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Copyright © 2009, 2002 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
This edition is a revision of 2002 edition of the book. Considerable attention has been given to improve
the first edition. As far as possible efforts were made to keep the book free from typographic and other
errors. Most of the changes were made at the suggestions of the individuals who have used the first
edition of the book and who were kind enough to send their comments. Enhancements to the material
devoted to mathematical logic methods of proof, combinations and graph theory are designed to help
the readers master the subject.
I am thankful to the chief editor and the editors of New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers
for the interest and cooperation during the production of the second edition of the book.
The author would like to express his appreciation to Sri Saumya Gupta, Managing Director, New
Age International (P) Limited, for his encouragement.
Any suggestions for future improvements of this book will be gratefully received
G. SHANKER RAO
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PREFACE ix
This book explains some of the fundamental concepts in discrete structures. It can be used by the students
in mathematics and computer science as an introduction to the fundamental ideas of discrete mathematics.
The topics mathematical logic, sets, relations, function, Boolean algebra, logic gates, combinations,
algebraic structures, graph theory and finite state machines have been discussed in this book. Throughout
I have made an extensive use of worked examples to develop the general ideas.
Chapter 1 deals with mathematical logic. Propositions, logical equivalence, tautologies, fallacies,
quantifiers, and methods of proof were briefly discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 2 is devoted to set theory.
Chapter 3 deals with relations. Reflexive, symmetric and transitive relations, have been discussed.
Chapter 4 deals with functions and recurrence relations.
Chapter 5 covers Boolean algebra. Lattices, Boolean functions, karnaugh maps, canonical forms have
been discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 6 covers logic gates.
Chapter 7 deals with Elementary combinatorics. Permutation combinations and Binomial theorem have
been discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 8 deals with graph theory. Isomorphism, colouring of graphs, trees, spanning trees have been
explored in this chapter.
Chapter 9 covers Algebraic Structures. Groups, rings and fields, their properties have been briefly
discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 10 explains finite state machines.
I am much indebted to Sri Siva Kumar, Manager, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers
Hyderabad Branch, whose suggestions and criticism helped me in writing the book. I am thankful to
Sri Arvind Mishra of New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers.
G. SHANKER RAO
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CONTENTS xi
Contents
1.21 Quantifiers 28
1.22 Methods of Proof 31
Exercise 1.4 42
3. Relations 69–89
3.1 Concept of Relation 69
3.2 Properties of Relations 70
CONTENTS xiii
Bibliography 435
Index 436–440
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 1
Mathematical Logic
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we shall study mathematical logic, which is concerned with all kinds of reasoning.
Mathematical logic has two aspects. On one hand it is analytical theory of art of reasoning whose goal is
to systematize and codify principles of valid reasoning. It may be used to judge the correctness of
statements which make up the chain. In this aspect logic may be called ‘classical’ mathematical logic.
The other aspect of Mathematical logic is inter-related with problems relating the foundation of
Mathematics. G. Frege (1884–1925) developed the idea, regarding a mathematical theory as applied
system of logic.
Principles of logic are valuable to problem analysis, programming and logic design.
1.2 STATEMENTS
A statement is a declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both. The truth or falsity of a
statement is called its truth value. The truth values ‘True’ and ‘False’ of a statement are denoted by T
and F respectively. They are also denoted by 1 and 0.
Example 1: Bangalore is in India.
Example 2: 3 + 7 = 9.
Example 3: Roses are red.
Statements are usually denoted by the letters p, q, r, .... The capital letters A, B, C, ..., P, Q, ... with
the exception of T and F are also used.
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example 3: Construct a Truth Table for the conjunction of “n > 3” and “n < 10” when n ∈ N .
Solution: When n > 3 and n < 10 are true, the conjunctive statement “n > 3 and n < 10” is true. The
Truth Table is given below:
Table 1.2
n>3 n < 10 n > 3 and n < 10
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
1.4.4 Disjunction
Any two simple statements can be combined by the connective “or” to form a statement called the
disjunction of the statements; i.e., if p and q are simple statements, the sentence “p or q” is the disjunction
of p and q.
