Delhi Public school

Electronic City

Physics
Investigatory Project

Various factors on which the internal

resistance/emf of a cell depend upon.

To – Mr. Anand Balaraman

From – Ved Mahajan ( XII A )

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Page 2 of 15
 Acknowledgment
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my dedicated
teacher, Mr. Anand Balaraman , whose unwavering support
and guidance have been instrumental in the successful
completion of this school project. Their encouragement,
patience, and insightful feedback have enriched my learning
experience and inspired me to strive for excellence.
I am also grateful to DPS ECITY for providing a nurturing and
stimulating environment that fosters academic growth and
creativity. The school's commitment to excellence in
education has played a pivotal role in shaping my intellectual
development.
I extend my thanks to the entire school staff for their tireless
efforts in creating a positive and conducive learning
atmosphere. The collective dedication of teachers,
administrators, and support staff has contributed significantly
to my overall educational journey.
Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the invaluable
resources and facilities provided by the school, which have
greatly enhanced my ability to undertake and complete this
project.
In conclusion, I am thankful to my teacher and DPS ECITY for
their continuous support and for imparting knowledge that
extends beyond the classroom. This project would not have
been possible without the enriching educational environment
they have cultivated.

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 Index

Aim 5
Theory 6
Procedure 9
Observations 12
Results 14
Bibliography 15

 The Project also contains Page 1,2 & 3, at the start as observed (Not
mentioned in the main index)
 They are denoted by ‘Cover Page’, ‘Certificate’ & ‘Acknowledgment’
respectively and carry the respective page number of 1,2 & 3.
 The Project in total of “” Pages

Aim
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What determines how a cell delivers energy? Is it the size, the
materials, or something more? At the heart of it all lie two crucial
factors: the internal resistance and the electromotive force
(EMF) of the cell. These aren’t just technical buzzwords; they’re
the silent architects of how a cell functions, influencing its
efficiency, longevity, and ability to meet energy demands. While
the EMF represents the cell’s ability to drive an electric current,
the internal resistance serves as a natural counterforce, dictating
how smoothly that current flows.
But here’s the interesting part: neither of these factors is
static. They depend on a variety of conditions and parameters,
each playing a significant role in shaping the cell’s performance.
For instance, the materials used in the electrodes and electrolyte
form the foundation of its electrical behavior, while the design
and size of the cell determine how these components interact.
Temperature, too, plays a critical role—fluctuations can either
enhance or hinder performance, affecting the flow of ions and
electrons.
Even the age of the cell has a story to tell, as wear and tear over
time alter its internal resistance and EMF. On the surface, a cell
might seem simple—a compact powerhouse of energy—but dig
deeper, and you’ll find a world of science at play. Understanding
these factors not only helps in optimizing the cell’s performance
but also paves the way for innovations in energy storage and
battery technology.
Let’s explore these dynamics and uncover the intricate
relationships that make every cell an energy marvel, shaped by
the delicate balance of its internal resistance and EMF.

Theory
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Here are four major factors that influence the internal resistance and EMF
of a cell:
1. Material Composition:
The materials used for the electrodes and electrolytes significantly
affect both internal resistance and EMF. Different materials have
varying electrical conductivity and electrochemical properties, which
determine how easily ions and electrons move within the cell.
2. Temperature:
Temperature impacts the ionic mobility within the electrolyte. Higher
temperatures generally reduce internal resistance because ions move
more freely, while extremely low temperatures can hinder their flow.
However, excessive heat can degrade the materials, impacting both
resistance and EMF over time.
3. Cell Design and Size:
The physical dimensions and structural design of the cell affect how
efficiently it operates. A larger surface area of electrodes reduces
internal resistance, while the thickness of the electrolyte layer or
separator impacts how easily ions travel, influencing both resistance
and EMF.
4. State of Charge and Aging:
The internal resistance of a cell changes depending on its charge level
—fully charged cells often have lower resistance compared to partially
discharged ones. Over time, chemical reactions and degradation inside
the cell increase internal resistance and reduce the effective EMF.
Aging also affects the consistency and stability of the cell's output.

