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Primary Science Teaching Theory and Practice 4th
Edition Achieving Qts John Sharp Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): John Sharp, Graham Peacock, Rob Johnsey, Shirley Simon, Robin
Smith
ISBN(s): 9781844452798, 1844452794
Edition: 4
File Details: PDF, 1.45 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
 Achieving QTS
Meeting the Professional Standards Framework

Primary
Science
Teaching Theory and Practice
 Achieving QTS
Meeting the Professional Standards Framework

Primary
Science
Teaching Theory and Practice
Fourth edition

John Sharp . Graham Peacock . Rob Johnsey

Shirley Simon . Robin Smith
Alan Cross . Diane Harris

www.learningmatters.co.uk
 Achieving QTS
Meeting the Professional Standards Framework

Primary
Science
Teaching Theory and Practice
Fourth edition

John Sharp . Graham Peacock . Rob Johnsey

Shirley Simon . Robin Smith
Alan Cross . Diane Harris

www.learningmatters.co.uk
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Jill Jesson for her work on updating Chapter 10 on
Using ICT in science for the 4th edition.

Chapter 3: graphs reproduced by Joshua Harris.

Chapter 4: illustrations by Julie Bateman, aged 10.
Chapter 8: class organisation and interactive display diagrams by Joel Morris.
Chapter 9: explanatory pictures reproduced by Joshua, Laura, Jacob and
Barnaby Harris. Concept cartoon reproduced from Concept Cartoons in Science
Education (Naylor and Keogh, 2000) by kind permission of Millgate House
Publishers.
Chapter 10: screen shot of circuit diagram from Interfact: Electricity and
Magnetism CD-ROM (1997) by kind permission of Two-Can Publishing.
Chapter 11: health and safety diagrams by Joel Morris.

First published in 2000 by Learning Matters Ltd.

Reprinted in 2001.
Second edition published in 2002.
Reprinted in 2002.
Reprinted in 2003 (twice).
Reprinted in 2004.
Reprinted in 2005 (twice).
Third edition published in 2007.
Reprinted in 2007.
Reprinted in 2008.
Fourth edition published in 2009.
Reprinted in 2009.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission in
writing from Learning Matters.

# 2009 John Sharp, Graham Peacock, Rob Johnsey, Shirley Simon, Robin Smith,
Alan Cross and Diane Harris.

The right of John Sharp, Graham Peacock, Rob Johnsey, Shirley Simon, Robin
Smith, Alan Cross and Diane Harris to be identified as the Authors of this work
has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 84445 279 8

Cover design by Toucan

Text design by Bob Rowinski at Code 5 Design Associates Ltd
Project management by Deer Park Productions
Typeset by PDQ Typesetting Ltd, Newcastle-under-Lyme
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bell & Bain Ltd, Glasgow

Learning Matters
33 Southernhay East
Exeter EX1 1NX
Tel: 01392 215560
[email protected]
www.learningmatters.co.uk
Contents
1 Introduction 1

2 The nature of scientific understanding 5

3 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry 11

4 Children’s ideas 24

5 Science in the Foundation Stage 36

6 Teaching strategies 51

7 Planning 64

8 Classroom organisation and management 81

9 Assessment, recording and reporting 94

10 Using ICT in science 110

11 Health and safety 125

Glossary 137

Index 141

v
 1
Introduction

About this book

This book has been written to satisfy the needs of all primary trainees on all courses
of initial teacher training in England and other parts of the UK where a secure
knowledge and understanding of how to teach science is required for the award
of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) or its equivalent. This book will also be found
useful by Newly Qualified Teachers (NQTs), mentors, curriculum co-ordinators and
other professionals working in education who have identified aspects of their
science practice which require attention or who need a single resource to recom-
mend to colleagues.
Features of this book include:

. clear links with the Professional Standards for QTS;

. clear reference to Science in the National Curriculum for children and the QCA/DfES exemplar
Scheme of Work for Science at Key Stages 1 and 2;
. clear reference to the Early Years Foundation Stage framework;
. pedagogical and professional knowledge and understanding for effective science teaching and
learning;
. research summaries;
. practical tasks;
. clear links between different aspects of teaching science;
. further reading and references;
. glossary.

What is primary science and why is it

taught?
Even today, primary science means different things to different people.
Considerable and often heated debate in recent years has revolved around the
portrayal of primary science as product, in which scientific knowledge is arrived
at by objective methods capable of yielding accepted concepts, or process, in which
scientific knowledge is arrived at by subjective acts of individual discovery driven by
the development of scientific skills. In terms of the nature, teaching and learning of
primary science, both have something to offer and clearly an appropriate balance
between the two is required. Primary science is perhaps best regarded, therefore, as
an intellectual, practical, creative and social endeavour which seeks to help children
to better understand and make sense of the world in which they live. Primary
science should involve children in thinking and working in particular ways in the
pursuit of reliable knowledge. While practical work undoubtedly contributes
towards securing children’s interest, curiosity and progress in science, children’s
scientific knowledge and understanding cannot always be developed through prac-
tical work alone. Just as the methods of science need to be taught explicitly, so too
does the scientific knowledge and understanding implicit in scientific activities and
their outcomes. As Science in the National Curriculum states:

1
 Introduction

Science stimulates and excites children’s curiosity about phenomena and

events in the world around them. It also satisfies this curiosity with knowledge.
Because science links direct practical experience with ideas, it can engage
learners at many levels. Scientific method is about developing and evaluating
explanations through experimental evidence and modelling. This is a spur to
critical and creative thought. Through science, children understand how major
scientific ideas contribute to technological change – impacting on industry,
business and medicine and improving quality of life. Children recognise the
cultural significance of science and trace its world-wide development. They
learn to question and discuss science based issues that may affect their own
lives, the direction of society and the future of the world.

Teachers (and trainees) are, of course, instrumental in developing children’s scien-

tific ideas and practical abilities and for fostering positive attitudes towards science.
Readers wishing to find out more about primary science in general are directed
towards the further reading and references sections included at the end of this
introduction.

Professional Standards for QTS for

Primary Science
Professional Standards for QTS (DfES/TDA, 2007) deals with the subject, pedago-
gical and professional knowledge and understanding required by trainees to secure
children’s progress in science. This book refers mostly to the pedagogical and
professional requirements (see Peacock et al., 2009 for subject knowledge and
understanding). In summary, by the end of all courses of initial teacher training,
all trainees are expected to know and understand:

. the reasons why it is important for all children to learn science and the value of engaging all
children’s interest in science;
. the nature of scientific understanding;
. key aspects of science underpinning children’s progress in acquiring scientific knowledge,
understanding and skills and how progress is recognised and encouraged;
. methods of developing children’s scientific knowledge, understanding and skills;
. ways of organising and managing science in the classroom;
. assessing and evaluating science teaching and learning;
. the importance of health and safety;
. the benefits of using ICT in science.

Early Years Foundation Stage

In September 2008, the Early Years Foundations Stage (DCSF, 2008) framework
became statutory for all early years care and education providers who are regis-
tered with Ofsted. This framework applies to children from birth until they are five
years old and therefore ensures that everyone involved in the care and education of
the children is working towards common principles. Included in the experience it
specifies are aspects of science.

2
 Introduction

Science in the National Curriculum

Science in the National Curriculum (DfEE/QCA, 1999) is organised on the basis of
four key stages. Key Stage 1 for five to seven year olds (Years 1 and 2) and Key
Stage 2 for seven to eleven year olds (Years 3 to 6) are for primary. The compo-
nents of each Key Stage include Programmes of Study, which set out the science
that children should be taught, Attainment Targets, which set out the science that
children should know and be able to do, and Level Descriptions, which outline what
children working at a particular level should be able to demonstrate. Science in the
National Curriculum is a minimum statutory requirement. Since its introduction in
1989 it has been significantly revised three times. A brief summary of the
Programmes of Study is presented as follows:

. Sc1: Scientific enquiry (Ideas and evidence in science; Investigative skills);

. Sc2: Life processes and living things (Life processes; Humans and other animals; Green plants;
Variation and classification; Living things in their environment);
. Sc3: Materials and their properties (Grouping materials; Changing materials; Separating
mixtures of materials – Key Stage 2 only);
. Sc4: Physical processes (Electricity; Forces and motion; Light and sound; The Earth and
beyond – Key Stage 2 only).

Science in the National Curriculum also presents some information on the contexts
in which primary science should be taught, links to other subjects, technological
application, health and safety and the use of ICT.

Science: a Scheme of Work for Key Stages

1 and 2
Use of the exemplar Scheme of Work for Science at Key Stages 1 and 2 (QCA/DfEE,
1998, with amendments 2000) is entirely optional. Designed to help implement
Science in the National Curriculum, many schools are, however, beginning to
adapt it for their own needs. The Scheme is presented as a series of Units
which attempt to provide continuity and progression in primary science provision
between Years 1 and 6. Guidance is offered on:

. the nature and place of each Unit;

. how each Unit builds on previous Units;
. technical scientific vocabulary;
. resources;
. expectations;
. teaching activities;
. teaching outcomes;
. health and safety;
. ICT links.

A summary of Units is presented overleaf.

The Teacher’s Guide which accompanies the Scheme of Work indicates that, in
their long- and medium-term planning, schools may wish to consider alternative
sequences of Units. This is, indeed, sound advice!

3
 Introduction

Key Stage 1
Year 1 Units Year 2 Units
1A Ourselves 2A Health and growth
1B Growing plants 2B Plants and animals in the local
1C Sorting and using materials environment
1D Light and dark 2C Variation
1E Pushes and pulls 2D Grouping and changing materials
1F Sound and hearing 2E Forces and movement
2F Using electricity
Key Stage 2
Year 3 Units Year 4 Units
3A Teeth and eating 4A Moving and growing
3B Helping plants grow well 4B Habitats
3C Characteristics of materials 4C Keeping warm
3D Rocks and soils 4D Solids, liquids and how they can be
3E Magnets and springs separated
3F Light and shadows 4E Friction
4F Circuits and conductors
Year 5 Units Year 6 Units
5A Keeping healthy 6A Interdependence and adaptation
5B Life cycles 6B Micro-organisms
5C Gases around us 6C More about dissolving
5D Changing state 6D Reversible and irreversible reactions
5E Earth, Sun and Moon 6E Forces in action
5F Changing sounds 6F How we see things
6G Changing circuits
5/6H Enquiry in environmental/technological
contexts

FURTHER READING FURTHER READING FURTHER READING

Arthur, J. et al. (2006) Learning to Teach in the Primary School. Oxford: Routledge.
Harlen, W. (2004) The Teaching of Science in Primary Schools. London: Fulton.
Hollins, M. and Whitby, V. (2001) Progression in Primary Science: a Guide to the Nature and
Practice of Science in Key Stages 1 and 2. London: Fulton.
Millar, R. and Osborne, J. (1998) Beyond 2000: Science Education for the Future. London:
King’s College.
Roden, J. (2005) Reflective Reader: Primary Science. Exeter: Learning Matters.
Sherrington, R. (ed.) (1998) ASE Guide to Primary Science Education. London: Stanley
Thornes.

REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES

DCSF (2008) Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage. London: DCSF.
DfEE/QCA (1999) Science: the National Curriculum for England. London: HMSO
(http://www.nc.uk.net).
DfES/TDA (2007) Professional Standards for Qualified Teacher Status. London: TDA
(http://www.dfes.gov.uk, http://www.canteach.gov.uk and http://www.tda.gov.uk).
Peacock, G., Sharp, J., Johnsey, R., and Wright, D. (2009) Primary Science: Knowledge and
Understanding. Exeter: Learning Matters.
QCA/DfEE (1998, with amendments 2000) Science: a Scheme of Work for Key Stages 1 and
2. London: QCA (http://www.qca.org.uk and http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/
schemes).

4
 2
The nature of scientific understanding

Professional Standards for QTS

Those awarded QTS must have a secure knowledge and understanding of
science that enables them to teach effectively across the age and ability for
which they are trained. To be able to do this in the context of the nature of
scientific understanding trainees should:

Professional attributes
Q4 Communicate effectively with children, young people, colleagues, parents
and carers.

Professional knowledge and understanding

Q10 Have a knowledge and understanding of a range of teaching, learning
and behaviour management strategies and know how to use and adapt them,
including how to personalise.
Q14 Have a secure knowledge and understanding of their subjects/curriculum
areas and related pedagogy to enable them to teach effectively across the
age and ability range for which they are trained.

Introduction
This chapter discusses the very nature of scientific understanding and explores the
implications for teaching science in schools. All of us behave in different ways as
we learn more about the world around us. Often, however, how and what we learn
leads to our own ‘personal’ understanding rather than that shared and accepted by
the scientific community. While not everyone will become a professional scientist,
those who use more scientific methods are more likely to have a more realistic
understanding of how things are, unlike those who depend on hearsay or make
inaccurate observations and poor interpretations.

The nature of scientific understanding

Science . . . is the source of explanations about how and why things happen in
the world around us . . . [It should be seen] not as a set of facts to be learnt but
as a series of explanations which the community of scientists currently
considers to be best. (Watt, 1999)

It is easy to see why science has gained the reputation it has in the past. In order to
survive an often hostile world, it has been very important to establish how that
world behaves and to predict what will happen next. The notion that science can
provide watertight explanations and reasons is one we would like to believe in.
Unfortunately science cannot always provide clear-cut answers to everything
although many would like to believe so. In fact, the methods employed in science,
and the body of knowledge which has been accumulated, provide only the best

5
 The nature of scientific understanding

explanations we have so far, based on the evidence gathered and the interpreta-
tions put on that evidence.

It is true to say that there is some science that we are very sure about, largely
because all the evidence collected over a long time points towards its validity. Thus
we are fairly sure that a force due to gravity will always pull an object which is close
to the Earth downwards, and plants need a source of light in order to grow health-
ily. However, a scientist would say that if one day we found evidence that things do
not always fall towards the Earth, we should then be prepared to change our views
about how gravity works.

The ideas that are commonly accepted by the scientific community form the knowl-
edge and understanding part of any educational curriculum and provide the ideas
that scientists use to build new concepts and theories. While we should be ready to
consider and reinterpret new evidence, we have to believe in some things or we
may never leave our own homes for fear of floating off into outer space! At the
same time, however, we must realise (and make others realise, too) that many
ideas in science can never actually be proven but they can certainly be falsified.

IN THE CLASSROOM
Some teachers in a primary school noticed that often their children would be
noisier and more agitated on windy days. The children came to school across
a windy playground where the leaves themselves seemed to be swept up in
frenzied excitement. Over a period of time other teachers in the school made
the same observation. Some teachers in the school claimed that their own
classrooms were always calm despite the weather conditions outside.
Observations at playtime on windy days, however, showed that the children
from these classes were also particularly excited outside of their own
classroom.
Over a period the group of teachers talked to colleagues from other schools
and also read articles which supported their ideas about children’s behaviour
on windy days. The teachers formed a theory concerning the children’s
behaviour which was supported by keen observation and the collection of a
range of evidence. The theory built up over a period of time and in some
teachers’ minds became fact.

