nibbling of the sheep, which cuts the grass down to its roots and
leaves no food for the cattle. On this account the cattlemen hate the
sheep-men and in some cases kill large flocks of sheep. The sheep
are said to do harm also on the mountain sides, clipping the grass so
close with their sharp teeth that the rains carry away the soil, and
leave none for the trees to take root in.
There are a number of countries in which sheep are kept in
mighty flocks. These are the United States, Europe, Argentina,
Australia and New Zealand. There are numbers of them also in Asia
and Africa and here there are several queer kinds, which would
seem very strange to us. The oddest of these is the fat-tailed sheep.
The tail of this animal grows to a very great size and has been
known to weigh 70 or 80 pounds. It is a big bunch of fat of which
the people of those countries are very fond. In some cases, to keep
it from being hurt by dragging on the ground, little wagons are used
and the sheep go about dragging their tail behind them in a sort of
baby carriage.
There is another kind with a huge hump of fat on its hind-
quarters and hardly any tail at all. On the other hand the Circassian
sheep has a tail so long that it trails behind on the grass and is
covered with fine, long wool. There is a kind of sheep in Africa with
very long legs and hanging ears, and in several places they have odd
kinds of horns. Those of the sheep of Wallachia make a complete
turn and then rise up from the head to a great length. The Iceland
sheep and some of those of Russia has three, four, and even five
horns.
In Europe sheep have been kept during many centuries and a
number of useful breeds are now to be found in the different
countries, some with fine, thick wool, some with rich, juicy meat. All
of the sheep of this country were brought from Europe, and many of
the best breeds are kept here, among them the Southdown of
England, which is of value for its splendid mutton.
But nearly the whole of our sheep came from the Merinos of
Spain, a kind of sheep which has been kept in that country from the
past ages on account of its fine, soft wool. The Merino may now be
found all over America and Europe and also in Australia, so that it is
the most common kind of sheep on the earth. The first of them were
brought to our country in 1801 and we have now many millions of
their descendants.
There is much more that could be said about sheep. No meat is
more common on our tables than mutton and in all cold countries
woolen clothing is worn. In Bokhara, a country of Central Asia, is a
sheep which yields the valuable astrakhan fur. This is not taken from
the full-grown sheep, but from the lambs. When very young these
bear a short, fine wool, curled all over them in small locks. To make
it curl better they are sewn up, while very young, in another skin or
a piece of coarse linen. Long hairs soon grow through the wool and
to prevent this the lambs are killed when they are only a few days
old.
 The Merino Ram, the Great Wool Bearer
There is still another use to which sheep are put. This is the
making of cheese. There is a breed in the south of France which are
milked and from their milk is made the famous Roquefort cheese. In
making this layers of moist bread crumbs, ground to powder, are
placed between layers of the milk curds. This mixture is pressed and
salted and then kept for a month or more in dark mountain caves.
There the cheese ripens and gets the special flavor for which it is
liked.

WOOL SHEARING AND WEAVING

 Sheep are of value for various things: their meat, which so many
like; their skins, from which parchment and fine leather are made;
their bones, used in making buttons; their fat, for soap and candles;
but most of all their wool, which has long been the most valued
product. So here I must tell the story of this very useful animal fibre.
Go back as far as we can in history we read of the sheep-
shearing. You may find it spoken of in the early parts of the Bible as
a time of feasting and merry-making. In many countries it is a
festival time. In past ages people seem to have cared more for the
wool than for the meat, though now sheep are kept as much for
their mutton as for their wool.
In the past the custom was to pull the wool from the sheep at the
molting season. This is the time when the sheep shed their wool and
when it comes out easily. But it is at times a cruel process, as the
skin may come off with the wool. It is still done in Ireland and in
parts of Europe, but the common custom in these days is to cut the
wool with a sort of tool or machine. This cuts the wool in a smooth
and even manner and does not hurt the sheep. It also can be done
in much less time. When in the old way it took half an hour to shear
a sheep, in the new way it can be done in ten minutes or less.
The sheep should be washed and the wool cleaned before they
are sheared and this is done in our country and in some others. But
in many places it is not done and the fleece is cut with all the grease
and sweat in it. Of course, these fleeces have to be washed by the
buyers, and do not bring so good a price.
Shall I say something about the uses of wool? In all times it has
been used for making cloth for clothing, and spinning and weaving
are very old duties of the household. If wool is made damp and then
pounded it clings together so as to form a kind of felt, and in our
times much wool is used in this way to make felts for hats, carpets
and shoes.
Felting is a simple process, but in weaving there are many things
to be done. The wool has to be combed out, spun into yarn, and
handled in other ways before it can be woven into cloth and fitted
for making into clothes.
All this business of yarn-making and weaving is now done in great
factories, fitted with machines, which rattle and roar as they swiftly
change the rough fleeces of wool into smooth sheets of cloth. But all
this work in former times had to be done at home, in a much slower
way, from which there came a rough, coarse cloth called homespun.
This was the way in use in this country in the times of the
colonies. Many of the old spinning-wheels, by which the wool was
spun into yarn, are still kept and may be seen in museums, and
some of the old looms by which the yarn was woven into cloth are
also to be seen.
It was hard work for the women of the house to make the
clothing of the family in this slow way. A suit of clothes then had to
be worn for a long time, for they took too much labor in the making
to be thrown aside as quickly as they now are. It was in these
homespun clothes that our soldiers won freedom in the Revolution,
and they were woven after that date. But in time the factory came,
cloth grew plentiful and cheap, and the rattle of the old spinning-
wheel was no longer heard in the land.