The disjunction of p and q is denoted symbolically by p ∨ q
p ∨ q is read as “ p or q”
If p is ‘True’ or q is ‘True’ or both p and q are ‘True’, then p ∨ q is true, otherwise p ∨ q is false.
The truth table of p ∨ q is given below:
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Table 1.4
p ~p
T F
F T
1.5 PROPOSITION
If p, q, r, s, ... are Simple Statements then the Compound Statement P ( p, q, r, s, ...) is called a Proposition.
The statement p, q, r, ... are called the Sub-statements or Variables of P.
The truth value of proposition P depends on the truth values of the variables, p, q, r, .... If the truth
values of the variables are known to us, then we can find the truth value of the proposition P. A truth
table is a simple way to show this relationship.
Example: Find the truth table of the Proposition ~p ∧ q
Solution: The truth table of ~p ∧ q is:
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F T F
Example 2: Let p be “He is tall” and let q be “He is Handsome”. Write each of the following statements
in symbolic form using p and q.
(i) He is tall and handsome.
(ii) He is neither tall nor handsome.
Solution: (i) p ∧ q (ii) ~p ∧ ~q
Example 3: Write the disjunction of:
Roses are red. Violets are blue.
Solution: Let p: Roses are red
q: Violets are blue then the disjunction of p and q is p ∨ q: Roses are red or violets are blue.
Example 4: Determine the truth value of each of the following statements (Propositions):
(i) 3 + 5 = 8 or 2 +1 = 9
(ii) 4 +3 = 7 and 5 + 2 = 7
(iii) Agra is in England or 1 + 9 = 8
Solution: (i) Let p: 3 + 5 = 8, q: 2 + 1 = 9
p is true, q is false
hence p ∨ q is true
i.e., Truth Value of p ∨ q is T
(ii) Let p: 4 + 3 = 7, q: 5 + 2 = 7
p is true and q is true ⇒ p ∧ q is true (T)
(iii) Let p: Agra is in England
q: 1 + 9 = 8
p is false; q is false ⇒ p ∨ q is false.
Example 5: Construct a truth table for p ∧ ~p.
Solution: The truth table for p ∧ ~p is given below:
Table 1.6
p ~p p ∧ ~p
T F F
F T F
T T F T
T F T T
F T F F
F F T T
6 DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
Table 1.8
p q r q ∨ r p ∧ (q ∨ r)
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T T T
T F F F F
F T T T F
F T F T F
F F T T F
F F F F F
Table 1.9
p ~p ~ (~p)
T F T
F T F
E X E R C I S E 1.1
T T T F
T F T F
F T T F
F F F T
(b)
p q ~q p ∨ ~q ~(p ∨ ~q)
T T F T F
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T T F
8 DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
(c)
p q p ∧ q (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ q)
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F F F
(d)
p q p ∨ q ~p (p ∨ q) ∨ ~p
T T T F T
T F T F T
F T T T T
F F F T T
(e)
p q ~p ~q ~p ∨ ~q ~(~p ∨ ~q)
T T F F F T
T F F T T F
F T T F T F
F F T T T F
(f)
p q q ∧ p p ∧ (p ∧ q)
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F F F
(g)
p q p ∧ q ~(p ∧ q) p ∧ ~(p ∧ q)
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F T F
F F F T T
(c) 3 + 3 = 7
(or It is not the case that 3 + 3 = 7)
4. (a) ~p ∧ q (b) ~p ∧ ~q (c) p ∨ ~q (d) ~p ∨ (p ∧ ~q)
5. (a) It is not cold (b) It is cold and raining
(c) It is cold or it is raining (d ) It is not cold and it is not raining.
6. (a) p ∨ ~p (b) p ∧ ~q (c) ~p ∨ ~q (d ) ~p ∧ q
7. (a) It is raining and it is snowing
(b) 4 + 7 = 11 and 2 × 4 = 7
8. (a) p ∧ q (b) ~p ∧ ~q (c) ~p ∧ ~q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
1.7.2 Biconditional
A statement of the form “p if and only if q” is called a Biconditional statement. It is denoted by p q
(or by p ↔ q).