There are a number of points about the nature of scientific understanding which
this story can illustrate.
. The teachers had clarified their ideas about children’s behaviour and windy days by making a
general statement based on their initial experiences. Scientific understanding is based on
previously accumulated knowledge which may be expressed in terms of generalisations.
. Over a period of time they checked their ideas against new evidence and found them to be
consistent with this evidence. The more evidence that supports an idea, the more we might
accept it as valid.
. However, even now, they cannot be sure that their ideas provide the best explanation because
future observations may disprove them (in which case new, modified ideas may emerge).
Scientific ideas are often tentative.
. As the teachers made more observations and developed ideas about why the children behaved

6
 The nature of scientific understanding

as they did, a theory emerged which could be tested. As long as the theory was supported by
evidence it could be usefully employed by some teachers to predict their children’s behaviour and
adapt the day’s work to suit this. A successful theory will enable successful predictions to be
made.
. An educational researcher might have been able to take a more scientific approach to testing
this theory by making more reliable, consistent and repeated observations. Interpretation of this
evidence might have produced a more sophisticated theory which linked weather conditions to
the general behaviour of the children, or disproved the theory altogether. The quality of
scientific knowledge and understanding is dependent on the quality of the scientific skills used
to gather evidence and interpret it.

The characteristics of scientific

understanding
Harlen (2000, p. 17) describes four characteristics of a modern view of science.

. Science activity is about understanding.

. Science activity is a human endeavour.
. Science ideas are often tentative.
. Science ideas must always be evaluated against what happens in the real world.

Understanding in science involves providing explanations and searching for rela-

tionships between events, based on sound evidence. The evidence, however, is
gathered and interpreted by human beings who, as we know, don’t always get it
right. Scientific ideas, then, are not a set of abstract rules set out in a textbook but
rather a collection of (in some instances rather shaky) ideas set out by people who
have interpreted what they have observed in their own personal way. One scientist
may be mistaken or may have made an incorrect interpretation of the evidence.
The views of a community of scientists who have critically checked each other’s
findings is much more reliable.

The tentative nature of all scientific ideas can be illustrated by putting ourselves in
the place of those who believed the earth was flat. This view of the world made a
great deal of sense to most people who very rarely ventured far from home and
could see with their own eyes an approximately flat landscape. This view of the
world was acceptable and worked for those people on a day-to-day basis. Only
when travellers and explorers confirmed that there was no ‘edge’ to the world and
people began to notice that the masts of ships appeared first over the horizon was
this view challenged. The evidence simply did not fit. Nowadays we have even
more evidence that the Earth is almost spherical in photographs from outer space.
If, however, new photographs began to show that the Earth was doughnut shaped
(unlikely of course), we would have to change our minds on the subject and
develop new ideas!

Moral and ethical influences on scientific

understanding
There are often more powerful influences on what we believe and perceive of the
world besides the interpretation of scientific evidence. Galileo was persecuted by

7
 The nature of scientific understanding

the Church for suggesting a theory which put the Sun at the centre of our solar
system with our rather insignificant earth orbiting it. The Church had taught an
Earth-centred view of the Universe and felt compelled to suppress the scientific
evidence that Galileo produced. Modern debates over scientific developments can
be influenced as much by politics and prejudice as by hard scientific evidence.
Interpretations of evidence can be purposely or inadvertently misleading as a result
of the interpreter’s moral or ethical stance. Commercial pressures can encourage
unscrupulous groups to misconstrue evidence or even falsify it. In short, scientific
progress can be hindered and distorted in a variety of ways.

If children are to cope in a modern technological society they must come to

appreciate the ways in which scientific knowledge is generated and the ways in
which scientific ideas have been developed as a result of human endeavour. While
a science curriculum will define a body of knowledge that is apparently fixed and
irrefutable, teachers must issue a warning that this is not necessarily so. This can
often be achieved through a discussion of the tentative nature of the children’s
findings in their own investigations. The children themselves know just how shaky
some of their experimental results are and should understand that all scientists will
have suffered the same kind of problems.

Science and design and technology

Sometimes it is important to know what science is not, in order to understand what
it is. To many people, science and technology are spoken of in the same breath
as though they were one thing but this is to misunderstand an important fact.
Science is to do with finding out about how the world around us works and
how it behaves. This is achieved through formulating and testing theories and
models by collecting and interpreting evidence. The purpose is to generate reliable
knowledge. Design and technology, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with
solving problems and satisfying human needs. It draws heavily on the knowledge
gained in science and other disciplines, but it uses this knowledge to achieve a
different end.

A science curriculum needs examples of technology to help children further under-

stand the science. Children need to understand the implications of using science
ideas. When debates rage over such things as genetically modified crops or the use
of nuclear power stations, the argument is with the technologists – those who are
employing the knowledge gained through scientific pursuits. The pure scientists
only supply the knowledge they have gained.

RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY

Research by McCormick (1999) into the way children carry out design and technology tasks
focused on the way in which the children applied their knowledge in a practical problem-
solving situation. He found that while children might be working on a product with a number of
scientific features, their discussions about it were not made in an abstract scientific language.
He describes how two children were designing and making a collecting box in which a coin
made a model bird move. Their discussions involved a technological language which was
closely related to the actual model rather than the scientific or mathematical language they
might have employed in a formal science lesson.

8
 The nature of scientific understanding

McCormick concluded that the information needed in the practical context was subtly different
to that gained in the more theoretical science lesson. He called this knowledge ‘device knowl-
edge’. This suggests something about the nature of science knowledge as taught in schools
and points towards a need for greater links to be made between this type of knowledge and
the device knowledge often used in the practical world.

Implications for science teaching

The science curriculum should provide young people with an understanding of
some key ideas-about-science, that is, ideas about the ways in which reliable
knowledge of the natural world has been and is being obtained. (Millar and
Osborne, 1998, Recommendation 6)

The National Curriculum for science in primary schools appears to be set out
largely in terms of science facts and concepts (Sc2, 3 and 4). These are the ‘big’
science ideas about which we are fairly certain and which are deemed appropriate
for primary-age children to understand. It is right that teachers teach these ideas as
firmly held concepts but this should be done alongside stories about the some-
times tentative nature of modern science and about how some old ideas have been
modified or replaced throughout history. At the same time teachers will want to
teach the skills described in Sc1 – Science enquiry – to illustrate the way in which
scientific ideas have been arrived at in the past and are arrived at today.

A SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

4 Science is about understanding the world around us – technology is about using this
knowledge to solve problems.
4 Scientific understanding is based on accumulating and interpreting evidence for
proposed theories or models.
4 Science ideas are often tentative but the ’big ideas’ are well established.
4 Science is a result of human endeavour and thus scientific interpretations may be
influenced by moral, ethical, political and commercial factors.

MOVING ON > > > > > > MOVING ON > > > > > > MOVING ON
During your Induction year you will be expected to develop a secure knowledge and under-
standing of the subject areas you teach (Professional Standards for Teachers, I 15). Use the
Further Reading section which follows to discover what others believe about the nature of
science.

FURTHER READING FURTHER READING FURTHER READING FURTHER READING

Driver, R., Leach, J., Millar, R. and Scott, P. (1996) Young People’s Images of Science.
Buckingham: Open University Press. This book provides an insight into the nature of
scientific understanding as a whole as well as how children’s ideas about the nature of
scientific understanding develop.
Ollerenshaw, C. and Ritchie, R. (1997) Primary Science – Making it Work. London: Fulton.
This book provides a general introduction to teaching primary science, drawing heavily
on the constructivist approach – one which has been adopted particularly by the science
education community.

9
 The nature of scientific understanding

Peacock, G. A. (2002) Teaching Science in Primary Schools. London: Letts. A clear but brief
introduction to the intricacies of teaching science in the primary school.

REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES

DCSF (2008) Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage. London: DCSF.
Harlen, W. (2000) Teaching, Learning and Assessing Science 5–12, 3rd edn. London: Paul
Chapman.
McCormick, R. (1999) ‘Capability lost and found’, Journal of Design and Technology Education,
4(1), 5–14.
Millar, R. and Osborne, J. (1998) Beyond 2000 – Science Education for the Future. London:
King’s College.
Watt, D. (1999) ‘Science: learning to explain how the world works’, in J. Riley and R. Prentice
(eds), The Curriculum for 7–11 year olds. London: Paul Chapman.

10
 3
Processes and methods of scientific
enquiry

Professional Standards for QTS

Those awarded QTS must have a secure knowledge and understanding of
science that enables them to teach effectively across the age and ability for
which they are trained. To be able to do this in the context of the nature of
scientific understanding trainees should:

Professional attributes
Q4 Communicate effectively with children, young people, colleagues, parents
and carers.
Q7(a) Reflect on and improve their practice, and take responsibility for iden-
tifying and meeting their developing professional needs.

Professional knowledge and understanding

Q10 Have a knowledge and understanding of a range of teaching, learning
and behaviour management strategies and know how to use and adapt them,
including how to personalise learning and provide opportunities for all lear-
ners to achieve their potential.
Q12 Know a range of approaches to assessment, including the importance of
formative assessment.
Q14 Have a secure knowledge and understanding of their subjects/curriculum
areas and related pedagogy to enable them to teach effectively across the
age and ability range for which they are trained.

Professional skills
Q22 Plan for progression across the age and ability range for which they are
trained, designing effective learning sequences within lessons and across
series of lessons and demonstrating secure subject/curriculum knowledge.
Q25 Teach lessons and sequences of lessons across the age and ability range
for which they are trained in which they:
(a) use a range of teaching strategies and resources, including e-learning,
taking practical account of diversity and promoting equality and inclusion;
(b) build on prior knowledge, develop concepts and processes, enable lear-
ners to apply new knowledge, understanding and skills, and meet learning
objectives.
Q28 Support and guide learners to reflect on their learning, identify the
progress they have made and identify their emerging learning needs.

11
 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry

Introduction
IN THE CLASSROOM
A class of six- and seven-year-olds were working in the small garden the
school had created. The tasks for the day were planting and weeding but
several children had become fascinated by the small creatures they found as
they worked. One group looked under stones and discovered more. Some
children had names for creatures they saw. Others pointed out how they
moved. Their teacher had not planned for this to be the focus of the science
but it fitted the school scheme of work well, since they were studying the
variety of life and conditions for living things. She recognised its potential to
develop scientific enquiry from the children’s curiosity and interest. Before
they went any further she talked with them about being careful not to harm
any creatures. Some children wanted to make homes for the ones they had
found. The teacher asked what they thought these would have to be like in
order to start them thinking about the types of environment which different
animals needed. She anticipated helping them investigate the conditions
which the small animals preferred, working with them to devise simple tests
of light/dark, damp/dry.
The class had already been shown how to use a magnifying glass and
viewers, so they would be able to make closer observations to check the
claims they were making about how many legs each creature had. The
teacher thought that drawing and maybe modelling might improve the
observations. That would also help them compare different animals with
pictures in books and she could introduce simple keys and some software the
school had. Grouping pictures, sorting activities and games might help
children get an idea of a simple classification. At present some of them were
using terms like worm and insect but there were lots of disagreements over
what to call each new find. The teacher could see opportunities for language
work in these debates, and there would be maths to apply in drawing charts
or graphs if they found lots of things. She could also see some challenges in
organising all this – not least with the two children who didn’t want to have
anything to do with ’creepy-crawlies’.

This scenario illustrates some opportunities to develop processes and methods

used in scientific enquiry, not all of which are exclusive to science. Compare it with
the way that the national science curriculum describes what children should do at
this stage.

During Key Stage 1 pupils observe, explore and ask questions about living
things, materials and phenomena. They begin to work together to collect
evidence to help them answer questions and to link this to simple scientific
ideas. They evaluate evidence and consider whether tests or comparisons are
fair. They use reference materials to find out more about scientific ideas. They
share their ideas and communicate them in language, drawing, charts and
tables. (p. 78)

12
 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry

When they build on this during Key Stage 2 one sign of progress is that children
carry out more scientific investigations.

Investigations and other sorts of practical

work
Investigations are an important part of science in primary schools. They develop
children’s understanding of scientific procedures and concepts, their knowledge
and their skills.

Investigations are not simply practical work. Practical activities may be used for
various reasons, for instance to illustrate a scientific concept, to teach a specific skill
or to foster observation. These are all worthwhile. However, it is important to be
clear about the purpose of any activity – for example, giving children a detailed set
of instructions to follow so they reach a predetermined result may be appropriate if
we are aiming to teach skills or to reinforce ideas. But this is not the same as
children carrying out investigations where the aim is to allow them to use and to
develop concepts, skills and procedural understanding. When they are investigat-
ing, children have some responsibility for deciding what to do and how to do it.
They should be encouraged to think for themselves, to use their knowledge and
skills, and to extend their understanding.

Characteristic features of investigations

Children may have to work out exactly what question they are trying to answer and
turn it into a form that can be investigated.

They use investigative procedures, such as:

. raising questions;
. identifying and controlling variables;
. planning;
. observing/measuring;
. analysing data;
. interpreting results;
. deciding how far their findings answer their original question;
. evaluating their work.

A whole investigation may include all these features. However, we often support
children by organising investigations so that they can concentrate on a few aspects.
We also have to teach them the skills and knowledge that they need in order to
carry out investigations. Although children are taking responsibility for their inves-
tigation, teachers have an active part to play – they are not simply providing hands-
on experiences nor adopting a discovery approach to science learning.

PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK

Consider a common practical activity in primary science – bouncing balls.
1. How might you organise the activity if you want to teach a skill – e.g. careful observation
by young children or accurate measurement by older children?

13
 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry

2. How might you organise the activity if you want to ensure all the children get a good set
of results that can be used to see patterns in results and a relationship between the height
of drop and height bounced?
3. How might you organise the activity if you want to extend children’s skills at planning a
fair test where the key variables are tested and others are controlled?
4. How might you organise the activity if you want children to carry out an investigation of
their own?

Make notes or draft a lesson plan for each of these different objectives.

Now we have an overall picture of investigations we will look at some of the

features in more detail.

Raising and framing questions

Children ask lots of questions although, sadly, many are discouraged even before
they arrive at school. So teachers may have to encourage them to raise questions
through devices such as unusual displays, boxes or boards where children can
post questions. When starting new topics lists of potential questions can be brain-
stormed and used in planning the work with the children. There should be a school
climate where questions are treated seriously and teachers should be role models.
They will certainly need to help children pose questions that are framed so that
they can investigate them and find something out. That is a crucial step in any
research. The skill can be scaffolded with class discussion to refine questions
posed by the children or teacher, with support for small groups working on their
own ideas, through direct suggestions and through active redrafting of written
questions. As they gain experience and confidence children can be challenged
more:

. Are they making use of what they already know to pose their question and predict what might
happen?
. Have they thought about different ways their question could be investigated?
. What skills have they learned already that would help them with the investigation?

Fair testing and other kinds of

investigations
Primary teachers have been very active in teaching children about the need for fair
tests. These are investigations in which the key independent and dependent vari-
ables are systematically changed and measured while the others are controlled so
they do not change. The independent variable is the one that will be changed
intentionally to see what effect it has on the dependent variable which will be
measured. Variables are those things which change or vary in an investigation.
How do children and teachers know what they are likely to be in any specific case,
for example when testing materials to see which is most effective for keeping
someone warm? Well, their previous experiences of clothing and the scientific
knowledge they have about materials will suggest some factors. The level of
their understanding about how heat travels can make a difference to what factors
they see as relevant. Children may need lots of help to work out which variable they

14
 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry

are going to control, i.e. keep the same, and which they will change. By trying out
their ideas practically they may find other things which affect the results. Teachers
need a good understanding themselves of the skills and ideas that the tasks may
demand – for instance, being able to use a thermometer, knowing the difference
between heat and temperature. They have to be aware of practical difficulties and
safety issues – can the water be hot enough for the children to get good results?
And they also need to be alert to what the children are thinking – for example, do
they expect water to go on cooling to zero rather than room temperature? Do they
interpret ‘fair’ as meaning everybody has a go?

RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY

Joyce et al. (2005) describe a study with 5–7 year olds to help them develop their ability to
control variables and keep track of them when conducting a fair test, of running small cars
down ramps. They used strategies such as setting up two sets of equipment side by side,
providing pairs of cars that could be selected to create a fair test and introducing coloured dots
for recording the distance travelled. These reduced the demand on the children’s memories by
displaying more of the overall investigation simultaneously, making the effects of ’unfair’
testing more obvious, easing data recording so repeat tests were more manageable and
making patterns of results obvious so children could compare and reason about them more
easily. They found that with these strategies even young children were able to identify a fair
test and replicate the set-up of equipment for their investigations. The children showed their
reasoning as they talked about what might make a fair or unfair test.

In many investigations, variables can be difficult to control or they may interact.

Some people also argue that fair tests have been emphasised too much to the
detriment of other valuable work. This is not an argument against teaching children
how to carry out controlled tests, but rather one for giving them experience of
other kinds of investigation and other contexts. This range of work is not easy to fit
in when teachers feel that the time available for primary children to do extended
science investigations has been squeezed by the National Curriculum, literacy and
numeracy hours. So it is crucial to avoid repetition. This is true both within and
across key stages.

Planning investigations
In order to plan their own investigations, children need to be able to think ahead,
anticipating what they will do and what equipment they will need, how they will
record their findings and what they will do with the results. This is demanding and
they will need a lot of help. In the early stages teachers will do most of the planning
for the children but should aim to involve them and make them aware of the
process. Even young children can be given responsibility for planning part of an
investigation. In their play they imagine and organise their activities. As they colla-
borate in groups and extend their communication skills children become able to
take on more of the planning themselves. For teachers in primary schools nowa-
days there is a tension between fostering this independence and following the
prescribed curriculum. Rachel Sparks Linfield (2007) draws on her experience
across the age range in describing how the National Curriculum, and particularly
SATs, have restricted opportunities for children to pursue extended investigations.

15
 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry

She makes the argument for regaining time to enable them to investigate their
questions.

When they have had some experience of science activities children can do more
systematic planning of their investigations. Many teachers have found planning
sheets helpful to structure this and to support children. These can be provided
through a computer, on paper or on a larger-scale board. A few key headings or
questions direct children’s attention to things they should think about before they
start. For instance, for a ‘fair test’ kind of investigation.

. What are we trying to find out?

. What are we changing?
. What do we want to keep the same?
. What do we think will happen?
. What are we going to measure?
. How will we record our measurements?
. What equipment do we need to collect before we start?

The headings should prompt children to think through the stages of an investiga-
tion one at a time. They can help them focus their attention, be organised and think
ahead to consider alternatives or problems. They might be referred to as a remin-
der during their investigation. The structure can also reinforce children’s
understanding of the procedures involved in an investigation. However, we
should beware that such aids do not become straitjackets. Planning sheets usually
emphasise one sort of investigation, the fair test. They may also become a routine
or even a ritual, taking time and attention away from the investigation itself.

So we need to be clear about our purpose for requiring the children to plan – and to
share the purpose with them.

. Is it so they are more likely to do an appropriate investigation for the question they posed?
. Because they might miss important observations?
. So they think about the variables that need to be controlled?
. Because they have to plan what measurements to take and get the equipment?
. Is our aim to increase their understanding of the scientific procedures in a whole investigation?

Science investigations can also serve a broader purpose across the curriculum: fostering
children’s creativity and their thinking skills.
Think about investigations you have done with or might plan to do with children.
1. What can a teacher do in order to encourage children to generate lots of possible ways of
investigating a question?
2. How might children be helped to discuss one another’s ideas and decide on the most
appropriate ways?
3. How confident would you be at letting children follow up their own ideas even if they
looked like being unsuccessful? How do you decide whether to intervene?
For ideas look at articles on creativity in issue 81 of Primary Science Review, and articles on
questions in issues 83, 90 and 105.

16
 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry

Observation and measurement

Careful observation is an important skill to develop in science. Teachers can use
devices such as viewing frames or magnifying glasses to help children look more
closely. They can ask children to report on changes over time, for example when
food colouring is dropped into water. Audiotapes and videotapes can be replayed
so they can check their observations. Teachers’ questions can be used to focus or
extend children’s observations as appropriate: sometimes it is best to draw their
attention to relevant features and at other times to ask them what else they notice.

The questions and problems that lead to investigations are often the result of
observations, especially of noticing surprising features or unusual events.
Observing is not simply looking or listening but is a deliberate act influenced by
our expectations and experience. As children gain more scientific knowledge they
can be asked to use that to inform their observations. In investigations they should
be drawing upon their scientific ideas from the start. Observation features at later
stages as well. Some kinds of investigation depend on lots of carefully recorded
observations to see if there are any patterns, for example if they want to investigate
food preferences of birds visiting a school bird table. Children have to be prepared
to make these – they may have to get equipment, practise using it, and decide
when to make and how to record their observations. Some investigations combine
qualitative records and measurement, for instance if they trace the germination and
growth of plants under various conditions or keep a record of the weather.

Measuring is a key feature of science, although not all scientific work by children
will involve measurement. Children need to see the purpose for measuring in their
investigations. They should be helped to think about what they are going to
measure and how they can do so. If they are going to need to use measuring
instruments do they already know how to? Have they been taught how to use them
appropriately? Are they seeking to be accurate and are they aware of errors?
Consider, for instance, children carrying out a very common activity, rolling vehi-
cles they have made down slopes to see which runs fastest. Children often opt to
time these using a digital watch or stopclock and report their results. However, the
error in switching the clock on and off can be considerable, and they need to realise
this and to consider what else they might measure.

In tests like this children are often expected to make repeated measurements. This
is good practice but once again we have to be careful that they learn to do it with
understanding.

Some of the equipment they will use during investigations may be met first in
maths when they measure time, length, weight and volume. As they progress
through simple comparison, use of non-standard measurements to standard
measures they acquire skills that they can use in science. They are also learning
about accuracy and choice of the appropriate scale. Other equipment such as
spring balances to measure forces or thermometers may be introduced in science
lessons. They will need to be taught how to use these with skill and understanding,
for example beginning with learning to read a simple scale on sturdy thermo-
meters, progressing to recognising the range they can measure using more
sensitive instruments, handling them carefully, and reducing errors by waiting

17
 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry

for the instruments to reach a steady reading. At level 3 they are expected to be
able to use a range of simple equipment to measure quantities like mass and
length; by level 5 they should be selecting apparatus, planning how to use it,
making a series of measurements with appropriate precision, and beginning to
repeat measurements.

ICT (Information and Communication Technology) has brought new aids such as
dataloggers with sensors that children can use to make and record measurements
(see p. 112). These devices and software can help them handle the data they
produce, see patterns and relationships and communicate it. The links between
the maths, science and ICT curricula are most obvious in the area of data handling.

Handling data: recording and interpreting

results
Young children need lots of help to organise their data collection and recording. The
simplest form of recording is to present results directly, for instance by making a
display that shows plants grown in different conditions or by placing materials in
order from strongest to weakest as they are tested. Children at all stages can use
tape recorders, digital cameras or video recorders to capture observations; this
could be especially useful to enable children with communication problems to
focus on the science and achieve their potential.

Progression in this aspect of their work can be illustrated by reference to the

National Curriculum levels. At level 1 children will be using pictures and simple
charts. If drawn large they can be displayed and discussed as the first step in
interpreting data. Talk and writing are important for communicating findings at
any stage and mathematics contributes other ways of presenting results that chil-
dren need to apply. In the early stages teachers may provide a simple tally chart or
table but as they progress children should begin to plan their own. At level 2 they
are expected to use simple tables where appropriate. If they are to progress
teachers need not only to introduce them to other ways of recording but also to
help them see patterns in data that have been recorded. At level 3 they are
expected to record their own observations in a variety of ways and to provide
explanations for simple patterns in recorded measurements. To build on that they
need to learn about using different sorts of tables, begin to plot points in simple
graphs and use these graphs to interpret patterns in their data. At level 5 children
should be able to make decisions about the best way to record and present parti-
cular sorts of data. Software such as spreadsheets and databases may assist them
to process lots of data and to try different ways of displaying it – tables, bar graphs,
pictograms, line graphs, scattergrams. But we should ensure they are taught to use
them with understanding. For example, they should realise when there is a relation-
ship between variables that makes it appropriate to draw a line graph but also when
that is not appropriate.

Children can work at different levels on related investigations in one class, as in

these examples of bouncing balls. Those who drew the first graph were working at
a lower level in science and in maths. The teacher had suggested they compare
how high different balls bounced. They chose the balls and did the tests without a

18
 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry

lot of help but they only made one measurement for each, using a metre rule. This
sort of graph was familiar to them. The second graph was drawn by the most able
children in the class who practised first in order to measure the height of bounce as
accurately as possible. Then they fixed a scale on the wall, dropped the ball at 10
cm intervals, made three readings for each and took the median value. They
realised that a line graph could be drawn to show the relationship between the
two heights. In a previous investigation of cooling they had plotted points for
temperatures and had learnt to draw a line of best fit. When they drew this one
they decided after discussion that they could take the line back to zero, even though
when they had dropped the ball from less than 40 cm they had not got reliable
measurements.

Figure 3.1 Bar graph

Figure 3.2 Line graph

19
 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry

As well as acquiring these skills and the procedural understanding to apply them,
children at level 5 and above should be using their data to draw conclusions which
are based on evidence and which relate to scientific ideas. This is the purpose of
doing whole investigations. But the skills to enable this sometimes have to be
taught separately and then put together. In some ways interpreting results is the
hardest of these. It requires the child to scrutinise data for patterns, to relate the
findings to their predictions yet be open to unexpected results, and to draw on
scientific ideas while their understanding is limited. There is plenty that teachers
can do to help children with this as they progress through the primary school.

. Talk about patterns and regularities in everyday events, for example daily cycles or shadow
lengths.
. Draw attention to phenomena which indicate relationships, for example how seedlings grow
towards a window or how many snails are about on wet days.
. Display children’s work so that patterns are apparent and discuss them, for example the
shadows cast by a puppet figure at different distances from a lamp or the order in which
parachutes of different sizes fell. Include questions in displays.
. Ask them to refer back to their predictions when they discuss the results of a test they did.
. Organise activities where measurement reveals relationships, for example between pulse rates
and exercise.
. Provide tables or graphs with results for children to analyse and discuss, for example elastic
bands stretched by loading masses. Introduce some with less tidy sets of results and ask for
their explanations, for example the distance travelled by cotton reels powered by turns of
elastic band or the readings on a spring balance pulling increasing loads.
. When they report their findings ask children to provide explanations and suggest reasons if
any of their results do not fit the pattern.
. Encourage them to give reasons based on their science studies when they predict and offer
explanations.
. Establish a climate where children challenge one another’s explanations and offer alternative
interpretations and listen to one another.

Evaluating
Evaluating is valuable for improving investigations and developing procedural
understanding. However, it should not become a ritual or a chore. Nor do we want
children to feel defensive about their work. Specific, focused questions will be
more helpful at first rather than general enquiries about how they could make it
better. For example, if children were recording something changing over time, ask
how they decided when to take measurements, whether any measurements
needed to be checked, what was difficult, what worked well. As children become
more capable at planning investigations they can look back at their plan to see how
closely they followed it, what adjustments they had to make as they went and how
they would advise another group to tackle the same question. If several groups
investigate similar questions they can compare their findings and discuss why they
may not have the same results. The time available for repeating and refining
investigations is limited so we need to make the best use of any opportunities.
Much of the evaluation can occur as children talk about the work they are doing.
We also have to bear in mind that children often find science stimulating because
they are actively engaged in practical work and trying out their own ideas. Teachers
need to listen and watch them at work in order to judge whether a question will

20
 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry

extend the children’s understanding or be seen as a distraction. Let us end this

chapter by illustrating some ways in which teachers successfully develop their
children’s thinking as they investigate.

RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY

Keogh and Naylor (2003) identify some skills and capacities of Early Years teachers which
foster scientific learning, such as:
. helping children observe what is important;
. being curious and willing to enquire themselves;
. having the capacity for surprise.

Moving up the age range Stephen Lunn (2006) reports how a teacher with 4–6 year olds and
later with 7–9 year olds built on their ideas and fostered imagination by using charts of ’what
do we know’ and ’what do we wonder’; these stimulated questioning, developed the children’s
confidence to offer ideas, and modelled scientific thinking.
At the top of Key Stage 2 Richard Watkins (2005) researched the scientific reasoning of the
children in his Year 6 class. He gave them statements reflecting either inductive or deductive
reasoning to discuss in small groups. Most children could identify limitations of inductive
reasoning as a basis for making predictions about objects not yet examined on the basis of
information from those already examined.
Watkins teaches Sc1 across the curriculum and also dedicates lessons specifically to teaching
investigative skills, including questions of reliability and accuracy. Children are encouraged to
think aloud and explain their reasoning. His account illustrates both the creation of a climate
to foster children’s own ideas and the rigorous teaching of skills enabling them to make
progression in their scientific thinking.

A SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

4 Practical activities may be used for various reasons: to investigate a question or
problem; to illustrate a scientific concept; to teach a specific skill; to foster observation.
4 Investigations are an important part of science in primary schools. They develop
children’s understanding of scientific procedures and concepts, their knowledge
and their skills.
4 When they are investigating, children should be encouraged to think for themselves,
to use their knowledge and skills, and to extend their understanding.
4 Children should be taught to use and to understand investigative procedures such as:
framing a question in a form that can be investigated; identifying and controlling
variables; planning; observing; measuring; analysing data; interpreting results; decid-
ing how far their findings answer their original question; evaluating their work.
4 Science investigations can be stimulating, enjoyable and challenging for children –
and for their teachers!

MOVING ON > > > > > > MOVING ON > > > > > > MOVING ON
As you become more familiar with children in your class during your Induction year you will be able
to plan to assess individual needs and abilities in the context of investigations. This information
should be used to set individual targets and assist children to reflect on their own learning.

21
 Processes and methods of scientific enquiry

FURTHER READING FURTHER READING FURTHER READING FURTHER READING

Goldsworthy, A. (2004) ’Acquiring scientific skills’, in J. Sharp (ed.), Developing Primary
Science. Exeter: Learning Matters, 33–49. Goldsworthy illustrates many of the ideas
discussed in this chapter. She refers to earlier projects and publications from the
Association for Science Education (ASE) which remain valuable practical resources for
teaching investigations, for example the AKSIS project and the book by Goldsworthy and
Feasey, Making Sense of Primary Investigations, which is still available from the ASE.
The primary journal of the ASE, Primary Science Review (PSR), which since issue 101 is now
called simply Primary Science, regularly contains articles illustrating children’s
investigations and ways that teachers foster their pupils’ skills and reasoning. Some
articles and special issues deal explicitly with these matters, for example:
PSR Issue 81 on Creativity includes an article that describe creative science in a nursery
school by McFall and Macro on pages 7-10, and one by Ovens on pages 17-20 in which
he illustrates ways to encourage creativity with Year 1 and Year 3 classes.
PSR Issue 90 on Forensic Science describes several investigations set in ’crime-solving’
context which developed children’s enquiry skills, such as that by Ian Richardson ’The
baker did it’ on pages 4-6.
PSR Issue 100 on Children’s Science and getting children to think scientifically.
Primary Science Issue 105 on Questioning.

REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES

DCSF (2008) Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage. London: DCSF.
Joyce, C., Hipkins, R. and MacLeod, C. (2005) ‘We need to get some more dots!’ Primary
Science Review, 89, 11–14.
Keogh, B. and Naylor, S. (2003) ‘Being a role model in the early years’, Primary Science
Review, 78, 7–9.
Linfield, R.S. (2007) ‘Bringing investigation back to science’, Primary Science Review, 100,
26–27.
Lunn, S. (2006) ‘Working like real scientists’, Primary Science Review, 94, 4–7.
Watkins, R. (2005) ‘The pterodactyl and the crow’, Primary Science Review, 89, 4–7.

22
 4
Children’s ideas

Professional Standards for QTS

Those awarded QTS must have a secure knowledge and understanding of
science that enables them to teach effectively across the age and ability for
which they are trained. To be able to do this in the context of the nature of
scientific understanding trainees should:

Professional attributes
Q4 Communicate effectively with children, young people, colleagues, parents
and carers.
Q6 Have a commitment to collaboration and co-operative working.

Professional knowledge and understanding

Q10 Have a knowledge and understanding of a range of teaching, learning
and behaviour management strategies and know how to use and adapt them,
including how to personalise learning and provide opportunities for all lear-
ners to achieve their potential.
Q18 Understand how children and young people develop and that the
progress and well-being of learners are affected by a range of developmental,
social, religious, ethnic, cultural and linguistic influences.

Professional skills
Q22 Plan for progression across the age and ability range for which they are
trained, designing effective learning sequences within lessons and across
series of lessons and demonstrating secure subject/curriculum knowledge.
Q25 Teach lessons and sequences of lessons across the age and ability range
for which they are trained in which they:
(a) use a range of teaching strategies and resources, including e-learning,
taking practical account of diversity and promoting equality and inclusion;
(b) build on prior knowledge, develop concepts and processes, enable lear-
ners to apply new knowledge, understanding and skills and meet learning
objectives;
(c) adapt their language to suit the learners they teach, introducing new ideas
and concepts clearly, and using explanations, questions, discussions and
plenaries effectively;
(d) manage the learning of individuals, groups and whole classes, modifying
their teaching to suit the stage of the lesson.
Q29 Evaluate the impact of their teaching on the progress of all learners, and
modify their planning and classroom practice where necessary.

23
 Children’s ideas

Introduction
Children’s learning
To understand how children learn science, and the importance of children’s ideas
in the learning process, teachers need to have some knowledge of the nature of
children’s learning.

Piaget’s theories of development and of how children construct their understanding

as they interact with the world were an early influence in primary and nursery
education. The importance of language, social interaction and instruction were
subsequently acknowledged, with the work of Vygotsky being particularly influen-
tial. More recently research into children’s learning has sought a broader
perspective that takes account of interactions between their developing concep-
tions, specific knowledge they have gained, their beliefs and ways of thinking and
feeling.

Many developments in science education in the past 25 years have been influenced
by constructivist and social constructivist theories of learning. In essence, a
constructivist view of learning suggests that learning involves an active process
in which each learner is engaged in constructing meanings, whether from physical
experiences, dialogue or texts. A constructivist perspective has underpinned many
studies into children’s ideas undertaken in different parts of the world. Highly
influential projects include the New Zealand Learning in Science Project (LISP),
the Children’s Learning in Science Project (CLISP) and the primary Science
Process and Concepts Exploration (SPACE) project. The following Research
Summary provides an overview of some of this work.

RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY

Following the seminal studies of LISP and CLISP in the 1980s a wide range of studies across
the world with children of all ages have shown that they develop meanings for many words
used in science and views of the world that relate to ideas taught in science. The findings also
show that children’s ideas may be strongly held and often differ significantly from those held
by scientists, that from the children’s points of view their ideas are sensible and coherent, and
that they often remain uninfluenced by science teaching or are influenced in unexpected ways.
The SPACE project began just before the National Curriculum. It carried out research, working
with primary pupils over a range of scientific topics in classrooms, and built the findings into
classroom guides for teachers. A concise account of its findings and legacy is given by Harlen
(2007). She illustrates some of the alternative ideas held by children which were revealed in
the study and may be recognised by many teachers. Although their ideas may be based on
adequate evidence it is often clear that children have thought about what is happening and that
there is some reasoning based on observations.

Studying the characteristics and limitations of children’s ideas gives us clues as to how to
help children change their ideas to come closer to the scientific ones. (Harlen, 2007, p. 14)

Some more recent research has examined how children’s ideas may change over several
years, questioning the stability of individual’s ideas and the assumption that there is an

24
 Children’s ideas

orderly, sequential growth of concepts (Tytler and Peterson, 2005). In one study the research-
ers worked with and interviewed 12 primary school pupils each year from the age of 5. They
studied children’s understanding of a number of topics, e.g. changes to materials and evapora-
tion. They found that:

. children’s explanations were very context dependent, and there was no simple pathway
which children followed as their understanding progressed;
. even where children seemed to be voicing the same conception they differed in how they
represented it and what they meant;
. each child had a relatively coherent way of approaching learning and knowledge, linked with
the ways they saw themselves as learners and school children;

Overall the research indicates how we not only need to take account of the ideas children bring
to their science learning but also the wider agenda they bring to activities which we as
teachers may introduce.

The research into children’s ideas has shown several features which will now be
considered separately in order to emphasise their importance in the teaching and
learning of science. The way in which children’s ideas can be addressed in teaching
is referred to in later sections, which include reference to constructivist teaching
approaches.

Children’s ideas can be very different

Children’s ideas are personal constructs which are formed from their experience
and the interactions they have with other children and adults. Though children
often develop similar ideas about natural phenomena, and there is evidence to
show that some ideas are common to children in different parts of the world, they
do have different life experiences which influence the way their ideas develop.
During a study carried out into children’s understanding of forces, a sample of
12 children aged between eight and ten were asked individually what they could
tell the teacher about gravity. Even in this small sample of children there was a
range of different ideas.

‘Gravity is something to do with space.’

‘Gravity keeps you up.’
‘Gravity is in the air.’
‘There is no gravity in space or water because you can float.’
‘Gravity in space makes you float around.’
‘Gravity is not acting on birds or flying things.’
‘Gravity stops things floating.’
‘Gravity makes you come down.’
‘Gravity keeps you on the ground.’
‘Gravity pulls things down.’
‘Gravity is a force pulling things down.’
‘Gravity pulls all objects down.’

Without further discussion with the children it is difficult to tell what they mean by
short statements such as these.

25
 Children’s ideas

The SPACE publications describe ways of categorising children’s ideas.

. Anthropomorphic views. For example, ‘I think the little caterpillar is scrunched up in that little
egg waiting to hatch, but while she is waiting she’s planning her life.’
. Egocentric views. For example, ‘We’ve got to go to bed. We can’t sleep when it is light.’
. Ideas based on a colloquial use of language. For example, some children believed that you
need to eat carrots to see at night. Everyday language carries an implicit concept that vision is
an active process, for example ‘cast our gaze’, ‘stare daggers’.
. Ideas based on limited experience and observations. For example, some children represent the
body as a hollow cavity filled to the neck with blood, because when we cut ourselves, blood
comes out.
. Stylised representations. For example, children may draw the sun with lines radiating out from
it, but this does not mean that they understand that light travels in straight lines.

The SPACE project also found that some children expressed ideas which are more
closely related to scientific views than those shown above.

The idiosyncrasy of children’s ideas reflects their individual life experiences; it is

only to be expected that children’s limited experiences result in ideas which differ
from the accepted scientific view. From the categories of ideas described above it
can be seen that many children’s ideas are very far from the scientific view. A
common idea, also prevalent among adults, is that plants obtain ‘food’ from the
soil; the use of the word food is confusing, as plants do obtain nutrients from the
soil. What is difficult for children to understand is that plant material is generated
mainly from carbon dioxide and water. Incomplete understanding of scientific
ideas sometimes prevents children from making distinctions between separate
scientific ideas; when children see a solid substance turning into a liquid, for
example ice melting, or sugar crystals dissolving, they often believe that similar
processes are in operation.

PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK

Write down your own explanation of the distinction between melting and dissolving. Consider
your explanation and identify what children need to know and understand in order to engage
with your explanation.

A further feature of children’s ideas is that they can be very specific to particular
contexts. A study exploring children’s understanding of balanced forces demon-
strated the way in which children’s explanations of the same underlying principle
can be different in different contexts. In the study children were presented with two
different situations involving balanced forces, a box suspended from a piece of
elastic and a box supported on a bendy bridge. Children were often inconsistent in
the way they identified downward and upward forces acting on the box, though the
same principle applied in each case (the upward force of the distorted material
balancing the downward force of gravity). Children tend to see different situations
as instances of different phenomena, so much so that they may switch from one
explanation to a contradictory one.

RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY

Venville (2004) carried out a study with a Year 1 class in an inner London primary school over
five weeks when the children were studying living and non-living things.

26
 Children’s ideas

Interviewer: Is a cat alive?

Anna: Yes.
Interviewer: How do you know a cat’s alive?
Anna: Because I’ve got a cat and cats have got hearts and they can walk and move.
They’ve got feet and they’ve got a body and face.
[Interviewer shows Anna a picture of a house.]
Interviewer: Is a house alive?
Anna: No.
Interviewer: Why not?
Anna: Because it doesn’t move and it ain’t got a heart. Because people live inside
it and they can’t see the heart inside it.
Interviewer: What about that, what’s that? [Interviewer shows Anna a picture of the sun.]
Anna: A sun.
Interviewer: And is the sun alive?
Anna: Yes.
Interviewer: Why is the sun alive?
Anna: Because it gives us sun and it can move. It’s not sunny today, that means it’s
gone to another place, and tomorrow, if it’s sunny tomorrow, that means it
moved over to here.
Interviewer: Oh I see. Has the sun got a heart?
Anna: Yes.

In summary, children have different ideas according to their limited experiences.

Yet children’s ideas make logical sense in terms of these experiences, which often
means that these ideas are hard to change.

Children’s ideas are hard to change

Because children’s ideas make personal sense, they can be very stable and resis-
tant to change. Even when presented with evidence to show that their ideas are not
sufficient to explain phenomena, children may ignore the evidence, or interpret it in
terms of their own ideas. The following Research Summary demonstrates an
example of a child’s ideas which were resistant to the teacher’s attempts to
change them; the extract also raises questions about the strategies a teacher
might use to effectively challenge children’s ideas, which will be referred to in a
later section.

RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY

Venville (2004, p. 399) comments as follows on the interview extract cited earlier:
Many young children, such as 6-year-old Anna, cannot distinguish between living and
nonliving things in a way that adults would consider scientifically acceptable. She believes
that the sun is a living thing. Anna understands that a cat is living and that a house is not
living. She uses sensible, everyday criteria for these decisions such as the presence or
absence of body parts and movement. During Anna’s science lessons, the children in the
class decided that all living things breathe, eat, drink, move, and have babies. During a
discussion, the students in Anna’s group agreed that the sun does not need food, grow, or
have babies, and the teacher explained that because of these reasons the sun is not living.
After the lessons, however, Anna continued to believe that the sun is alive.

27
 Children’s ideas

Over the five weeks that children were learning about living things Venville found various types
of change in their ideas but the predominant pattern of learning was the assimilation of facts
and information into the children’s preferred theory. Children with non-scientific theories of
living things were identified as being least able to benefit from socially constructed, scientific
knowledge.

Children – and indeed many adults – find that many scientific ideas are counter-
intuitive, in that they seem contrary to everyday experience. A typical example that
is difficult for many people to understand is that heavy objects fall through the air at
the same rate as lighter objects unless the lighter objects are slowed by air resis-
tance. Because so many objects, like feathers, are slowed by air resistance,
people’s experience tells them that heavy objects, like hammers, must fall more
quickly.

Think of an idea that you have had which you found hard to change to a more scientific view.
Write down your idea and an explanation for why you found it so resistant. In a small group
compare and discuss the difficulties that you and your colleagues experienced.

Having described some of the features of children’s ideas in this and the previous
section, the following sections focus on ways in which children’s ideas can be
elicited and their misconceptions addressed during teaching.

Eliciting children’s ideas and

recognising children’s misconceptions
When considering children’s ideas it is important to understand the distinction
between partial understandings and those ideas which are misconceived.
Children construct ideas which make sense to them personally, on the basis of
their life experiences. Looking back at the ideas children expressed about gravity,
one can see why children believe that gravity does not act on birds as they fly –
because the birds are not pulled down to earth. Yet how does a child come to say
that gravity keeps you up? With ideas such as gravity, which include specialised
scientific terms, one can perhaps assume that children have misinterpreted what
they have heard, or have been given insufficient opportunity to establish the
accepted scientific meaning. Other ideas have been constructed on the basis of
experience and are hard to change because they involve structures which cannot
be seen directly. It is important to be aware that children’s ideas form in different
ways, from their exposure to language and meaning and from their limited experi-
ences. In helping children to develop a more scientific understanding of any
particular idea, teachers need to find ways of recognising children’s misconcep-
tions and challenging them.

There are various methods that can be used for finding out about children’s ideas
which have been adopted in research and are used in teaching. The SPACE project
used informal classroom techniques for eliciting children’s ideas. The techniques
included the following.

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 Children’s ideas

. Using log-books – children could make drawings or do writing over a period of time, to
provide a record of long-term changes.
. Structured writing or drawing – children could write or draw responses to particular questions
from the teacher. Sometimes drawings could be annotated to clarify explanations.
. Completing a picture – children could be asked to add relevant points to a picture.
. Individual discussion – teachers could ask open questions and listen to children talking about
their ideas.

These techniques can be used in the classroom for exploring children’s ideas in a
range of science topics. In addition, the SPACE team used exploratory activities to
find out about children’s ideas. For example, in the topic of electricity, children
were provided with simple electrical materials, i.e. light bulbs, wires and batteries,
and then asked to draw the connections that would be needed to light a bulb on a
pre-drawn diagram of a bulb and battery. The drawing illustrates an example from
a nine-year-old child.

Figure 4.1 A child’s drawing of a bulb and battery

PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK

The SPACE team concluded that this drawing reflects an understanding which sees the battery
as a source of power, the light as the consumer and the wire as a necessary link to enable the
supply. Discuss this interpretation with a colleague. How might you be sure the child has this
understanding?

Finding out about children’s ideas requires a learning environment in which chil-
dren feel free to express their views. Some children require more confidence than
others to contribute their ideas, particularly if they feel that the teacher wants the
‘right answer’. Work undertaken by Keogh and Naylor over many years has
addressed this issue. Their highly successful concept cartoons were designed to
help children talk about ’other’ children’s ideas. More recently, Keogh and Naylor
have launched a major initiative to use large puppets to enhance children’s engage-
ment and talk in science. Research into the use of puppets has shown these to be a
useful teaching strategy for eliciting children’s ideas.

RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY

Research and development into the use of concept cartoons (Naylor and Keogh, 2000) has
shown these to be highly successful devices for eliciting children’s ideas in science. Building
on this success, Keogh et al. (2006) undertook research into the use of puppets to promote

29
 Children’s ideas

engagement and talk in science. In this project primary teachers used large hand-held puppets
to create characters that would express alternative ideas, so that children would more readily
respond and express their own ideas. The research has shown that children are not only keen
to tell the puppet what they know, but also listen more attentively when the puppets are used.
Children are more motivated to ask or answer questions and join in discussion.
Analysis of classroom talk before and after using puppets has shown that children are found to
use more reasoning when they talk in response to the puppets, justifying their ideas about
scientific concepts. Moreover, puppets have been shown to engage children who are usually
reluctant to contribute. Puppets have now been used successfully across the range of 4–11
years.
The research with puppets has helped to confirm the recent emphasis on the importance of
talk and social constructivist ideas in primary education. A useful booklet by Alexander (2004)
discusses the issue of talk in UK primary schools, where he raises the question:

Do we provide and promote the right kind of talk; and how can we strengthen its power to
help children think and learn more effectively than they do?

The theme of different kinds of talk in science classrooms is also usefully discussed by Asoko
and Scott (2006), and by Mercer et al. (2004) in their research, which has shown that children
using ’exploratory talk’ are able to achieve a better understanding of science.

A constructivist teaching approach

Once children’s ideas have been elicited and the teacher has recognised their
misconceptions and partial understandings, decisions need to be made about
how to challenge these ideas and help children to develop a more scientific under-
standing. Such decisions are central to teaching approaches based on a
constructivist view of learning. To teach constructively, the teacher aims to
adopt strategies which challenge children’s existing ideas and enable children to
construct new knowledge for themselves. Though the research studies cited
previously have all been influenced by a constructivist perspective, there are differ-
ent theories about the ways in which children change their ideas. Harlen (2000)
proposes a model of learning which places an emphasis on the importance of
process-skills such as hypothesising, predicting and interpreting in changing chil-
dren’s ideas; in its discussion of students’ ideas about particles the CLISP team
focuses on the need for children to distinguish the difference between observation
and theory, and emphasises the importance of theoretical models in developing
children’s scientific understanding. Reference to these studies is required for a
more extensive discussion about how children construct scientific knowledge
and understanding.

As part of their research programme, the SPACE team developed intervention

strategies for helping teachers to address children’s misconceptions and partial
understandings.

RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY

The SPACE research reports include accounts of how teaching interventions were planned to
challenge children’s ideas and help them to construct a more scientific understanding. For

30
 Children’s ideas

example, to help children understand the idea that light travels in straight lines, they were
given the problem: ‘How could they make the light go round every side of the table?’ A strong
torch, mirrors and plasticene were provided and the children had to discuss a preliminary
solution before attempting the activity. The drawings they produced were used for discussion
with the teacher.
The techniques developed in the SPACE project characterise a constructivist teaching
approach. These include:

. building on children’s ideas through investigation, posing questions for children to consider
and providing opportunities to test ideas;
. testing the ‘right’ idea alongside the children’s ideas;
. making imperceptible changes perceptible, for example using evidence such as videos of
time-lapse photography of plant growth;
. helping children to generalise from one specific context to others;
. refining children’s use of vocabulary.
The potential of drawing is explored in a recent article by Brook (2007):

Drawing and visualisation can assist young children in their shift from everyday, or
spontaneous concepts, to more scientific concepts. When young children are able to
create visual representations of their ideas they are then more able to work at a
metacognitive level. When children are encouraged to revisit, revise and dialogue
through and with their drawing they are able to represent and explore increasingly
complex ideas. (p. 319)

Refer back to Anna’s ideas about living things. Discuss with a colleague different ways in
which Anna’s teacher could help her to change her ideas.

In order to extend their understanding of science concepts, it is useful to teach

children that ideas which apply in one context may also apply to different subject
matter. For example the same principle lies behind the evaporation of water in
sweating, drying paint, puddles drying up and the water cycle. Analogies can also
be used to help make complex scientific principles more comprehensible. The
following classroom story provides an example of a teacher using an analogy to
help children understand that light enters the eye through the pupil.

IN THE CLASSROOM
Fiona and the little black dot
Fiona asked the children to draw how they see a book. She then asked the
children to think about their drawings and to tell the whole class how they
thought they see things. Some children said ’eyes’ and ’light’, which Fiona
acknowledged, then one child said ’you need that little black dot in front of
your eye’. Fiona asked the children if they knew what this black dot was
called. One child gave ’pupil’, so Fiona then asked the children if they knew
what the pupil was. They could not answer this other than suggest ’to make
you see’, so Fiona used this idea of the pupil to provide the children with a

31
 Children’s ideas

useful analogy which would help them to understand how light enters the
eye. She said:
It’s actually a hole. If you imagine your eyeballs are ping pong balls?
You’ve got a hole in the front and a cover on it so things don’t get in, what
you can see there is actually a hole. How many of you have been to the
doctor’s or been to see a nurse and they’ve looked into your eyes? The
thing is they are actually looking inside the hole at the back of your eyeball.
(Adapted from Simon, 2007)

Though analogies are useful, they can have limitations and children may take them
too far. A commonly used analogy when teaching about electric current is that the
current is like water flowing around a circuit. However, if the circuit is broken,
electric current does not leak out in a puddle, as water would. The same caution
applies to the use of physical models, though these are essential in science teach-
ing. Models are used to represent phenomena which are too large, too small or
difficult or impossible to see; a globe can be used to represent the Earth; marbles
can be used to show the arrangement of particles in solids, liquids and gases; a
model torso can show the organs of the body. When concrete models are used
teachers need to point out their limitations.

Working from children’s ideas can be challenging. Once a teacher has elicited
children’s ideas, decisions have to be made about how to respond to and value
these ideas. Also, there are management decisions about how to group children for
the purpose of testing out their ideas. Should children with the same ideas be
grouped, or is it better for children with different ideas to work together? It may
be that disagreement between children enables them to develop their ideas further.
There are other issues to be considered relating to the status of knowledge in the
classroom. For example, making children’s ideas the centre of attention by asking
for and accepting them may serve to reinforce them. In addition, a constructivist
approach may not result in children reaching a more scientific view, in which case
the children may be in the process of guessing the right answer in order to produce
it in a test. Teachers need clear objectives for learning within a constructivist
approach, and strategies for differentiation which enable children to learn through
appropriate discussion and activity.

A SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

Children’s ideas:
4 are constructs which are formed from their experience and social interactions;
4 can be very different due to children’s individual experiences;
4 make logical sense in terms of these experiences;
4 are strongly held and can be resistant to change;
4 are often significantly different from the accepted views of scientists.

A constructivist approach to teaching emphasises:

4 elicitation of children’s ideas;
4 identification of misconceptions and partial understandings;
4 testing out children’s ideas and alternative ideas through investigation.

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 Children’s ideas

MOVING ON > > > > > > MOVING ON > > > > > > MOVING ON
As you move into your induction year you will have opportunities to explore the children’s ideas in
more detail. You will begin to perceive patterns and commonly held beliefs about the physical world
and to experiment with approaches which challenge children’s ideas.

FURTHER READING FURTHER READING FURTHER READING FURTHER READING

Dawson, V. and Venville, G. (eds.) (2007) The Art of Teaching Primary Science. Crows Nest ,
NSW: Allen and Unwin. Chapter 2 gives a readable, up-to-date account of learning which
includes constructivism, social constructivism and other aspects such as beliefs and
feelings. Chapter 3 gives guidance on how to identify children’s science ideas and to
track their developing concepts, and indicates appropriate teaching strategies.
Harlen, W. (2000) Teaching and Learning and Assessing Science 5–12. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing. This is the third edition of Wynne Harlen’s comprehensive
overview of many issues discussed in this chapter. It is just one of many books that she
has written which provide valuable advice for teachers, building on insights from
extensive research such as the SPACE project.
Harlen, W., Macro, C., Teed, K. and Schilling, M. (2003) Making Progress in Primary Science.
London: RoutledgeFalmer. This contains activities that teachers and student teachers
can use to improve their practice, such as module 8 which uses examples of children’s
concept maps, drawing and writing.
Sharp, J. (ed.) (2004) Developing Primary Science. Exeter: Learning Matters. The sections on
Knowledge and understanding, Life processes and living things, and Physical processes
each provide research evidence and many more examples of issues introduced in this
chapter.
Skamp, K. (ed.) (2004) Teaching Science Constructively. 2nd edn. London: Harcourt Brace. A
collection of articles focusing on ways in which different science topics can be taught
using a constructivist approach.

REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES

Alexander, R. (2004) Towards Dialogic Teaching: Rethinking Classroom Talk. York: Dialogos.
Asoko, H. and Scott, P. (2006) ‘Talk in science classrooms’, in W. Harlen (ed.), ASE Guide to
Primary Science Education. Hatfield: Association for Science Education.
Brook, M. (2009) ‘Drawing, visualisation and young children’s exploration of ‘‘big ideas’’ ’,
International Journal of Science Education, 31(3), 319–41.
DCSF (2008) Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage. London: DCSF.
Harlen, W. (2000) Teaching and Learning and Assessing Science 5–12. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing.
Harlen, W. (2007) ‘The SPACE legacy’, Primary Science Review, 97, 13–16.
Keogh, B., Naylor, S., Downing, B., Maloney, J. and Simon, S. (2006) ‘PUPPETS bringing
stories to life in science’, Primary Science Review, 92, 26–8.
Mercer, N., Dawes, L., Wegerif, R. and Sams, C. (2004) ‘Reasoning as a scientist: ways of
helping children to use language to learn science’, British Educational Research Journal,
30(3), 359–77.
Naylor, S. and Keogh, B. (2000) Concept Cartoons in Science Education. Millgate House
Publishers.
Simon, S. (2007) ‘Children’s ideas in science’, in J. Sharp et al. (eds), Primary Science:
Teaching Theory and Practice. Exeter: Learning Matters.

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 Children’s ideas

Tytler, R. and Peterson, S. (2005) ‘A longitudinal study of children’s developing knowledge

and reasoning in science’, Research in Science Education, 35, 63–98.
Venville, G. (2004) ‘Young children learning about living things: A case study of conceptual
change from ontological and social perspectives’, Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 41(5), 449–80.

34
 5
Science in the Foundation Stage

Professional Standards for QTS

Those awarded QTS must have a secure knowledge and understanding of
science that enables them to teach effectively across the age and ability for
which they are trained. To be able to do this in the context of the nature of
scientific understanding trainees should:

Professional attributes

Q4 Communicate effectively with children, young people, colleagues, parents

and carers.
Q5 Recognise and respect the contribution that colleagues, parents and
carers can make to the development and well-being of children and young
people, and to raising their levels of attainment.
Q6 Have a commitment to collaboration and co-operative working.

Professional knowledge and understanding

Q10 Have a knowledge and understanding of a range of teaching, learning

and behaviour management strategies and know how to use and adapt them,
including how to personalise learning and provide opportunities for all lear-
ners to achieve their potential.
Q14 Have a secure knowledge and understanding of their subjects/curriculum
areas and related pedagogy to enable them to teach effectively across the
age and ability range for which they are trained.
Q15 Know and understand the relevant statutory and non-statutory curricula
and frameworks, including those provided through the National Strategies,
for their subjects/curriculum areas, and other relevant initiatives applicable to
the age and ability range for which they are trained.
Q17 Know how to use skills in literacy, numeracy and ICT to support their
teaching and wider professional activities.
Q18 Understand how children and young people develop and that the
progress and well-being of learners are affected by a range of developmental,
social, religious, ethnic, cultural and linguistic influences.

Professional skills

Q23 Design opportunities for learners to develop their literacy, numeracy and
ICT skills.
Q24 Plan homework or other out-of-class work to sustain learners’ progress
and to extend and consolidate their learning.
Q25 Teach lessons and sequences of lessons across the age and ability range
for which they are trained in which they:

35
 Science in the Foundation Stage

(b) build on prior knowledge, develop concepts and processes, enable lear-
ners to apply new knowledge, understanding and skills and meet learning
objectives;
(c) adapt their language to suit the learners they teach, introducing new ideas
and concepts clearly, and using explanations, questions, discussions and
plenaries effectively.

Q30 Establish a purposeful and safe learning environment conducive to learn-

ing and identify opportunities for learners to learn in out-of-school contexts.
Q33 Ensure that colleagues working with them are appropriately involved in
supporting learning and understand the roles they are expected to fulfill.

Introduction
By Early Years in England we mean from the child’s third birthday to the end of the
Reception year (a period of two to three years), a period which covers what is
known as the Foundation Stage. The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) (DCSF,
2008a, b) sets the expectations for learning, development and care for children
from birth until the end of the August following the child’s fifth birthday (for
most children this is the end of the Reception year in primary school). The new
Practice Guidance for the EYFS splits the ages: birth–11 months, 8–20 months, 16–
26 months, 22–36 months, 30–50 months and 40–60+ months (which contains the
objectives for the Foundation Stage – the Early Learning Goals). We will follow
accepted practice here when we refer to practitioners rather than teachers as we
include any adult who works in ’out-of-home’ provision for Early Years children (i.e.
child minders, playgroups, pre-schools, school Nursery and Reception classes,
private day nurseries, family centres and independent schools).

A number of principles lie behind what we call Early Years education, these relate
to its active, experiential nature and that it promotes play and an increasing will-
ingness on the part of youngsters to participate, trial and explore alone and in social
groups. These principles include:

. a unique child;
. positive relationships;
. enabling environments;
. learning and development.
(DCSF, 2008)

The EYFS offers six areas of compulsory experience:

. personal, social and emotional development;

. communication, language and literacy;
. problem-solving, reasoning and numeracy;
. knowledge and understanding of the world;
. physical development;
. creative development.
(DCSF, 2008)

36
 Science in the Foundation Stage

There is a great tradition of science in Early Years education in which children have
been encouraged to take an interest in the natural world, to explore it and to
engage with appropriate questions. Almost two hundred years ago, Froebel
(1782–1852) recommended that structured play was essential for children’s cogni-
tive and social development but that this should be enhanced by access to a wide
variety of experiences to increase children’s understanding of both themselves and
the world around them (Bruce et al., 2004). More recently, Montessori (1870–1952)
suggested a different child-centred approach where learning is encouraged by
having a planned environment which has been tailored to the needs of young
children and where there is no time limit on exploration (Pound, 2005).

RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY RESEARCH SUMMARY

Recent research into the development of the brain indicates that it becomes ‘wired’ between
the ages of birth and six years. In other words, the brain develops the neurological connections
that it needs to make sense of experiences (Greenfield, 2000). This research suggests that the
brain’s ability to process information to aid learning is dependent upon its physical maturation.
Therefore, in any learning situation, it is essential to consider the children’s ability to process
information. It is our view that science can make a considerable contribution to these
processes.

The most easily recognised science within the EYFS is ‘Exploration and
Investigation’ which is part of ’Knowledge and understanding of the world’.
’Exploration and Investigation’ is not taught in isolation from the other topics
contained within ‘Knowledge and understanding of the world’ or indeed any of
the other five areas of learning. Connections can be readily made between science,
literacy and numeracy and all three areas of learning can be developed very effec-
tively alongside one another. It is beneficial, however, that links are utilised and
made clear between all the areas of learning in the example below.

PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK PRACTICAL TASK

Snails and six areas of learning
Consider the example of a group of Early Years children observing and handling snails. Within
the six areas of learning below, identify opportunities presented for learning and how these link
to investigation and exploration.
Knowledge and understanding Problem-solving, reasoning
of the world and numeracy

Physical development Communication, language

and literacy
Personal, social and
emotional development Creative development

You might have included references to learning about: habitats; making an ideal home for a
snail; moving like animals; snail songs; caring for others, a snail trail poem; and other ideas.

