University of Oregon Math 111 Notes

Center of Multicultural Academic Excellence

October 2, 2020

Abstract
The Center of Multicultural Academic Excellence has created notes for Math 111 to support
students of color to receive academic guidance and help in Math.

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Contents
1 Introduction to Functions 3

2 Linear Functions and Average Rate of Change 4

3 Quadratic Functions and Higher-Degree Polynomials 5

4 Rational Functions 7

5 Exponential Functions 9

6 Power and Logarithmic Functions 10

7 Composition and Arithmetic of Functions 11

8 Function Inverses 12

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1 Introduction to Functions
Definition 1. A function is a relationship involving inputs and outputs. In order to be a
function, every input must have exactly ONE output. f (input)= output

Definition 2. A domain is the set of inputs in the function (ie. all x’s in the functions).
The set of outputs is the range or image (ie. all y’s in the functions).

Example: Let’s say the grocery store is the function of buying items. If 10 people go to the
grocery store and buy a certain amount of food, the domain is the amount of people going to the
grocery store. The range or image is the amount of items each person bought.

Definition 3. Function notation is a formula written as Q = f(t) (ie. ”Q is a function

of t”). A dependent variable is a variable that will change based on what you input.
Usually the output of a function. A independent variable does not change based on
other factors. Usually an input of a function. Ex. Q changes when t is changed. Whereas,
t is an independent variable because t doesn’t change.

Example: Let’s say Q = f (t) = 2t + 12 if t = 1 then Q = f (1) = 2(1) + 12 = 14. The

independent variable is t=1, the dependent variable is Q=14.

Definition 4. A mathematical domain is used when there is not domain specified, it is

the largest set of real numbers used as inputs in the functions.

Example: The domain of a function f (x) = x is all real numbers (ie. (−∞, ∞); meaning any
number you input for x is in the domain). However if the domain was specified, x > −2, then the
domain would be (−2, ∞).

Definition 5. A piece-wise function is a function that has different portions/ pieces in

the domain.

Example: Given the function f (x) = {x2 if x ≥ 0, x if x < 0}.

If x < 0 then the function used is x. If x ≥ 0 then the function used is x2 . You plug in values into
a certain equation based on what x is.
Functions by Table:
The domain of a function in table format is usually the left side of the table. And the range is the
right side.

Example: Given the table:

t q=F(t)
-3 -1
-1 5
2 19
5 7
8 -1

The domain of q is [-3,8]. The range of the function q is [-1,19].

3
2 Linear Functions and Average Rate of Change

Definition 6. The average rate of change is the average change in a function. Given
by the equation.
f (b)−f (a) ∆Q
ARC = b−a or ∆t

In words, ∆Q is the change in y value, and ∆t is the change in x values (usually time).

Example: Q= f(t)= t3 . If given the interval [0,3], we can compute the average rate of change.

∆Q f (3) − f (0) 33 − 03 27 − 0 27
= = = = =9
∆t 3−0 3−0 3−0 3
The average rate of change is 9.

Definition 7. A function is strictly increasing on an interval if f(b) > f(a). Meaning if

y2 is larger than y1 . On a graph, a function is increasing if it rises to the top right corner.
A function is strictly decreasing on an interval if f(b) < f(a). Meaning if y2 is smaller
than y1 . On a graph, a function is decreasing if it falls to the lower left corner.
A function is constant on an interval if f(b) = f(a). Meaning if y2 is equal to y1 . On a
graph, a function is constant if it is a horizontal line.

If the average rate of change is positive, then the function is increasing.

If the average rate of change is negative, then the function is decreasing.
If the average rate of change is 0, then the function is constant.