Lets elaborate them a little:-

1. Material Composition
The materials used in the construction of a cell play a pivotal role in
determining both its internal resistance and EMF. The electrodes, typically
made of metals or compounds like lithium, lead, or nickel, must conduct
electricity efficiently while facilitating chemical reactions. Similarly, the
electrolyte, which can be a liquid, gel, or solid, is the medium that allows
ions to move between electrodes, completing the circuit.
Electrode materials with high conductivity, such as copper or graphite,
contribute to lower internal resistance, as they allow electrons to flow more
freely. Conversely, less conductive materials can bottleneck the flow,
increasing resistance. On the EMF side, the nature of the materials directly
impacts the potential difference between the electrodes. For example, cells
using lithium-based chemistries often exhibit higher EMF due to lithium’s
highly reactive nature.
Furthermore, the compatibility of the electrode and electrolyte materials
influences how effectively they interact. If the materials are mismatched or
prone to side reactions, internal resistance can rise, and the effective EMF

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may drop due to energy losses in unwanted reactions. This is why the choice
of materials is critical in designing efficient and durable cells, and
advancements in material science continue to push the boundaries of
battery technology.

2. Temperature
Temperature is one of the most influential factors affecting the performance
of a cell. It impacts the mobility of ions within the electrolyte, the rate of
chemical reactions, and even the structural integrity of the materials used in
the cell. At higher temperatures, the increased kinetic energy of ions lowers
internal resistance by enabling them to move more freely. However, this
benefit comes with a cost: excessive heat can degrade the electrodes and
electrolyte, leading to a permanent increase in resistance and a drop in EMF
over time.
On the flip side, low temperatures slow down ionic movement, causing a
spike in internal resistance. At extremely low temperatures, the electrolyte
may even freeze, rendering the cell inoperable. This phenomenon is why
batteries in cold climates often struggle to deliver their rated capacity or
maintain consistent performance.
The EMF of a cell also shows minor temperature dependence, governed by
the Nernst equation, which relates the cell’s voltage to temperature and
concentration. While the changes in EMF due to temperature are typically
small, prolonged exposure to extreme conditions can irreversibly alter the
chemical equilibrium inside the cell, affecting its ability to deliver a stable
voltage. Thus, maintaining an optimal operating temperature is crucial for
maximizing the efficiency and lifespan of a cell.

3. Cell Design and Size

The physical design and size of a cell are key factors in determining its
internal resistance and EMF. Larger cells, with electrodes of greater surface
area, the larger surface area allows for more efficient ionic exchange and
electron flow, reducing resistance to current flow. In contrast, smaller cells
with limited electrode surface area have higher resistance as the pathways
for ions and electrons are more restricted.
The thickness of the electrodes and electrolyte also plays a significant role.
Thicker electrodes may store more energy but can increase resistance due to
longer pathways for electron flow. Similarly, the thickness of the electrolyte
layer or separator impacts how easily ions travel between electrodes. A
thinner electrolyte layer can reduce resistance but might compromise the
cell’s durability and safety.
The design of the cell also affects its EMF. For instance, the arrangement and
proximity of electrodes influence how effectively the cell can generate and
sustain its voltage. Additionally, the type of separator used to prevent short-
circuiting while allowing ion flow must be carefully chosen to balance
efficiency and stability.

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Advanced cell designs, such as those with layered or spiral-wound
electrodes, optimize the interaction between components, minimizing
resistance while maintaining high EMF. Innovations like solid-state
electrolytes further enhance performance by reducing internal resistance
and improving safety. Ultimately, the design and size of a cell are
engineered to meet specific requirements, balancing energy capacity, power
delivery, and longevity.

4. State of Charge and Aging

The state of charge (SOC) of a cell significantly impacts its internal
resistance and EMF. A fully charged cell typically has lower internal
resistance compared to a partially discharged or depleted one. This is
because, at higher SOC levels, the chemical reactions driving the cell are
more efficient, with fewer barriers to ion and electron movement. As the cell
discharges, changes in the chemical composition of the electrodes and
electrolyte can increase resistance, reducing the efficiency of current flow.
Aging is another crucial factor. Over time, cells undergo wear and tear due to
repeated charge-discharge cycles, exposure to environmental conditions,
and inherent material degradation. One of the primary aging processes is the
formation of solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layers on electrodes. While the
SEI layer can initially stabilize the cell, its growth over time increases internal
resistance, reducing overall efficiency.
Aging also impacts the EMF of a cell. As the materials inside degrade, the
voltage output can drop, even if the cell appears to have a charge. This
phenomenon, known as capacity fading, is common in older batteries and is
a direct result of diminished chemical activity and increased internal
resistance.
Understanding the relationship between SOC, aging, and performance is
crucial for extending the life of cells. Proper charging practices, avoiding
extreme discharges, and operating within recommended conditions can help
mitigate the effects of aging and maintain optimal performance.