While not always referred to as science, the experience and learning of young
children is recognisable to the science educator. For example:
. children bouncing balls on different surfaces to see which is the best surface for bouncing balls;

37
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
Rokitansky has traced respectively the development of the two
arterial trunks from the common trunk and of the septum
ventriculorum. He considers that the partitioning of the arterial
trunks is the governing factor in their formation, and that the
ventricular septum is arranged in conformity with the septum of
arterial trunks. In tracing the development of the circulatory
apparatus in man there seems to be no doubt that the heart
develops exactly like that of other vertebrates.

The very first rudiment of the heart is a spindle-shaped thickening of

the intestinal fibrous layer of the fore part of the alimentary canal.
This spindle-shaped formation then becomes a hollow pouch, and
separates from the intestinal layer and lies free in the cardiac cavity.
The earliest condition yet seen in the human being is that from an
embryo of about two weeks (Coste), in which the viscus appeared as
a simple tube in the shape of a letter S—the hollow rounded pouch
having slightly elongated and bent to this form, and simultaneously
turned spirally on an imaginary axis, so that the posterior part of the
tube rested on the dorsal surface of the anterior part. The yelk-veins
connect at its posterior part, while the arteries form a continuation
of its anterior extremity. The spiral turning and curving increase, and
simultaneously two shallow indentations appear in the twisted
pouch, transversely to its long axis, looking like kinks in a flexible
tube. These indentations mark the outline of the three primitive
portions of the central organ—viz. the first, with which the veins
communicate, represents the future auricles; the next, the
ventricles; the third portion, the common arterial trunk (aortic bulb
or truncus arteriosus communis). Early in development the first
section is the largest, but by the time the S is formed the middle or
ventricular portion exceeds in size the auricles and their appendages.
So far, the central organ remains a continuous tube, indented
transversely in its course at the points which mark its future division;
the blood moves through it as through a coiled tube, entering by the
veins and passing out by the aortic bulb to the vascular or branchial
arches; the venous entrance is posterior, the arterial exit is anterior
and is directed toward the future aortic arch. This is the condition at
the end of the second week. The future auricles and ventricles now
form a common cavity; the indentation between them, called the
auricular canal, represents the future auriculo-ventricular orifice. The
future fibrous ring forming this orifice is the first to be developed of
all the permanent structures of the heart; its infolding to form the
two auriculo-ventricular orifices comes early, but at a later date than
here spoken of. Its exact method of development is not clearly
described.

Between the second and fourth weeks is exhibited an indication of

the future most important step in development; this process does
not really step forth until the fourth week, although superficial traces
of a furrow antedate this time. This step is the division of three
sections of the tube into opposite halves, a right or venous, a left or
arterial half. This division results in the formation of the future septa
between the auricles and between the ventricles, and separates the
common arterial trunk (aortic bulb) into the future aorta and
pulmonary artery. This partition is spoken of as longitudinal; but it
will be seen, if the real lines of growth of the future auricular and
ventricular septa are carefully regarded, that the indentations which
mark their site are also transverse, as were the primitive ones for
division of the auricles from the ventricles. The proximal end of the
tube comes in contact with the distal portion by a further bending
movement, so that these two ends go to make the left half of the
heart; and the middle portion of tube, composed partly of auricle
and partly of ventricle, forms the right half of the heart. This
secondary indentation, commonly spoken of as longitudinal, is in
reality transverse, although, from the more markedly bent condition
of the tube which has come about, it does not advance in the same
plane as the primitive indentation of the tube. The mechanism of the
division of the aortic bulb will be described later.

This secondary indentation, which finally results in the formation of

the auricular and ventricular septa, appears earlier in the ventricular
cavity, about the fourth week, and later in the auricles, about the
eighth week. By about the twelfth week the process of formation for
the muscular partitions is completed; the septum ventriculorum
normally is gradually built up, and by this time has joined itself, at
the base of the heart, to the septum forming itself in the arterial
bulb; thus the right and left ventricles are finally separated. The
septum in the auricles is also finished in its muscular part, mostly
built up from the base and posteriorly toward the roof of the cavity,
leaving, however, the foramen to be closed by the membrane some
days after birth.

The foetal heart from the fourth week onward becomes more and
more rounded in outline, and finally more or less rectangular. The
auricular appendages become conspicuous and overhang the
ventricles. The future left ventricle appears larger than the right, and
the former projects notably leftward and downward. The aortic bulb
or common trunk appears to arise wholly from the right ventricle,
although the vessel communicates with both cavities, since at this
period the cavities are undivided. The furrow which marks the line of
the future septum ventriculorum runs to the left of the root of the
common trunk; and until at least as late as the sixth week this trunk
appears from the exterior to be in connection only with the future
right ventricle.

As early as the sixth week, possibly earlier, a distinct furrow is seen

on both sides of the common trunk running longitudinally from its
root at the ventricle to its first branch (branchial arch). This
indentation does not traverse directly to the ventricular furrow; in
fact, at this period the ventricular furrow is not conspicuous at the
origin of the trunk toward the base of the heart, the septum within
not having risen as yet to the base of the ventricles. During the
formation of this furrow the common trunk continues its slow partial
rotation on its axis; the rotation of the other parts of the cardiac
tube has ceased; the segments of the tube have come to a standstill
—become, as it were, fixed and adherent to each other, the proximal
to the distal end, the anterior surface to the posterior, through the
previous bending of the tube on itself.
Within the common trunk Rokitansky has described the changes, as
seen in cross-sections, which result in its division into a permanent
aorta and pulmonary artery, and also the adaptation of the septum
arteriosus trunci to the septum ventriculorum. He says that at an
earlier period than here described for the external furrow appearing,
on the inner surface of the truncus arteriosus communis (aortic
bulb), to its left side and somewhat posteriorly, above the starting-
point of the anterior limb of the septum ventriculorum, a little
swelling appears, which grows toward the right and slightly forward,
so that the common trunk is divided into an anterior rather left-
hand, and a posterior right portion, respectively the pulmonary
artery and aorta. The growth does not pass in a straight line through
the lumen of the common trunk, but so that the forming septum
makes a concavity posteriorly toward the aorta, and a convexity
anteriorly toward the pulmonary; thus, on cross-section the aorta
has the outline of the gibbous moon—the pulmonary, fitting into it,
separated by the septum, of a new moon. The septum
ventriculorum, as seen starting at the base of the ventricles from the
fibrous ring of the auriculo-ventricular orifice (having already been
built upward from the future apex of the heart), originates at a point
on the posterior wall of the common ventricular cavity in exact
correspondence with the starting-point of the little swelling on the
inner surface of the common arterial trunk. The two septa are thus
formed in apposition. The septum ventriculorum, in advancing
forward to meet the other limb of the septum forming on the
opposite wall of the ventricular cavity, follows the septum trunci
arteriosus communis, surrounds the posterior vessel (the aorta) to
its front, then passes around it to its right; the pulmonary is on the
other side of the septum; the portion of the septum ventriculorum
between the orifices of the vessels is the pars membranacea of the
septum. The anterior portion of the septum ventriculorum forms one
wall of the arterial conus of the right ventricle. Thus it happens that
by the eighth week the common trunk is divided into aorta and
pulmonary artery; the structure of the septum ventriculorum is so
far advanced that these vascular trunks are connected with the
proper ventricles, but the septum ventriculorum does not close
completely until about the twelfth week.

In explaining the occurrence of a transposition of the arterial trunks

in accordance with the facts of their normal development,
Rokitansky says, if the septum trunci, starting from the usual point
of the little swelling on the inner surface of the common trunk, turns
abnormally with its concavity forward (instead of backward as
normally), and thus passes through the trunk, there will be
established an anterior left aorta and a posterior right pulmonary,
because the septum ventriculorum in its growth conforms to the
direction of the septum trunci. Thus, another than the usual portion
of the common trunk is partitioned off and placed in communication
with the respective ventricles. This furnishes us with examples of
transposition of the arterial trunks relatively to each other, but not
transposed in relation to the ventricle into which they are implanted.
The great majority of specimens of this sort with which we are
acquainted—and Rokitansky knew no others—show an open septum.
They are usually spoken of, therefore, as instances of "both vessels
arising from the same ventricle (the right usually)," or of "aorta
communicating with both ventricles, the pulmonary artery normally
placed." Rokitansky assigns no reason for this deviation in the line of
growth of the septum trunci across the lumen of the common trunk;
in fact, he never examined a malformed heart during this stage of
development. The deviation of the septum trunci, the primitive
factor in this malformation—since to it the septum ventriculorum
conforms its development—he accounts for by chance (deviation of
formative energy). It seems much more probable, as it is always the
pulmonary artery which must be reduced in size when the concavity
of the septum trunci presents anteriorly (the aorta occupies the
smaller area when the concavity of the septum is posterior), that the
deviation of the septum trunci is due to some one of the many
conditions (endo-myocarditis) which have already been pointed out
as the cause of pulmonary-artery narrowing or closure; hence,
another malformation of the heart can be thus traced to pulmonary
obstruction, the evident cause of so many other defects.
For examples of transposition of the vessels, both relatively to each
other and to the ventricles, with complete closure of the septum
ventriculorum, Rokitansky also gives a satisfactory explanation. It is
important to note the distinction between cases of closed and open
septum. Transposition of the vessels with open septum are, as
already shown, doubtful instances of transposition from one ventricle
to the other, although the vessels may be transposed in relation to
each other; furthermore, the mechanism which explains relative
transposition of the vessels does not explain the implantation of the
vessels into the improper ventricle. His explanation is that the
starting-point of the little swelling from which the septum trunci
forms is shifted to a point farther forward on the inner circumference
of the common trunk, and at the same time has its concavity
anteriorly, and as in the previous case decreasing also the area of
the pulmonary artery; and thus the aorta comes more forward and
to the right, and the pulmonary artery passes more to the left and
backward. The septum ventriculorum, in conforming itself to the
abnormal starting-point and direction of the septum trunci, must
consequently pass across the common ventricular cavity in such
direction that the aorta comes in connection with the pulmonary side
of the heart, and the pulmonary artery with the systemic heart.
Consequently, Rokitansky traces both the relative and the actual
transposition of the arterial trunks to the deviation either of the
direction or of the starting-point of the septum trunci. The deviation
of the position of the little swelling on the inner surface of the
common trunk, which Rokitansky supposes, is probably not an actual
transference or misplacement of this point of formative energy, but
in reality a failure of the common trunk (aortic bulb) to continue its
axis-rotation, as it normally does, after the other portions have
become fixed. This premature cessation of the rotation of the
common trunk would leave the starting-point of the septum trunci in
a more anterior position than normal, since the trunk rotates
normally in a direction to bring its left side, on which the starting-
point of the septum trunci is situated, more posteriorly. A pericardial
inflammatory adhesion, such as Meyer pointed out for certain cases
of pulmonary artery obstruction, would fix the common trunk,
prevent its proper rotation, and at the same time narrow the
pulmonary orifice in certain instances. In other cases, in which the
pulmonary artery is found of normal size, the septum trunci may be
supposed to divide the vessel in the usual direction (concavity
posteriorly as normal), whilst the septum trunci commenced to grow
from an abnormal position, more anteriorly and to the left than
normal (through failure of rotation); hence, as the septum
ventriculorum conforms to its growth, the vessels become connected
with the improper ventricle; the pulmonary, however, is not found
permanently narrowed, and the septum ventriculorum is completely
closed. Here the cause is a failure of the common trunk to rotate on
its axis, probably from an external adhesion of its periphery.

Malformations affecting primarily the Right Side of the

Heart.

In classifying defects in the course of the pulmonary artery we come

to—

1. Closure or narrowing of the artery, with perfect ventricular

septum.

Congenital obstruction of the pulmonary artery, with closed septum,

although more rare than with open septum, is nevertheless a
frequent defect. Unfortunately, it is very often impossible to
distinguish with certainty whether the stenosis is essentially
congenital or is acquired after birth. Complete closure is the least
difficult to distinguish, because this defect very soon causes death;
the prognosis in a merely narrowed orifice is much more favorable.
The duration of life in complete closure never extends beyond a full
year, while in undoubted congenital narrowing the age of sixty-five
years has been attained.

From this atresia the most striking consequence is a reduction of size

of the right ventricle, increasing almost to closure. This result is so
common that Peacock thought it was the law that in atresia the right
ventricle reduced itself to closure, while in stenosis it dilated and
became hypertrophied. This is not the law, but only a rule of very
common occurrence. Instances of eccentric and concentric
hypertrophy are found among the records of these cases. Great
reduction of the right ventricle results probably only when the
obstruction comes very soon after the completion of the septum
ventriculorum—thus at a time when the ventricle is yet very small.
The wasting of the right ventricle can reach a very high degree, and
when it becomes very great the tricuspid orifice is also defective.
The foramen ovale and the ductus arteriosus Botalli are, in complete
closure, usually found open. The obstruction may come in the conus
or at the valvular orifice, or the artery is found converted into a cord.

In seven cases the duration of life varied from four days to nine
months.

When the stenosis does not reach a high grade, positive clinical
signs are often wanting for the determination of its existence, and
the difficulty becomes greater as the age of the person advances.

Clinically, we find congenital blueness with palpitation, dyspnoea,

together with the physical signs of pulmonary stenosis; these
symptoms, however, may make their first appearance only on the
advent of some acute disease. Sometimes they come in the first
month or the first year of life, or even much later. If abundant
congenital compensatory changes are present, the symptoms may
be postponed until further compensatory alterations become
impossible; or at the narrowed orifice the development of a fresh
endocarditis may determine the occurrence of symptoms. The mere
increase of the body and of the mass of the blood may alter the
relations of the circulation, and this disproportion may show itself
with suddenness. Febrile conditions may also suddenly disorder the
circulation.
The compensatory alterations which commonly are held to indicate a
congenital origin of stenosis of the pulmonary artery are
patulousness of the auricular septum and of the ductus arteriosus
Botalli. When both of these remain open there cannot be much
doubt that the date of origin is from the foetal state or in the first
weeks of life. If only one of the foetal passages remains open, the
ductus gives a greater surety of a foetal date than the foramen
ovale. The closure of both foetal passages does not exclude a
congenital origin if the obstruction of the pulmonary orifice is
moderate. The patulousness of both foetal passages indicates that
the defect arose at least shortly after birth, because these openings
close within four or five weeks of this event. The foramen ovale
alone open indicates very little with certainty, as it is so often found
with one or more small openings without any probable cause. Bézot
found it partially unprotected in 44 cases out of 155; Klob, 224 in
500; Wallmann, 130 in 300. Rokitansky has indicated that a strong
blood-pressure not unfrequently may press the fibrous valve of the
foramen strongly toward one auricle or the other, and thus lead to its
atrophy in part, forming larger or smaller openings of communication
between the two cavities. In doubtful cases of stenosis of the
pulmonary artery such small openings are not signs of much value in
determining the congenital origin of the stenosis. Unless there is a
marked defect in the septum atriorum, the congenital origin of the
pulmonary atresia or stenosis cannot be predicated on this ground.

Patency of the ductus arteriosus Botalli has been very rarely

observed as a primary malformation. A coincidence of this as
primary defect with post-natal stenosis of the pulmonary artery must
necessarily be extremely rare. In persistence of the ductus art.
Botalli the current passes from the aorta toward the pulmonary
artery; the obstruction of the pulmonary artery conditions a
dilatation with hypertrophy of the right ventricle. Reopening of the
closed ductus is impossible.