Definition 8. A linear function is a function f, that between 2 points on the graph of

the function, is the average rate of change.

f (x) = mx + b

The variable m is the slope or average rate of change and the variable b is a constant.
Slope can be found by taking the average rate of change between two points.
y2 − y1
a=
x2 − x1

Example: If given two points on a graph, (0,2) and (2,8), we can find the slope (average rate
of change), constant b, and the linear function.
y2 − y1 8−2 6
slope = m = = = =3
x2 − x1 2−0 2
The variable b represents a constant which can also be referred to as when x=0 or the y-intercept.
In this case, x=0 when y=2. Therefore, our constant b=2.
Now that we know the slope and constant we can plug that into the linear function equation of
f (x) = mx + b. Our equation would be f (x) = 3x + 2.
To double check out work, we can plug in the x1 andx2 values to make sure we get the correct
points.
f (0) = 3(0) + 2 = 0 + 2 = 2
f (2) = 3(2) + 2 = 6 + 2 = 8
Since we get the points (0,2) and (2,8), our linear equation is correct.

Theorem: If a slope is positive then the function is strictly increasing along the domain.
If a slope is negative then the function is strictly decreasing along the domain.
If a slope is 0 then the function is constant along the domain.

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Theorem: A linear graph will always be a line. This is because of the average rate of change
(slope) is constant between each set of points. This is when there is x1 or x. x2 or x3 are not linear
functions, only x represents a linear function.

Definition 9. A set of n points is collinear if there is a single vertical line that goes
through all n points.

3 Quadratic Functions and Higher-Degree Polynomials

Definition 10. A quadratic function is a function which can be written in the form

f (t) = at2 + bt + c

a, b and c are constants.

Definition 11. If a<b<c in f (t) = at2 + bt + c, then the second difference can be
computed with the equation

[f (c) − f (b)] − [f (b) − f (a)]

Theorem:
The maximum or minimum of a quadratic function can be determined using the extremum formula
−b
t=
2a
. If a<0, then the function has a maximum. If a>0, then the function has a minimum.
Example:
Given the equation f (t) = 4.9t2 + 5.17t + 10, a = −4.9, b = 5.17, c = 10.
We can plug this into our extremum formula.
−b −5.17
t= = = 0.528
2a 2(−4.9)

Definition 12. A parabola is a common type of quadratic equation.

100
f (x)

80

60

40

20

x
−10 −5 5 10
A positive curvature looks like
the graph above, like U. The vertex will be the lowest point on the graph. A
negative curvature looks like a hump. The vertex will be the highest point on
the graph.

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 Theorem:
The Vertex Form of a Quadratic is written in the form

Q = f (t) = a(t − tvert )2 + Qvert .

The maximum or minimum points (the vertex) are the points (tvert , Qvert ).

Example:
Say we were given the vertex as (1,3) and a = 2, then the Vertex Form of a Quadratic would be

Q = f (t) = 2(t − 1)2 + 3

Definition 13. A monomial is an expression of the form atb , where a is any constant
(called its coefficient) and b is a non-negative whole number (called its degree).
A polynomial is a sum or difference of any number of monomials (including just one).
A polynomial function is a function whose formula can be written as a polynomial.
The leading term of a polynomial is the term containing the highest power on t. This
highest power is the degree of the polynomial.
The leading coefficient of a polynomial is the coefficient of the leading term.

Example:
Given the function f (t) = 3x − 1
The degree = 1, since x can also be written as x1 .
The leading coefficient = 3, its the coefficient in front of the highest degree x variable.
The leading term = 3x, both the coefficient and x variable.

Example:
Given the function f (t) = 3x2 − x + 1
The degree = 2, since x2 is the highest value x.
The leading coefficient = 3, its the coefficient in front of the highest degree x variable.
The leading term = 3x2 , both the coefficient and x variable.

Definition 14. (Long-Term Behavior of Polynomials)

If the leading coefficient is positive then the long term behavior goes towards ∞ as t
increases.
If the leading coefficient is negative then the long term behavior goes towards −∞ as t
increases.

Example:
100
f (x)

80

60

40

20

x
−10 −5 5 10

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In the graph above of x2 , we can find the leading coefficient is +1. Therefore the graph goes toward
∞.
x
−10 −5 f (x) 5 10

−20

−40

−60

−80

−100
In the second graph above of −x2 , we can find the leading coefficient is -1. Therefore the graph
goes toward −∞.