THE BEARDED GOAT

Now we come to an animal in some ways much like the sheep,

but in other ways very little like it. This is the goat, a more vigorous
and hardy animal. Unlike the sheep, it wears a beard under its chin.
It is not kept much in our country, for it is not well fitted for cold
climates, but likes best the warm airs of Southern Europe and Asia
and Northern Africa. Some of my readers may only know this animal
from taking a ride in a goat carriage when young. Or they may have
seen it roaming about in rough places eating anything it could find,
for that is the way with the goat. It will even eat tobacco and seems
to think this a fine diet.
 The wild goat, like the wild sheep, is a dweller in the mountains.
It is still more daring than the sheep. No peaks are too high for it to
climb, and when chased by the hunter it will make long jumps from
one pointed rock to another where no man would dare to follow. No
other animal can equal the goat in climbing and leaping. It is even
said that some kinds of goats will jump down from a high place and
save themselves by falling on their strong horns. But I do not know
if anybody ever saw this done.
A well-known wild goat is the Ibex of the Alps. This is a splendid
fellow, with long and strong horns but no beard. It used to be very
common, but has been shot at so much that very few are left. The
Chamois of the Alps is an antelope, but is much like the goat, and is
a wonderful jumper. It thinks nothing of leaping over a ravine
sixteen or eighteen feet wide, or over a wall fourteen feet high, or of
running up and down very steep hills. But the hunters have killed
most of these animals also. They think it fine sport to shoot a poor
chamois and let it fall to die in a deep abyss where no one can reach
it to get its body. There are many who do not think this good sport.
Goats, like sheep, were tamed and made natives of the home and
farm very long ago, no one knows how long. The tame kind comes
from the wild goat of Southern Asia, but it has grown smaller in size
and its horns have become shorter. It was kept in Bible times and by
the old Greeks and Romans. These kept it for its milk and the cheese
made from it, and also for its meat. The flesh of the kid, or young
goat, is very good, but that of the old goat has a strong and
unpleasant smell which few people can endure.
 The Alpine Ibex. Note the Curiously Knobbed Horns
In modern times Greece and its islands have more goats than
they have people and there are many in Malta and Corsica, Italy and
Spain. They are not kept largely in the United States, there being
about one goat to every fifty sheep.
The goat will thrive where the ox and the sheep would starve, as
on rocky hill-sides or thin, poor soil. There is little they will not eat,
though you had best not believe that they are fond of old tin cans or
any diet of this kind. One bad habit they have is to gnaw the young
shoots of trees, of which they are very fond. This makes them
deadly to forests, for no young trees can grow where they are kept.
The goat has done much to kill out the trees on the hills of southern
Europe and Asia and thus to destroy the forests of those regions. It
is also fond of the grape-vine, and on this account, in ancient times,
it was sacrificed to Bacchus, the god of wine.
The goat is far from being so dull and stupid an animal as the
sheep. It makes friends with its keepers and is a cunning and
curious brute, though too fond of using its horns. This is often done
in play, but in a way that is not very funny, except to those who look
on. It will rear up and pretend to attack you with its head and horns,
but this is only its way to ask you to play with it. The playful pranks
of the kid, or young goat, are often spoken of in poetry. It is a gay
little creature, fond of capering about in an amusing way.
In fact the goat is not at all stupid and has often shown sense
and cunning. There is a story of a goat that rang a door bell when
hungry for its dinner, by hooking its horn in the wire. Another story
is of two goats that came face to face on a narrow ridge in the
rocks. There was no room to pass and after looking at each other for
some minutes one of them lay down and let the other walk over its
body. Two men could not have done better than that. The long-
eared Syrian goat is trained to do all sorts of tricks. One of these is
to balance itself on a pile of small wooden blocks built up to a height
of several feet. Fancy a sheep doing this!
 Milk Goats in the Alps
If it be asked what are goats kept for, the answer would be,
chiefly for their milk. Goats' milk is very rich and is easy to digest
and this makes it of much use for sick or feeble persons, to whom
cows' milk is at times dangerous. It is very good for consumptive
people. In parts of Europe it is thought that certain diseases of
horses and cattle will not come when goats are with them, so they
are often kept in stables and cow-barns to ward off disease.
Though the goat is a small animal it gives a large quantity of milk,
often from four to six quarts a day and sometimes more than this.
There are cases where twelve quarts a day have been given. The
milk is apt to have a bitter taste and an unpleasant odor, but that
comes from the way the animals are fed and kept. With good care
and food, the milk will lose this taste. The goats of Syria and
Palestine give sweet milk and goats' milk is much used in that part of
the world, as it was in the old Bible times. The Arabs have a great
dislike for cows' milk.
The milk of the Syrian goats is also very good for making butter
and cheese, which are said to be of very fine quality. Much butter
and cheese are also made in Europe from goats' milk. These have a
special taste of their own, but are much eaten, for one soon gets
used to the taste.
Goats are made use of for other things than for their milk, butter,
cheese and meat. In early times the goat-skin was used for clothing,
and it still is in some countries. The skins are also used by the
wandering tribes of Asia as vessels to hold drinking water, and also,
tightly sewed and blown out with air, as a sort of boat for crossing or
floating down rivers.
In our days the skins of goats are made into leather. Kid skins are
used for gloves and shoes, and goat skins for morocco, shagreen,
and other fine kinds of leather. The hair is made into ropes which
may be kept in the water without injury; also in England to make
wigs for judges and others, the hair of white goats being used for
this. Goats' hair is also used to make brushes and hats. Knife-
handles and other things are made from the horns, and the fat is
better than that of the ox for candles.
 A Pair of Angora Goats
I must now speak of two kinds of goats of use for their wool. One
of these is the Cashmere goat, from the wool of which the fine
cashmere shawls are made. This goat has a coat of long, stiff hair,
but under this is a very fine, soft, fleecy wool, white or gray in color.
Of this each goat yields from one to one and a half pounds. To make
a shawl a yard long, takes the wool of twenty to twenty-five goats.
They were formerly made in large numbers but in our days few of
them are to be seen.
The other wool-yielder is the Angora goat, well known in this
country. This yields a thick and fine wool, soft and silky and slightly
curled. The color is mostly snow-white, though at times there are
dark patches. It is shed in great locks in summer, but soon grows
again. During the hot weather the goats are constantly washed and
combed, to add to the beauty of their wool. The finest Angora wool,
called Mohair, comes from goats a year old. All its value is lost at six
years of age.