The condition of the pulmonary valves as well as the diameter of the

pulmonary artery itself and its branches often afford valuable points
for the determination of the congenital origin of stenosis of this
orifice. The greater the narrowing, or the more extreme the thinning
of the wall, the earlier the coming of the obstruction.

Morgagni reported the first case of stenosis of the pulmonary orifice

—in fact, the first case of congenital malformation of the heart—in a
girl aged sixteen. He recognized the relationship of the open
foramen ovale and the dilatation of the right ventricle as mechanical
effects of the pulmonary stenosis.

2. Obstruction of the conus arteriosus dexter, with open ventricular

septum.

A. The separation of the conus in the form of a so-called

supernumerary third ventricle has been reported by Peacock in ten
cases, and ten others have been added by Kussmaul from various
sources. The degree of separation varies very greatly in individual
cases: in some it is so slight that the designation becomes doubtful,
while in others it is so great that the word stricture might with
propriety be employed. In two cases a goosequill-sized opening
existed between the sinus of the right ventricle and the conus; in
others the communication between the two was multiple. The size of
the supernumerary ventricle varies greatly; in one case of a girl of
twelve years it would only contain a hazelnut.

In most of the cases the partitioning probably commences by

hypertrophy of the muscular bands which are more or less marked in
normal hearts in this situation: to this, as the result of endo-
myocarditis, is added cicatricial contraction of the inflammatory
products, whereby the original partitioning becomes greatly
increased. The preponderating frequency of the seat of the stenosis
directly at the transition of the conus to the sinus increases the
likelihood of this explanation of its causation.

Alteration of the valves of the pulmonary artery, probably of foetal

inflammatory origin, is of very frequent occurrence with
supernumerary ventricle and conus stenosis; sometimes only two
cusps are found, though four cusps have been noted; they may be
absent or be replaced by a ring mass formed from their union.
Normal valves have been observed unaltered by inflammatory
changes. The conus appears always to suffer diminution, and the
pulmonary artery is found more or less narrowed according to the
degree of obstruction. The sinus of the ventricle is dilated and its
walls hypertrophied. The aorta, mostly widened, springs in all cases
from both the ventricles, unless wholly from the right one. The
foramen ovale is generally more or less widely open, although it has
been found closed; the ductus art. Botalli is mostly closed. The
duration of life may be long; Kussmaul reports the oldest case at
thirty-eight years.

B. Of primary uniform narrowing or shrinkage of the right conus art.

dext. Kussmaul reports eight cases from various sources. The conus
was shortened, and formed a ring-shaped fissure, gradually reduced
in size toward the orifice of the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary
valves were variously changed, mostly by union of one or more of
the cusps, though sometimes remaining normal in shape, though
very delicate. The pulmonary artery was generally narrowed to
about the width of the calibre of the conus itself, unless further
change came to it from its special involvement by endarteritis.

In all cases the aorta arose from both ventricles. The right side of
heart was dilated, and the right ventricular wall hypertrophied. The
foramen ovale remained open. The ductus arteriosus Botalli has
been found absent or closed, and the collateral circulation effected
by anomalous communications, oftentimes duplicate or manifold; in
most cases the ductus remains open. The oldest patient in which
this form of heart has been found was twenty-five years.

C. Ring-formed narrowing of the conus, due to a muscular band.

Peacock reports this defect from a girl æt. nineteen, cyanotic from
birth; the constriction was situated at the bases of the valves, and
was formed by a muscular band covered by fibrous tissue, and the
edges of the opening were studded with warty vegetations. The
pulmonary valves were two in number, probably resulting from
fusion of two of the cusps; were thickened and opaque, but smooth.
The index finger could be passed between the valves. The artery
was of small size, but much wider than the constriction. The aorta
was dilated, and arose from both ventricles through a perforation of
the septum ventriculorum. The foramen ovale was closed. The
ductus art. Botalli gave free passage to a crowquill. The right side of
heart showed dilatation and hypertrophy of both its cavities, and the
tricuspid valve was thickened and had vegetations on its auricular
aspect.

3. Simple stenosis and atresia of the pulmonary artery, with open

septum ventriculorum.

This class includes malformations, with stenosis or atresia of the

pulmonary artery, in which the defects occur before the completion
of the ventricular septum, as the result of engorgement already
described, but in which no other primary congenital defect exists;
thus the separation of the pulmonary artery from the truncus
arteriosus communis is completed; the auricles and ventricles are
marked out by their septa, though not completely divided; the
position of the aorta in relation to the pulmonary artery is either
normal or more to its right; and there are no primary defects of any
consequence in the other orifices of the heart. The simple stenosis
or atresia of the pulmonary artery as thus defined is by far the most
frequent malformation of the heart. Kussmaul has found about 90
described; among these are 26 cases of atresia.

As a rule, in partial obstruction the entire length of the artery, as far

as the bifurcation, shows narrowing, but the greatest narrowing
exists at the orifice of the pulmonary artery; only rarely are the
orifice and the tube equally narrowed. Exceptionally, the tube has
been found narrower just without the orifice, and later resumed its
normal circumference. The walls are very often thin, like those of
veins, and at times the vessel is shrunken. The valves are variously
altered, often to a greater or less degree united, thickened, and
opaque.

In complete closure two different conditions are seen; in some the

artery itself to its bifurcation changes to a firm cord or thread; in
others the tube is more or less narrowed and the orifice alone is
closed.

As a rule, in stenosis and atresia of the pulmonary artery the conus

is only moderately narrowed and its walls hypertrophied, while the
sinus of the right ventricle is dilated and hypertrophied. The right
auricle is dilated and hypertrophied. The tricuspid leaflets are
clouded and thickened. The left ventricle is commonly small, and the
wall not thicker than the dilated right ventricle. Sometimes the aortic
and mitral valves suffer alterations of an inflammatory sort, probably
of foetal origin. The shape and position of the heart are changed,
but the size, as a whole, may not be much altered. The aorta may
be widened, often to double the normal size. As to the origin of the
aorta, it is often difficult to speak with certainty; its relative position
to the pulmonary artery and to the body and axis of the heart is, as
a rule, unchanged. Whether it is to be described as arising from one
or both ventricles, or from the right one alone, depends on the
posture which the septum ventriculorum assumes beneath its orifice.
As a matter of fact, this relationship makes little difference to the
flow of blood from the right ventricle, whose normal orifice is
obstructed; provided the septal opening is sufficient, the flow of
blood is secured and the hindrance to the circulation precluded. The
opening in the septum ventriculorum may be only at the
membranous portion, or it may also involve the adjacent muscular
septum; the defect may be round or triangular, with its apex above
and with smooth margins.

The foramen ovale has been found open in 39 cases out of 53. Its
condition in this respect shows very great proportional variation in
the different collections of cases. The open or closed condition of the
foramen does not seem to depend on the degree of stenosis of the
pulmonary artery itself. It depends, probably, more on the freedom
of escape for the blood from both the ventricles through the aorta—
probably also on the condition of the ductus arteriosus Botalli. The
foramen ovale and ductus art. Bot. have been found closed much
more frequently in stenosis than in atresia of the pulmonary artery,
and the ductus is deficient or absent oftener in stenosis than in
atresia. This absence of the ductus occurs in 13 per cent. of the
cases, and tends to support Peacock's theory that narrowing of the
pulmonary artery is the consequence of the defective development
of that branchial arch out of which the ductus art. Botalli is formed.

It is of great interest to note the collateral circulation by which blood

reaches the lungs when the pulmonary artery is closed. When the
ductus arteriosus is open, the blood passes from the aorta into the
ductus and the branches of the pulmonary artery become branches
from it. When the ductus arteriosus is closed or very narrow, the
bronchial arteries become the means of supply for the lungs, and
through them the blood passes to be aërated. Branches from the
coronary arteries have been found supplying a partial channel for
the blood to the lungs, as well as the oesophageal, pericardial,
internal mammary, and intercostal arteries.

The duration of life is often very considerable. Thirty-seven years

have been attained.

4. Combined Stenosis and Atresia of the Pulmonary Artery.—Under

this division are arranged other primary defects of the heart, which
are found combined with stenosis and atresia of the pulmonary
artery. It is very striking how frequently this artery is narrowed or
closed in defects of the heart which date from the early period of
foetal life, before the division of the truncus art. comm. and of the
ventricles has occurred. It is only very rarely that defects from this
early period show a normal width in this vessel; in the great majority
it is narrowed or closed. The aorta is rarely affected in this manner.
Changes in the aorta may come also, but a complete failure or great
narrowness of this circulation is so difficult to overcome by a
collateral circulation—more difficult than the pulmonary circulation—
that life must cease in the foetus, or at least the conditions are
incompatible with extra-uterine existence.

A. Combination with partial persistence of the truncus arteriosus

communis. The defects coming under this head show usually very
great deficiency of the organ and its great vessels, although the
heart itself in rare instances shows the proper arrangement of the
cavities and their valves. The persistence of the truncus art. comm.
may be complete or partial; the defect consists in the total absence
or arrest of growth of the septum of the truncus, which partitions it
into two portions. Normally, the two septa grow simultaneously and
meet at the base of the heart. In cases of persistence of the truncus
art. comm. the upper septum fails to develop. In incomplete division
of the truncus the pulmonary artery suffers more than the aorta, and
the former is always narrower than its fellow-vessel. This difference
varies greatly. The valves of the pulmonary artery often fail entirely,
and the ductus art. Botalli is many times absent.

B. Combination with cor biloculare.—Here we have a heart consisting

of two cavities—one auricle and one ventricle—where no partitioning
has taken effect. The defect results from the failure of the septum
ventriculorum to grow; and with this, as in the former division,
comes also a more or less complete failure of the septum trunci art.
comm.

C. Combination with single ventricle and divided auricles (cor

triloculare biatriatum).—In the cases of single ventricle with more or
less complete division of the auricles the pulmonary artery generally
shows narrowing to a greater or less degree; it may still be pervious,
although its orifice is closed, or it may be throughout entirely
obliterated. The valves may be entirely wanting. The duration of life
is very short, though in a very few with effective compensatory
changes it may be prolonged very considerably.
D. Combination with divided ventricle and a single auricle (cor
triloculare biventriculare).—In strictness, this defect is nothing more
than an open foramen ovale with some deficiency of the pulmonary
artery; but, in reality, the heart is much more malformed. The whole
septum atriorum is wanting; the superior or descending vena cava is
doubled—one entering the left part of the common auricle, the other
opening more to the right. The ventricular septum shows a greater
or less defection, the pulmonary artery is narrowed, and the aorta
arises from both ventricles or wholly from the right one.

E. Combination with special anomalies in the position of both the

great arterial trunks.—Here come a variety of anomalies in the
arrangement of the aorta and the pulmonary artery in relation to
their respective ventricles and to themselves.

a. In transposition of the great arteries, the aorta arising from the

right ventricle and the pulmonary artery from the left cavity, either
there comes a general transposition of all the viscera or the heart
alone is reversed. Very rarely in transposition of the vessels the
septum ventriculorum is closed, commonly open, and although the
size of the vessels may be normal, usually their relation and position
continue reversed throughout their course. In cases where the
pulmonary artery is narrowed the duration of life is short. b. The
pulmonary artery may arise from the left ventricle and the aorta
from both ventricles; or, c, the aorta may come wholly from the right
ventricle, and the pulmonary artery from both cavities; the latter
vessel may be narrowed or show its normal width or even be
considerably dilated. d. Both the great vessels may arise from the
left ventricle, very much dilated, with the aorta in front of the
pulmonary artery and the latter narrowed. e. The relation of the
great arteries may be found reversed—i.e. the aorta in front and the
pulmonary artery behind, and the aorta spring from both ventricles
and the pulmonary from the right alone.

F. Combination with primary defects of other valvular orifices of the

heart.
a. The tricuspid valve may be quite rudimentary, producing by the
regurgitation thus allowed, especially when combined with
pulmonary stenosis, great dilatation of the right auricle. When the
pulmonary artery is narrowed the septum ventriculorum remains
open; the aorta carries the blood, distributing it to the lungs by an
open ductus arteriosus Botalli or a collateral circulation. The
collateral circulation is less developed the greater the width of the
pulmonary artery. The foramen ovale may close in such a case, but
when it remains open the relief to the over-distended right auricle is
very great.

b. Many cases of congenital stenosis and atresia of the right

auriculo-ventricular orifice are reported in which the condition of the
pulmonary artery is not described. In fact, it is a difficult matter to
determine if the auriculo-ventricular narrowing is a primary one. Its
defective size may be merely, as it were, a rudimentary condition, a
failure to enlarge through disuse. When the pulmonary orifice is
closed and the right ventricular cavity remains small, the tricuspid
orifice is naturally small in size. There are, however, undoubted
cases of tricuspid narrowing with or without stenosis of the
pulmonary artery; the defect consists in a primary contraction of the
fibrous ring or in the union by partial adhesions of the leaflets.
Malformations affecting primarily the Left Side of the Heart.

Primary defects of the systemic side of the heart are, for the reasons
already given, very much more rarely seen than those of the
pulmonary heart. In such cases the aortic conus and its orifice are
found more frequently affected than the mitral orifice; both of these
orifices, however, may be congenitally altered without foetal
malformations at other parts of the heart being present; such cases
are on record, though only sparsely scattered through the literature
of cardiac diseases. Dilg8 has recently made an important addition to
this subject. He proposes a classification on a new basis for all forms
of cardiac malformation; to these classes he makes conform the
malformations of the left side of the heart. In the first class he
places all cases dependent on an inflammatory process occurring in
the foetal heart after its normal development is completed; in the
second, those cases of malformation in which the deviation from the
normal consists in defects of formation; in the third, those which
present a combination of endo-myocarditis with defective
development.
8 Virch. Arch., Bd. xci., S. 193–259, 1883: "Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss seltener
Herzanomalien in Anschluss an einem Fall von angeborner linksseitiger
Conusstenose."

Among the many cases of malformation of the heart which he

presents there are reports of 15 cases of stenosis of the conus,
which are to be divided into two categories, in accordance with his
classification. In the first group, in 7 cases the stenosis is due to an
inflammatory process, and is conditioned by the results of the endo-
myocarditis localized in the aortic conus. These cases must have
originated at a late period of foetal life, and they correspond closely
to the conditions arising in the adult organs from similar processes.
In all the specimens the mitral orifice was involved, and contributed
a share in the production of the conus stenosis; in all the cases the
aortic valves also had suffered inflammatory changes. Here Dilg also
speaks of a band-like hypertrophy of muscular fibres, marking the
outlines of the aortic conus, similar to the condition described by
Peacock in the right ventricle; in this condition there was no
evidence of endocarditis, and the condition may have been due to
cadaveric rigidity. The left ventricle presented varying conditions
according to the state of the aortic and mitral valves; in some cases
there was concentric hypertrophy, or, more strictly speaking,
narrowing or shrivelling of the cavity with hypertrophied walls; in
others dilatation existed. The other cavities of the heart were
influenced by the competency of the mitral orifice, but almost always
showed considerable hypertrophy and dilatation. The valvular
apparatus of the right heart was not free from evidences of old
inflammation, but this condition was not very marked. The ages of
the reported cases reached from thirty to seventy-five years.