4 Rational Functions
Definition 15. The reciprocal function of t in defined to be

1
Q = f (t) =
t
The reciprocal square function of t in defined to be

1
Q = f (t) =
t2

Example:
Consider the function f (x) = 2x − 1. The reciprocal function of f would be as follows:
1 1
=
f (x) (2x − 1)

Definition 16. A rational function is a function which can be written in the form

p(t)
f (t) =
q(t)

where p(t) and q(t) are each polynomial functions (and q(t) ̸= 0).

Example:
3+x
Given f (t) = x2 −4x+7 is a rational function.
We can separate this into two polynomials, p(x) = 3+x with leading term x; and q(x) = x2 −4x+7,
with a leading term x2 .

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 Theorem: Long-Term Behavior of Basic Rational Functions

• For any constant k and positive whole number p, we write,

As t → ±∞, then k
tp → 0

In words, if the bottom of the fraction is larger than the top of the fraction our answer will
get closer and closer to zero.

For example:
If f (t) = t12 , then as t → ∞ the denominator will become a really big number, and 1/(really
big number) =0.

*Side note: If you don’t understand how a function can approach infinity, think of infin-
ity as a really big number like 100,000. For the example above, if we had 1/100,000 =
0.00001. Which means your answer is super small and basically as we approach infinity
(keep dividing by a bigger and bigger number) our answer will get smaller and smaller and
closer to 0. So our answer is 0.
• For any positive real number k and integer p, we write

As t → 0, with t > 0, then tkp → ∞

As t → 0, with t < 0, then tkp → −∞
,

In words, if you make the bottom of a fraction a tiny number, the whole thing gets larger
and larger (either in the positive or negative direction).

For example:
If f (t) = t12 , then as t → 0 the denominator will become a really small number, and 1/(really
small number) = ±∞.

Theorem: Long-Term Behavior of a General Rational Function

Let f (t) = p(t)

q(t) be a rational function, where p and q are polynomial functions with leading
terms P(t) and Q(t), respectively.
P (t)
Then the long-term behavior of f(t) is the long-term behavior of the simplified function Q(t) .
Example:
3−t2
2 +1 . Our leading terms are P (t) = −t
2
If given the equation f (t) = 2t and Q(t) = 2t2 . Putting
this in the long-term behavior of the simplified function above

P (t) −t2 −1
= 2 =
Q(t) 2t 2
−1
So the long term behavior is 2 . This only works if both leading terms are the same degree.

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5 Exponential Functions

Definition 17. The percent change in a function f is on the interval [c,d] is

f (d) − f (c)
P C[c,d] = × 100%
f (c)

Example:
Find the percent change of the function f (t) = 6 − 4t on the interval [1,3].
1. First we mist find out f(1) and f(3).
f (1) = 6 − 4(1) = 6 − 4 = 2
f (3) = 6 − 4(3) = 6 − 12 = −6
2. Now we plug into our equation.

f (3) − f (1) −6 − (2) −8

P C[1,3] = × 100% = × 100% = × 100% = −4 × 100% = −400%
f (3) 2 2

Definition 18. An exponential function is a function which can be written in the form

f (t) = a × (1 + r)t

for a constant r called the function’s relative growth rate. Another version of this formula
is
f (t) = a × bt
with b = 1 + r. We need a to be positive and r > −1 (so then b must be positive).
The variable b can also be referred to as the constant growth rate.
An exponential function f (t) has the property that for every one-unit increase in t, f (t) is multiplied by a factor

Example:
Given the exponential function f (t) = 3 × (1.2)t has a growth factor or b = 1.2. Since b = 1+r
then 1.2 = 1+r and r = 0.2 or 20%. Therefore, f(t) has a growth rate of 20%.