IN THE PIG-STY

Let us now take a glance at that grunting brute known to us by

the various names of pig, hog, and swine, which dwells in the pig-
sty when tame and in the forest when wild. Clad in bristles, with
thick skin, short legs, curled-up tail, no neck, and round snout, no
one would buy the pig for a beauty. But in his case use goes ahead
of beauty, and who will say that he is not of use?
Though the pig is a very docile brute in man's care, he is far from
mild and gentle in his wild state. In fact, the wild hog is not an
animal to be played with, nor is it a safe one to fight with. Hardy and
active, fierce and bold as a lion, with a strong head and long, sharp
tusks in his large jaw, the hunter who goes out to seek him in his lair
must do so with care and skill or the pig will get the best of the
hunt.
Most of the beasts of the wildwood let the hog alone. He is not
safe game. But for many long years he has been hunted by man,
who likes a game that has a spice of danger. In the days of old
Rome the chase of the hog was a favorite sport, and it was the same
in later times, when the lords and dukes of England and Germany
were very fond of hunting the wild boar. In our days "pig-sticking" is
a common sport of the English in India.
Mounted on trained horses and armed with long, sharp lances,
the hunters seek to bring down their game from the saddle. But if by
any foul chance the hunter should be thrown from his horse near the
hunted brute his chance for life is not good. The furious brute will
rush upon him, and with one thrust of its strong jaws may rip his
body open with a deadly wound. Great nobles and warriors have
met with death in this base way and the wild hog has held his own
bravely among his enemies.
Is this fierce fighter of the forest the same animal as the lazy
grunter of the pig-sty? There is no doubt of it. His long life under
man's care has taken all the fight out of him. Only in one way does
he show his old temper. He is the most obstinate of all the animals
we know. He does not like to be driven and will do his best to go
just where you do not want him to. But he no longer fights to win
his way; he only grunts or squeals and holds back.
 From Madeira's "Hunting in British East Africa"
The Wart Hog. An African Tusked Cousin of the Wild Boar of Europe

Try to drive a pig and you will find this out. You will soon be in a
fret over the stubborn brute. If you want him to go forward you may
find it best to try and drive him backward. An Irishman tells us that
this is the only way to "persuade" a pig.