A Biconditional statement contains the connective “if and only if ” and has two conditions. If p and
q have the same truth value, then p ↔ q is true. The truth values p ↔ q are given in Table 1.11.
10 DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
T T F F T
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T T T
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 11
T T F F T
T F T F F
F T F T T
F F T T T
1.9 TAUTOLOGY
A statement formula that is true for all possible values of its propositional variables is called a Tautology.
Example 1: (p ∨ q) ↔ (q ∨ p) is a tautology.
Example 2: p ∨ ~p is a tautology.
1.10 CONTRADICTION
A statement formula that is always false is called a contradiction (or absurdity).
Example: p ∧ ~p is an absurdity.
1.11 CONTINGENCY
A statement formula that can either be true or false depending upon the truth values of its propositional
variables is called a contingency.
Example: (p → q) ∧ (p ∧ q) is a contingency.
Solution:
Table 1.15
p q ~p q → p ~p → (q → p)
T T F T T
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T T T
Table 1.16
p ~p p ∧ ~p
T F F
T F F
Table 1.17
p ~p (p ∨ ~p)
T F T
T T T
p ∨ ~p is always true.
Hence p ∨ ~p is a tautology.
Example 6: Show that (p ∧ q) → p is tautology.
Solution: Let us construct the truth table for the statement (p ∧ q) → p
Table 1.18
p q p ∧ q (p ∧ q) → p
T T T T
T F F T
F T F T
F F F T
14 DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
In Table 1.18, we notice that the column (4) has all its entries as T. Hence (p ∧ q) → p is a
tautology.
Example 7: Show that ~(p → q) ≡ ( p ∧ ~q)
Solution: Let us construct the truth table for the given propositions:
Table 1.19
p q p → q ~(p → q) ~q p ∧ ~q
T T T F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F F F
F F T F T F
From the truth table it is clear that the truth values of ~(p → q) and p ∧ ~q are identical.
Hence ~(p → q) ≡ p ∧ ~q.
Solution: (i) p ∨ (p ∧ q) = (p ∨ t) ∧ (p ∨ q)
= p ∧ (t ∨ q) (t: tautology)
=p ∧ t
=p
(ii) (p ∨ q) ∧ (~p ∧ q)
= (~p ∧ ~q) ∨ (~p ∧ q)
= ~p ∧ (~q ∨ q)
= ~p ∧ t (t: tautology)
= ~p
Example 4: Show that (p ∧ q) → (p ∨ q) is a tautology.
Solution: Let us construct the truth table:
Table 1.20
p q p ∧ q p ∨ q p ∧ q → p ∨ q
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F F T
All the entries in the last column of the truth table are True (T). Hence given proposition is a
tautology.
Example 5: Show that
~(p → q) ≡ p ∧ ~q
Solution: We construct the truth table for given propositions:
Table 1.21
p q p → q ~(p → q) ~q p ∧ ~q
T T T F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F F F
F F T F T F
From the truth table it is clear that the truth values of ~(p → q) and p ∧ ~q are identical.
Hence
~(p → q) ≡ p ∧ ~q
Example 6: Show that
~(p ↔ q) ≡ ~p ↔ q ≡ p ↔ ~q
Solution: We prove the equivalence by means of a truth table.
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 17
Table 1.22
p q p ↔ q ~(p ↔ q) ~p ~p ↔ q ~q p ↔ ~q
T T T F F F F F
T F F T F T T T
F T F T T T F T
F F T F T F T F
The truth values of columns (4), (6) and (8) are alike; which proves the equivalence of the formulas
~(p ↔ q), ~p ↔ q, and p ↔ ~q.
Example 7: There are two restaurants next to each other. One has a sign that says “Good food is not
cheap”, and the other has the sign that says “cheap food is not good”.
Are the signs saying the same thing?
If so verify.