In the second group there are eight cases in which the defective
condition of the aortic conus caused malformation of other parts of
the heart. Here the conus stenosis occurred at an early period of
foetal development, before the permanent structures of the heart
were fully formed. The conus stenosis is to be considered as
primary, the other defects as secondary. As we have already seen,
the left side of the heart is much less liable to deforming causes, and
when such do occur the secondary defects are less conspicuous.
Thus, in only four of these cases were there such malformations of
other parts of the heart as openings in the septa of the ventricles or
auricles, patency of the ductus arteriosus Botalli. The defects consist
more usually in what were formerly called excesses of development,
such as the formation of bands below the aortic orifice; or of
deficiencies of development, such as only two aortic valves. These
conditions are very doubtfully due to formative excesses or
deficiencies, but rather to intense inflammatory processes or other
morbid conditions which have resulted in the formation of excessive
cicatrices or the removal of normal parts.

Another division of cases shows narrowing of the aortic trunk itself.

This condition is probably always a true defect of development; so
far as these cases, collected by Dilg, show, it is unquestionably so.
In narrowing or closure of the pulmonary artery trunk it is found that
in some instances this condition was dependent on an endarteritis
resulting in a partial occlusion of the lumen of the vessel; here,
however, the aortic trunk furnishes no evidences of such a process.
It must therefore be due to an unequal division of the truncus
arteriosus communis. The cause and the mechanism of this unequal
division of the common trunk, resulting in a reduction of the size of
the aorta, are probably similar to what Rokitansky indicated for the
reduction in the size of the pulmonary artery trunk.

In the specimens of aortic narrowing (no cases of complete closure

are reported) from this cause and mechanism the pulmonary artery
has been found unusually wide, but this condition of the pulmonary
trunk is not very conspicuous, and does not necessarily result from
the narrowed state of the aorta. The compensatory or secondary
defect of open septum ventriculorum, or even of the auricular
septum, is, in these cases, neither invariable nor necessary to a
proper maintenance of the foetal or adult circulation. In fact, the
open ventricular septum is rare; the condition of the auricular
septum is, in the reports, often not stated. The left ventricular walls
commonly show a preponderance of hypertrophy over dilatation of
this cavity, but in some cases the distension of the cavity is marked.

SYMPTOMS.—The most striking symptom which occurs in malformation

of the heart is the cyanosis, but the appearance of this peculiar
symptom may be postponed until some time, even a long period,
after birth. In the newly-born infant presenting a blue color the
diagnosis rests between the not infrequent temporary failure of
respiration from many causes and a defective development of the
circulatory organs. In most cases the doubt is promptly solved by
the voluntary or artificial efforts of breathing, whereby the cyanosis
disappears. If the dark hue persists after the respiratory movements
have been developed, the cyanosis may be found to depend either
on cardiac malformation or an imperfect expansion of the lungs
(atelectasis). The distinction between these two conditions can
usually be made by a study of the respiratory movements, by the
state of the heart's action and of the pulse, aided sometimes by an
inspection of the outlines of the chest. In cardiac malformation
respiration seems to be well performed and full, though often
hurried or labored; in atelectasis this function is often found
characteristically altered by being short, high, and imperfect, with
imperfect distension; the ribs, instead of moving upward and
outward, fall toward the median line, and the chest fails to expand
transversely. In malformation the heart's action and the pulse are
rapid, and a murmur can often be heard. The thoracic outline may
deviate from the usual antero-posterior flattening by the sternum
being prominent in cases where the heart, instead of its usual
position to the left, is placed more centrally, as comes in certain
defects of development. Both of these conditions may be present,
and then the symptoms are mixed in character.

Cases of atelectasis, sufficiently marked to give rise to persistent

cyanosis, if not relieved too frequently show a pretty rapid increase
of color, becoming deeply livid, with convulsive movement, ending
shortly in death. The diagnosis in such cases between a cardiac
malformation and a non-expanded lung is almost impossible unless
the respiration shows characteristic features. It is probable that the
treatment proper for the latter would aggravate the condition of the
circulation in malformation. In a majority of cases a post-mortem
examination is necessary to determine whether the cyanosis is of
cardiac or of pulmonary origin. In the atelectatic condition, if death
comes within a few days of birth, the ductus arteriosus Botalli and
the foramen ovale may both be found open, especially the latter,
their time of normal closure not having arrived; in cases dying at a
later period, if the foetal openings are still found patulous, the open
state must be considered as dependent on the condition of the lung-
tissue, since in malformation of the heart the patulous state of these
foetal openings is, as has already been shown, rare as a primary
defect, and, except in connection with defects of development
resulting in obstruction, which operate at other points of the foetal
circulation, is almost never found. In other words, an open foramen
or ductus is a secondary defect, dependent, on the one hand, on a
primary obstruction of the cardiac ostia, or, on the other hand, it
may be on a primary atelectasis or malformation of the lungs.

If the child passes beyond the first weeks of life without exhibiting
cyanosis, the subsequent occurrence of the condition becomes
almost a pathognomonic symptom of cardiac or vascular
malformation, unless it can be shown that the coloration is
dependent on some acute disease, especially acquired valvular
disease: in this connection collapse of the lung (post-natal
atelectasis), too, must be remembered.

It is during the first week of life that cyanosis makes its appearance
in the great majority of cases of malformation of the heart, in the
proportion of more than two to one of the cases. The coloration,
once developed, may remain permanent and of equal intensity until
death, but as less than 8 per cent. of infants with malformation die
within the first week, and only 36 per cent. within the first year, this
symptom usually remits. It may wholly disappear, to return on very
slight provocation, such as excitement, or on exertion, on the advent
of acute disease, or without apparent cause. Probably about one-
fourth of those who die in infancy perish in paroxysms of dyspnoea,
another quarter of acute disease, and the remaining half of
convulsions; and toward death the cyanosis generally becomes very
intense.

If the malformation is not of character or degree to develop cyanosis

early in life, the child grows and passes through the usual stage of
development, usually, however, feeble, poorly nourished, incapable
of common exertion, but often without any special phenomena to
attract attention, and the vice of formation is undetected unless by a
special examination. There are several other symptoms frequently
present in connection with malformation, but not of a
pathognomonic character. Dyspnoea, though rarely occurring without
cyanosis, may attract attention, and, if frequently brought on by
active exercise, increases in violence, to be later accompanied with
the cyanosis originally absent. Palpitation is not uncommon,
especially in cases of great hypertrophy with dilatation, in hearts
struggling to overcome an obstruction; in other cases it is absent or
only occurs on exertion in connection with dyspnoea and cyanosis.
The degree of animal heat varies greatly, judging by the various
opinions expressed by writers. The sensation of patients able to
express their feeling is often that of chilliness, and in some cases the
surfaces of the body feel cold, although the indications of the
thermometer show no great variation from the normal temperature.
It is obvious that no very great variation from this standard is
compatible with the long duration of life, although a depression may
exist during or immediately after paroxysms of dyspnoea or
cyanosis. Cough is also frequent, but is probably always due to some
acquired pulmonary disease.

The physical signs offer increased facilities for the recognition of

defects of development. In the early reported cases there are of
course no records of these conditions, and there is therefore a
lessened number of instances from which to collate the physical
signs. In the early days of life it has been shown wherein the
presence of a cardiac murmur may lead to the distinction between
malformation and atelectasis. In later periods of life the physical
signs cannot be regarded as characteristic. There are no signs by
which a malformation can be distinguished accurately from an
acquired cardiac disease, so that without the clinical history and a
grouping of symptoms the diagnosis cannot be made from the
physical examination.

Inspection and palpation of the chest often show the heart to be in

an unusual position, placed more centrally under the sternum. It
must be remembered that transposition of the heart to the right side
is not unfrequently unaccompanied with any malformation of its
ostia giving rise to symptoms; and this organ may be even more
markedly displaced without being malformed, although under both
these conditions irregularities of the principal trunks are usually
found.

Percussion frequently shows enlargement of the area of cardiac

dulness, but, on the other hand, at the post-mortem examination
the heart is often found markedly defective without externally
showing variation of its size or shape, or of its position within the
thorax; hence in such cases no deviation from the normal will be
revealed on percussion or inspection of the chest. It is probable that
cardiac murmurs are not always to be detected in cases of even
marked defects of development, but when present it is recorded
most frequently that a single murmur is heard over the base of the
heart, blowing in character and systolic in time. Such a sound is
probably produced by the passage of the blood through an abnormal
opening between the ventricles or through the foramen ovale. Other
murmurs may also be present; if the arterial ostia are defective from
narrowing, roughness, or insufficiency of their valvular apparatus,
abnormal sounds of different characters, diastolic or systolic in time,
may be heard. Too few observations as yet exist for a general
diagnostic scheme to be formulated. Auscultation of the intra-uterine
heart may in the future become sufficiently accurate to enable us to
prognosticate a congenital cardiac malformation or disease; there is
one case on record in which a correct diagnosis was made in this
way.

The ends of the fingers and toes are frequently described as

bulbous. This rounding and retraction of the nails, frequently spoken
of as clubbing, does undoubtedly exist in many cases, but the
condition cannot be regarded as characteristic of malformation of
the heart, since it comes with even more frequency in tubercular
disease of the lungs, in chronic pleurisy, and in other chronic
pulmonary maladies.

Lebert has recently insisted on the connection between stenosis of

the pulmonary artery and tuberculosis, not merely as a coincidence,
but as the cause of the development of the tubercles in the lungs.
Many others have spoken of this connection, and very many are the
cases recorded—perhaps nearly one-quarter of the whole number. In
some cases large or small single cheesy masses exist; in others
cavities form, and in rare cases a miliary tuberculosis exists, still
more rarely affecting other organs than the lungs. In view of the
recent dogmas of tuberculosis it is doubtful if many of these authors
would at present insist on the connection between malformation of
the heart and tuberculosis being other than a coincidence, since it is
not apparent why such patients are more likely to be invaded by a
bacillus of tuberculosis than other persons, and this organism is
known to grow so readily wherever the spores chance to fall.

DURATION OF LIFE.—In connection with certain malformations some

indications have already been given in respect to the duration of life
in such defects. It is, however, apparent that the degree of the
obstruction to an orifice or vessel, and still more the completeness of
the secondary compensatory alterations, exert a greater influence
than the seat of the malformation on the continuance of life. The
occasional slight isolated malformations, such as open septa without
obstruction of the orifices, in themselves often entail no symptoms,
and, unless combined with acquired valvular disease, exercise no
influence on the duration of life; here, however, the prognosis
merges entirely into the acquired malady.

Of the other conditions of malformation, narrowing of the aorta and

of the aortic conus seems to be, on the whole, compatible with a
longer duration of life than any other condition, and these defects
cause death in the early days or months in fewer cases than similar
obstructions on the right side of the heart. This result apparently
comes from the fact that the left ventricle seems to possess
unlimited capacity for hypertrophy, and hence is able to overcome
the obstruction; when the aortic valves allow of regurgitation the
compensation fails and death comes sooner. When the main
branches of the aorta are defective or when the descending aorta is
derived from the pulmonary artery, the duration of life is much
shortened.

In cases of pulmonary narrowing in general it may be stated that the

greater the obstruction the shorter the life. This rule is subject to
many exceptions; so frequent are the exceptions that the rule is
almost valueless for determining the life in any given case. Complete
closure of the pulmonary trunk has permitted of the continuance of
life for sixteen years, and then ended from an intercurrent acute
disease. When the septa are maintained open—when, therefore, the
communications between the pulmonic and systemic sides of the
heart are free—a greater age is attained than when these openings
have become closed. This condition of the pulmonary artery in order
to permit of a long duration of life must be coincident with a
considerable development of the collateral circulation by which the
blood freely enters the lungs for aëration; otherwise the
compensation fails very soon.

In transposition of the main trunk relatively to the ventricles, with

closure of the septum ventriculorum (very rare), life ends not many
weeks after birth; if the septa remain open, which is not common,
life may be prolonged for a year or two.

Cyanosis.

There are two views to be found, set in opposition to each other, to

account for the peculiar blue coloration of the skin and mucous
membranes in cases of malformation of the heart. The first
explanation attributes the phenomenon to a general congestion of
the venous system, due to the obstruction of the pulmonary artery.
This view was proposed by Morgagni in connection with his, the first
described, case of malformation of the heart. The other view
considers that the intermingling of venous and arterial blood through
any channel, but especially by means of abnormal openings in the
septa, produces the blue coloration. Numerous writers have
defended each of these theories of causation; from most of their
observations darkness rather than light has resulted through the
attempt to defend one or the other theory exclusively.

Gintrac defended the admixture theory for cyanosis, and his views
became so well known that a large majority of persons conformed
their belief to his teachings. This author distinguished four varieties
of blue coloration: first, that due to some malformation of the heart
or great vessels, by which the blood of the right side of the heart
enters the systemic arterial circulation; second, likewise due to
intermixture of the blood, but produced by conditions developed
after birth through the re-establishment of the passages of
communication or other changes in the circulation; third, where the
coloration appears without direct admixture of the blood, but from
organic disease of the heart; fourth, cases without malformation,
from a suppression of the menses. Before the time of Gintrac,
cyanosis had a very indefinite signification, and the condition was
looked upon, and was classed by very many, as one of the
cachexiæ, and was often spoken of as a form of icterus. He,
however, held that the organic lesions of the heart and great vessels
were the necessary conditions of its production, and that the mixture
of the red and black blood, and the distribution of the mixed fluid by
means of the arteries to all parts of the body, determined its
essential character. He showed, too, that all communications
between the right and left heart were not followed by cyanosis; the
explanation of the absence of the blue color was that from the
simultaneous contraction of the auricles and ventricles of the two
sides of the heart an equilibrium was produced, and the blood did
not deviate from its normal course. This result followed only when
the normal exits of the blood were unobstructed. This supposition,
as is apparent, is not in accord with the facts. During the filling of
the ventricles, before the muscular contraction of the walls occurs,
the blood has the opportunity of freely mingling if the opening
between the cavities is sufficiently large: that the blood will not thus
mingle when the muscular contraction acts remains to be proved.
Cases of open septum ventriculorum, as an isolated defect, without
obstruction of the great vascular trunks (a rare condition), are not
attended with cyanosis: the absence of this symptom, as will be
shown later, is readily to be explained on other grounds than those
supposed by Gintrac. The normal outlets of the blood are, however,
almost always obstructed to a greater or less degree; and here the
explanation of the absence of the cyanosis fails. In the delayed
appearance of cyanosis Gintrac considered the reason to be that the
venous blood differed less from the arterial in the young subject
than in those of more advanced age, because, on the one hand, the
aëration was more active, and, on the other hand, the deterioration
of arterial blood was less marked. In other cases he points to an
increase of the obstruction, through inflammatory changes, as the
probable reason for the delayed appearance of the blue color; in still
other cases it was supposed to be due to a disturbance of the
equilibrium of the pulmonary and systemic circulation from an
increase in the blood-mass. In cases of unilocular and bilocular
hearts, of which the author speaks, his explanation completely fails,
for here the admixture of the blood within the heart is very marked;
yet such cases have been reported without cyanosis. He further
believed that openings in the ventricular septum, as well as between
the auricles, were effected after birth as the results of acquired
cardiac disease.

Gintrac, in speaking of the causes of cyanosis, says that the

condition shows no hereditary tendency; that the pregnancy during
which the defective infant is developed is without noticeable
phenomena; and that the confinement is normal. It is on some of
these points that we are in want of accurate information. It has been
pointed out that many congenital defects of the heart result from
morbid processes affecting the organ during its developmental
stage. These lesions are the same in kind as those which produce
cardiac and vascular disease in the adult, and are likewise of a sort
capable of communication from the parent to the foetus. Such
diseases are found acting oftentimes temporarily in the parent; and
if they acted during pregnancy, or even if present only at the time of
conception, their results would rationally be expected to be displayed
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