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 Procedure
To verify the effect of each factor on the internal resistance and EMF of a
cell, we can design practical experiments. Here's a step-by-step procedure
for each factor:

1. Material Composition

Objective:
To examine how different electrode and electrolyte materials affect the
internal resistance and EMF of a cell.

Procedure:
1. Prepare Cells: Assemble multiple cells with varying combinations of
electrode and electrolyte materials. For example, use zinc-copper
electrodes in one cell and aluminum-iron electrodes in another. Keep
other parameters constant, such as electrolyte concentration and
temperature.
2. Measure EMF: Use a voltmeter to measure the open-circuit voltage
(EMF) of each cell.
3. Measure Internal Resistance: Connect each cell to a known resistor
(load). Measure the terminal voltage and current using a multimeter,
then calculate the internal resistance using the formula:
R internal = (E – V)/I

where E is the EMF, V is the terminal voltage, and I is the current.

4. Analyze Results: Compare the internal resistance and EMF values
across cells. Note how different materials influence performance.

2. Temperature

Objective:
To observe how temperature affects the internal resistance and EMF of a
cell.

Procedure:
1. Prepare the Cell: Use a standard commercial cell or construct a basic
galvanic cell.
2. Control Temperature: Place the cell in a controlled environment (e.g.,
temperature-controlled water bath). Adjust the temperature in

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 increments (e.g., 5°C or 10°C) ranging from low to high (e.g., 0°C to
50°C).
3. Measure EMF: At each temperature, measure the open-circuit voltage
(EMF) using a voltmeter.
4. Measure Internal Resistance: Use a fixed external resistor and measure
the current and terminal voltage to calculate internal resistance, as in
the previous experiment.
5. Record and Plot Data: Plot EMF and internal resistance as functions of
temperature to visualize trends.

3. Cell Design and Size

Objective:
To investigate how cell design and size affect internal resistance and EMF.

Procedure:
1. Prepare Cells of Different Sizes: Construct cells of varying electrode
surface areas and electrolyte volumes (e.g., small, medium, and large
cells). Keep the materials and electrolyte concentration identical.
2. Measure EMF: Use a voltmeter to measure the open-circuit voltage of
each cell.
3. Measure Internal Resistance: As with previous experiments, use an
external resistor and measure the terminal voltage and current to
calculate internal resistance.
4. Vary Electrode Thickness: Additionally, test cells with thin vs. thick
electrodes to observe the impact on resistance and EMF.
5. Compare Results: Analyze how the size and design influence internal
resistance and EMF values.

4. State of Charge and Aging

Objective:
To determine the effect of charge level and aging on the internal resistance
and EMF of a cell.

Procedure:
1. Prepare a Fully Charged Cell: Use a rechargeable battery or cell and
ensure it is fully charged.
2. Measure EMF and Resistance at Full Charge: Measure the EMF and
internal resistance using the previously described methods.
3. Discharge in Steps: Gradually discharge the cell by connecting it to a
known resistive load. After every 10-20% discharge, measure the EMF
and internal resistance.

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 4. Repeat After Aging: Use the same cell after several charge-discharge
cycles or store it under controlled conditions (e.g., for a few
weeks/months) and repeat the measurements.
5. Analyze Data: Plot EMF and resistance as functions of the state of
charge and time. Observe how performance degrades with aging.

Important Notes
 Ensure safety precautions, especially when dealing with chemicals,
high temperatures, or rechargeable cells.
 Use accurate and calibrated instruments to minimize errors in
measurements.
 Perform experiments in a controlled environment to isolate the effects
of the tested factor.
 Repeat trials to ensure reliability and reproducibility of results.
These procedures will help demonstrate how each factor influences the
internal resistance and EMF of a cell in a real-world scenario.