Solution: Let p: food is good
q: food is cheap
Then we have, ~p: food is not good
~q: food is not cheap
Therefore, the given statements are
p → ~q: Good food is not cheap
q → ~p: Cheap food is not good
The truth table for the statements is given below:
Table 1.23
p q ~p ~q p → ~q q → ~p
T T F F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
From the table, it is clear that both the signs say the same thing.
Definition 1.2: A proposition P ( p1, p2, ...) is said to logically imply a proposition Q ( p1, p2, ...) if one
of the conditions in Theorem 1.1 holds.
If P ( p1, p2, ...) logically implies Q ( p1, p2, ...) then we symbolically denote it by writing
P ( p1, p2, ...) ⇒ Q ( p1, p2, ...)
Example 1: (p ∧ q) ∧ ~(p ∨ q) is a contradiction.
Hence p ∧ q ⇒ p ∨ q
Example 2: (p → q) ∧ (q → r) → (p → r) is a tautology.
Hence (p → q) ∧ (q → r) ⇒ (p → r)
Theorem 1.2: The relation in propositions defined by
P (p1, p2, ...) ⇒ Q (p1, p2, ...)
is reflexive, anti-symmetric and transitive.
Note: The symbols →, ⇒ are not the same ⇒ is not a connective nor P ⇒ Q is a statement formula
(proposition). P ⇒ Q defines a relation in composite propositions P → Q. The symbol → is a connective and
note that P → Q is just a proposition.
(P ↓ P) ↓ (Q ↓ Q) ↔ ~ P ↑ ~ Q ↔ P ∧ Q
The connective * is commutative, but not associative, i.e.
P ↓ Q ⇔ Q ↓ P but (P ↓ Q) ↓ Q ↔ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~ R
P ↓ (Q ↓ R) ↔ ~ P ∧ (Q ∨ R)
Therefore the connective ↓ is not associative.
The connectives ∧, ∨, ~ can be expressed in terms of the connective ↓ as follows:
(i) ~ p ≡ p ↓ p (ii) ~ q ≡ q ↓ q
(iii) p ∧ q ≡ (p ↓ p) ↓ (q ↓ q) (iv) p ∨ q ≡ (p ↓ q) ↓ (p ↓ q)
Let us verify the above by means of the following truth tables:
Table 1.24
p q ~p P↓ p
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
Table 1.25
p q p ∧ q p ↓ p q↓ q (p ↓ p) ↓ (q ↓ q)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
T T T F F T
T F F F T F
F T F T F F
F F F T T F
The identical truth values of columns (3) and (6) reveal that
p ∧ q ≡ (p ↓ p) ↓ (q ↓ q)
In order to verify (iv) we construct the truth table
20 DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
Table 1.26
p q p ∨ q p↓ q (p ↓ q) ↓ (p ↓ q)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
T T T F T
T F T F T
F T T F T
F F F T F
The truth values of columns (3) and (5) are alike, which proves the equivalence
p ∨ q ≡ (p ↓ q) ↓ (p ↓ q)
⇔ ( p ∨ ~ p ) ∧ (q ∨ ~ p ) ∧ ( p ∨ r ) ∧ (q ∨ r )
⇔ ( q ∨ ~ p ∨ ( r ∧ ~ r )) ∧ ( p ∨ r ∨ ( q ∧ ~ q )) ∧ ( q ∨ r ∨ ( p ∧ ~ p ))
⇔ (q ∨ ~ p ∨ r ) ∧ (q ∨ ~ p ∨ ~ r ) ∧ ( p ∨ r ∨ q )
∧ ( p ∨ r ∨ ~ q ) ∧ (q ∨ r ∨ p ) ∧ (q ∨ r ∨ ~ p )
⇔ (~ p ∨ q ∨ r ) ∧ (~ p ∨ q ∨ ~ r ) ∧ ( p ∨ q ∨ r ) ∧ ( p ∨ ~ q ∨ r )
E X E R C I S E 1.2
1. The following statement is of the form p ∨ q. Write out the contradictory statement in the form
~p ∧ ~q:
“Either he is a fool or he has some evil design.”