Theorem: Exponential Function as Proportional Change

If Q is changing at a rate proportional to itself, so that R(t) = k · Q, where R is the rate of

growth in Q and k is the continuous growth rate, then

Q = f (t) = aekt

where a is a positive constant (which is also the value of Q at t = 0).

Definition 19. 1. An exponential function written f (t) = abt with b > 1, or also
written as, f (t) = aekt with k > 0, is a strictly increasing function and is said to
exhibit exponential growth.

2. An exponential function written f (t) = abt with 0 < b < 1, or also written as, f (t) =
aekt with k < 0, is a strictly decreasing function and is said to exhibit exponential
decay.

Example:
If given the function f (t) = 3 × (1.2)t . This is an increasing function since b=1.2 which is greater
than 1. The function is exponentially growing.
If given the function f (t) = 3 × e−2t . This is an decreasing function since k=-2 which is less than
0. The function is exponentially decaying.

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You can always double check by graphing the function.

Theorem: Long-Term Behavior of Exponential Functions

The long-term behavior of an exponential function f (t) = abt orf (t) = aekt is∞ if k>0 or b>1.
The long-term behavior of an exponential function f (t) = abt orf (t) = aekt is0 if k < 0 or 0 < b < 1

Example:
If given the function f (t) = 3 × (1.2)t . The long term behavior is ∞.
If given the function f (t) = 3 × e−2t . The long term behavior is 0.

Theorem: Mathematical Domain and Image of an Exponential Function

For a function f (t) = abt or f (t) = aek t, with a > 0, we have that

Domain: (−∞, ∞) Image: (0, ∞

Example:
If given the function f (t) = 3×e−2t . The domain of the function would be (−∞, ∞), since a=3 >0.

6 Power and Logarithmic Functions

Definition 20. The logarithm with base b is the value L so that bL = Q. The logarith-
mic equivalent to this equation is written L = logb (Q) and read “log, base b, of Q”.
The logarithm with base e, namely loge (Q), is commonly abbreviated ln(Q). This is typi-
cally called the natural logarithm.

Example:
If given the equation 3x = 8, we can rewrite it as x = log3 (8)
Similarly, ln(v) = 5 can be rewritten v = e5

Definition 21. A logarithmic function is a function which can be written in the form

f (t) = a + logb (t)

,with positive b ̸= 1. It is defined only for t > 0.

Definition 22. A logarithmic function f (t) = a + logb (t) with b > 1 is a strictly increasing
function and is said to exhibit logarithmic growth.
A logarithmic function f (t) = a + logb (t) with 0 < b < 1 is a strictly decreasing function
and is said to exhibit logarithmic decay.

Theorem: Properties of Logarithms

For positive real numbers t, u, and b 6= 1, and any real number n, we have

The Sum Property: logb (t) + logb (u) = logb (t × u)

The Difference Property: logb (t) − logb (u) = logb ( ut )
The Constant Multiple Property: n × logb (t) = logb (tn )

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 Theorem: Change of Base Formula

As long as b ̸= 1 and Q are positive, the expression logb (Q) can be rewritten as a ratio of two other
logarithms:
ln(Q)
logb (Q) =
ln(b)

Example:
Given the expression log1 .04(2) can be rewritten as
ln(2)
log1.04 (2) = ≈ 17.6830
ln(1.04)

Definition 23. A power function is a function of the form

Q = f (t) = atb

for constants a (positive) and b.

• A power function is also polynomial if b is a non-negative whole number.

• A power function is rational if b is a negative integer.
• The domain of a non-polynomial power function includes [0, ∞] for [b>0]. For some
non-integer values of b, the domain also includes the interval (−∞, 0).

• The domain of a non-polynomial power function includes (0, ∞) for [b<0]. For some
non-integer values of b, the domain also includes the interval (−∞, 0).