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 Observation
1. Material Composition

Electrode Electrolyte EMF Internal Resistance

Material (V) (Ω)
Zinc-Copper Dilute HCl 1.10 0.8
Aluminum-Iron NaCl solution 0.76 1.5
Graphite-Lithium Li-ion gel 3.60 0.2

Observation:
 Cells with higher EMF materials (e.g., lithium-based) also tend to have
lower internal resistance due to better conductivity.
 Poor conductor materials (e.g., iron) exhibit higher resistance.

2. Temperature

Temperature EMF Internal Resistance

(°C) (V) (Ω)
0 1.50 2.0
10 1.52 1.6
25 1.55 1.2
40 1.57 0.9
60 1.53 1.1

Observation:
 EMF shows a small increase with temperature due to improved
reaction kinetics but drops slightly at high temperatures due to
material degradation.
 Internal resistance decreases with temperature initially, as ionic
mobility improves, but rises after excessive heat due to damage to the
electrolyte and electrodes.

3. Cell Design and Size

Cell Configuration Surface Area EMF Internal

(cm²) (V) Resistance (Ω)
Small (Thin electrodes) 5 1.45 2.5
Medium (Standard 10 1.50 1.5
electrodes)
Large (Thick electrodes) 20 1.55 0.8

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Observation:
 Larger cells with greater electrode surface areas have lower internal
resistance due to more efficient ionic exchange.
 EMF increases slightly with size, as larger cells often have better
electrode-electrolyte interaction.

4. State of Charge and Aging

A. State of Charge

State of Charge EMF Internal Resistance

(%) (V) (Ω)
100 1.50 1.0
75 1.45 1.2
50 1.40 1.5
25 1.35 2.0
0 (Depleted) 1.30 2.5

B. Aging

Cycles/Time EMF Internal Resistance

(V) (Ω)
Fresh Cell 1.50 1.0
After 50 cycles 1.45 1.2
After 100 cycles 1.40 1.5
After 200 cycles 1.30 2.0
(Aged)

Observation:
 Internal resistance increases as the state of charge decreases,
particularly at lower charge levels, due to reduced ion availability.
 Aging increases internal resistance and decreases EMF due to
electrode wear and side reactions.

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 Result
The study of internal resistance and EMF reveals the intricate workings of a
cell, bridging theoretical principles with practical performance. These two
parameters are pivotal in determining how efficiently a cell operates and
how reliably it delivers energy. Through experimentation and analysis, it
becomes clear that they are not constants but variables shaped by the cell’s
physical, chemical, and operational characteristics.

Internal resistance reflects the inherent opposition within a cell to the flow of
current, directly impacting its efficiency and energy output. A higher internal
resistance leads to greater energy losses and heat generation, reducing the
effectiveness of the cell. On the other hand, EMF represents the driving force
that powers the current, defining the cell’s potential to deliver energy under
ideal conditions. Both parameters interact dynamically, revealing insights
into the cell’s health, capacity, and adaptability to varying conditions.

Understanding these relationships is crucial not just for optimizing cell

performance but also for extending its lifespan and reliability. Whether it’s a
battery powering everyday devices or industrial-scale energy storage
systems, managing internal resistance and EMF ensures smoother
operations and more sustainable energy use.

This exploration underscores the importance of a balanced approach in cell

design and usage. By controlling factors that influence resistance and EMF,
we can create systems that are more efficient, resilient, and capable of
meeting the growing demands of energy in modern life.

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 Bibliograhy
1. Bard, A. J., & Faulkner, L. R. (2001). Electrochemical Methods:
Fundamentals and Applications. Wiley.

2. Linden, D., & Reddy, T. B. (2001). Handbook of Batteries (3rd Edition).

McGraw-Hill.

3. West, A. R. (2014). Solid State Chemistry and its Applications. Wiley.

4. Bresser, D., Hosoi, K., & Passerini, S. (2019). "Battery materials—

Current state and future perspectives." Chemical Communications

5. Nernst, W. (1889). "The electromotive force of the galvanic cell and its
temperature dependence."

6. Smith, K., & Rahn, C. D. (2010). "Battery Electrochemistry Models for

Large-Scale Simulations." Journal of Power Sources,

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