2. Let p: A triangle is equilateral
q: It is equiangular
then write p → q the conditional p → q
3. The converse of a statement is given. Write the inverse and contrapositive statements.
“If he is considerate of others, then a man is a gentleman.”
4. The converse of a statement is: If a steel rod or stretcher, then it has been heated:
Write inverse and contrapositive statements.
5. The contrapositive of a statement is given as
“If x < 2, then x +4 < 6”
Write the converse and inverse.
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 23
6. Let p: It is cold and q: It is raining. Give a simple verbal sentence which describes each of the
following statements:
(a) p ∧ ~(q) (b) q → p (c) p ↔ ~q
7. Write an equivalent formula for p ∧ ( q ↔ r ) ∨ ( r ↔ p ) which does not contain biconditional.
8. Show that
(a) ~ ( p ∧ q ) → ( ~ p ∨ ) ( ~ p ∨ q ) ⇔ ~ p ∨ q
(b) ( p ∨ q ) ∧ (~ p ∧ (~ p ∧ q )) ⇔ ( ~ p ∧ q )
(c) p → q ⇔ ~ p ∨ q
9. By means of a truth table prove that
p ∧ q ≡ ( p ↓ q ) ↓ (q ↓ p ) ≡ ~ p ↓ ~ q
10. Show that p ↔ q ≡ ( p → q ) ∧ ( q → p )
11. Show that ( p ∧ q ) ∧ ~ ( p ∨ q ) is a contradiction.
12. Show that ~ ( p ∨ q ) ↔ ( ~ p ∧ ~ q ) is a tautology.
13. By means of a truth table prove that
(a) p ∧ ( q ∨ r ) ≡ ( p ∧ q ) ∨ ( q ∧ r )
(b) p → ( q ∨ r ) ≡ ( p → q ) ∨ ( p → r )
14. Let p be “He is rich” and let q be “He is honest”. Write each of the following statements in
symbolic forms using p and q:
(a) To be poor is to be honest.
(b) It is necessary to be poor in order to be honest.
(c) He is poor only if he is dishonest.
(d ) If he is poor if he is dishonest.
15. Prove that
(a) p → q ≡ ~ p → ~ q (b) p → q ≡ ~ p ∨ q
16. Write the contradiction of each of the following disjunction statements:
(1) x = 2 or x = 4 (2) x > 3 or x < 3
17. Show that p ↔ ~ q does not logically imply that p → q
18. Prove the following:
(a) p ∨ ~(p ∧ q) is a Tautology.
(b) (p ∧ q) ∧ ~ (p ∨ q) is a Contradiction.
(c) (p ∧ q) → (p ∨ q) is a Tautology.
19. Show that p ∧ q logically implies p ↔ q.
20. Decide whether each of the following is true or false:
(a) p ⇒ p ∧ q (b) p ⇒ p ∨ q (c) p ∧ q ⇒ p
(d) p ∨ q ⇒ p (e) q ⇒ p → q
24 DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
21. Write the disjunction, the conjunction, and two implications involving the two statements. I like
cats. I like dogs.
22. If
A: The Eiffel Tower is in Australia
B: Australia is below the Equator
C: The Eiffel Tower is in Paris
D: Paris is in France
E: France is in Australia
Prove the following:
(1) The argument (A ∧ B) → is valid
(2) (C ∧ D) → is invalid
(3) (A ∨ E) → is invalid
23. Simplify the following compound propositions
(a) ( p ∨ q) ∧ : [( : p ∨ q]
(b) : [ : {( p ∨ q ) ∧ r} ∨ : q]
24. Show that [( r → s) ∧ {( r → s ) → (t → u )}] → [ : t ∨ u ] is a tautology
Answers:
1. Either the man is born free or he is nowhere in chains.
2. If a triangle is equilateral, then it is equiangular.
3. Inverse: If a man is not a gentleman, then he is not considerate of others.
Contrapositive: If he is not considerate of others, then the man is not a gentleman.
4. Inverse: If a steel rod is not heated, then it does not stretch.
Contrapositive: If a steel rod does not stretch, then it has not been heated.