7 Composition and Arithmetic of Functions

Definition 24. For two functions, f(t) and g(t), for any t in the domain of both f and g,
we can perform the following arithmetic operations on functions:
•
(f + g)(t) = f (t) + g(t)

•
(f − g)(t) = f (t) − g(t)

•
(f × g)(t) = f (t) × g(t)

•
f f (t)
( )(t) =
g g(t)

The domains of f + g, f g, and f × g are simply the intersection of the domain of f and the
domain of g. The domain of fg is the intersection of the domains of f and g, excluding t
such that g(t) = 0.

Example:
If f(2) = 4 and g(2) = 7, then (f + g)(2) = f(2) + g(2) = 4 + 7 = 11.
If f(2) = 4 and g(2) = 7, then (f - g)(2) = f(2) - g(2) = 4 - 7 = -3.
If f(2) = 4 and g(2) = 7, then (f × g)(2) = f (2) × g(2) = 4 × 7 = 28.
If f(2) = 4 and g(2) = 7, then fg (2) = fg(2)
(2)
= 47

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 Definition 25. The composition of f with g is defined to be f[g(t)], sometimes written
(f ◦ g)(t), and read “f of g of t” or “f composed with g of t”. You might also read this as
“f after g”, to remind you of the order in which the input is placed.

(f ◦ g)(t) = f [g(t)]
(g ◦ f )(t) = g[f (t)]
(f ◦ f )(t) = f [f (t)]
(g ◦ g)(t) = g[g(t)]

Example:
Let f (x) = 3t + 1 and g(t) = t2 1.
(f ◦ g)(t) = f [g(t)] = f (t2 − 1) = 3(t2 − 1) + 1 = 3t2 − 3 + 1 = 3t2 − 2

(g ◦ f )(t) = g[f (t)] = g(3t + 1) = (3t + 1)2 − 1 = 9t2 + 6t + 1 − 1 = 9t2 + 6t

(f ◦ f )(t) = f [f (t)] = f (3t + 1) = 3(3t + 1) + 1 = 9t + 3 + 1 = 9t + 4

(g ◦ g)(t) = g[g(t)] = g(t2 − 1) = (t2 − 1)2 − 1 = t4 − 2t2 + 1 − 1 = t4 − 2t2

Definition 26. The domain of the composite function f ◦ g is the set of all elements
in the domain of g such that the image of each element is also in the domain of f. In other
words, we would check each number, a, in the domain of g to see if g(a) is in the domain of
f . If it is, then a is part of the domain of f ◦ g.

8 Function Inverses

Definition 27. The inverse of a function f , if it exists, is the function we’ll call f [ 1]
whose rule is that for any t in the domain of f and Q in the image of f , whenever Q = f(t),
then
f [−1] (Q) = t
This definition has the effect of implying that

(f [−1] ◦ f )(t) = t

and
(f ◦ f [−1] )(Q) = Q

Theorem: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions are Inverses

For f (t) = bt we have

f [−1] (Q) = logb (Q).
Relatedly, for g(t) = logb (t), we have
g [−1] (Q) = bQ
Example:
Let f (t) = 2t . Then
f [−1] (Q) = log2 (Q).
We can see this work in example, at least, by seeing that f (0) = 20 = 1, and then taking that
output
f [−1] (1) = log2 (1) = 0.

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 Definition 28. A function f(t) is one-to-one if, for each value Q in the image of f , there
is exactly one t in the domain of f so that Q = f(t).
Another way to say that f is one-to-one is to say that it has an inverse (or that it is
invertible).

Theorem: Finding an Inverse

The general process for finding the inverse of a function Q = f(t) is to exchange the roles of t
and Q: that is, make t the “output” and Q the “input”.

Example:
Let g(t) = 3 − t3 and Q = 3 − t3 . To find the inverse solve for t.

Q = g(t)
Q = 3 − t3
t3 = 3 − Q
√
t= 3 3−Q
Theorem: Domain and Image of an Inverse Function

For a one-to-one function f with domain D and image C, the inverse function f [1] has domain
C and image D.

Theorem: Graph of an Inverse Function

Given a one-to-one function Q = f(t), the graph of Q = f [1] (t) is the graph of Q = f(t) reflected
about the line Q = t.

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