5. Converse: If x > 2, then x + 4 > 6
Inverse: If x + 4 > 6, then x > 2
6. p → ~q: It is cold, then it is not raining.
q ↔ p: It is raining if and only if it is raining.
p ↔ ~q: It is cold if and only is it is not raining.
7. p ∧ (q → r) ∧ (r → q) ∨ (r → p) ∧ (p → r)
14. (a) ~p ↔ ~q (b) q → ~p
(c) ~p → ~q (d ) ~p ∧ q
16. (1) x ≠ 2 and x > ≠ 4 (2) x > 3 and x = 3
20. (a) False (b) True (c) True (d) False (e) True
21. (1) I like cats or I like dogs.
(2) I like cats and I like dogs.
(3) If I like cats then I like dogs.
(4) I like cats if I like dogs.
23. (a) p ∧ ( : q) (b) q∧r
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 25
E X E R C I S E 1.3
(b) : ( p ↑ q) ( : p ↓ : q)
18. For any proposition p, q, r prove the following:
(a) p ↑ (q ↑ r ) : p ∨ (q ∧ r )
(b) p ↓ (q ↓ r ) : p ∧ (q ∨ r ).
1.21 QUANTIFIERS
In this section we introduce, two logical notions called quantifiers. So far we have discussed the
propositions in which each statement has been about a particular object. In this section we shall see how
to write propositions that are about whole classes of objects.
In grammar a predicate is the word in a sentence which expresses what is said of the object. It is a
part of a declarative sentence describing the properties of an object or relation among objects (The word
‘Predicate’ and property will be used to mean the same thing) for example ‘is a cricket player’, ‘is a
teacher’ ‘is short’ are predicates. In logic the word predicate has a broader role than in grammar. The
basis for this is the observation that a predicate is supplemented by, including a variable x as a place
holder, for the intended subject, the result behaves as ‘a statement function’, in the sense that for each
value of x a statement results. Consider the statement
p : x is an even number
The truth value of p depends on the value of x. p is true when x = 4, and false when x = 11. The
statement p is not a proposition. In this section we extend the system of logic to include such statements.
In grammar ‘Rajan loves’ is not a predicate. If ‘x’ is introduced as a place holder for the object, then
we get the result as
‘Rajan loves x’.
which is a statement function. Thus we can define, a predicate p(x) as an expression having the quality
that on an assignment of values to the variable x, from an appropriate domain, a statement results.
Definition 1.7: Let P (x) be a statement involving variable x and a set D. We call P a propositional
function if for each x in D, P (x) is a proposition. The set D is called the domain of discourse (or universe
of discourse) of P. It is the set of all possible values which can be assigned to variables in statements
involving predicates.
For example the domain of discourse for P (x): “x is a cricket player” can be taken as the set of all
human beings and the statement.
x2 – 3x – 7 = 0
is a propositional function. The domain of discourse is the set of real numbers.
1.21.1 Universal Quantifier
Consider the proposition
‘All odd prime numbers are greater than 2’. The word ‘all’ in this proposition is a logical quantifier.
The proposition can be translated as follows:
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 29
(∃ an integer x) ( x ≤ 8)
i.e., the negated proposition is: There is an integer less than or equal to 8.
In the negation a proposition ‘for all’ becomes ‘there is’ and ‘there is’ becomes ‘for all’ i.e., the
symbol ∀ becomes ∃ and ∃ becomes ∀.
Example 4: The negated proposition of
(∃ an integer x) (0 ≤ x ≤ 8) is
(∀ integers x) (x < 0 or x > 8)
The following table gives us the equivalences involving quantifiers.
Rules of inference for addition and deletion of quantifiers are given by the following table:
R1 Universal instantiation.
∀ x P ( x)
∴ P (k )
k is some element of the universe.
R2 Existential instantiation
∃ x P (x)
∴ P (k )
k is some element for which P (k) is true. Contd.
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 31
R3 Universal generalization
P (x)
∀ x P ( x)
R4 Existential generalization
P (k )
∴ ∃ x P (x)
k is some element on the universe.
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