Transformers

Mrs.S.Poornima
EEE Dept.
 Contents
• Introduction
• Single phase Transformer Principle
• Emf Equation
• Transformation Ratio
• Ideal and Practical Transformer
• Losses in Transformer
• Efficiency and voltage regulation
 Introduction

• Transformer forms a vital role in supply networks. A transformer can step

up or stepdown alternating voltages only. Hence A.C system is adopted for
generation, transmission and distribution.

 When energy is transformed into a higher voltage the transformer is called

a step-up transformer
 When energy is transformed into a lower voltage the transformer is called
Step-down transformer
 Single phase Transformer Principle
• A Transformer is an electrical device, having no moving parts, which
transfers electric energy from one circuit to another at the same frequency
by electromagnetic induction, usually with changed values of voltage and
current

• Transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic

induction.

• The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance

between two circuits which is linked by a common magnetic flux
Arrangement of Simple Transformer
• A Transformer mainly consists of three parts i.e Primary winding,
Secondary winding and core
• A basic transformer consists of two coils which are insulated from each
other and are electrically separated but are magnetically linked through a
path of reluctance
The core laminations are joined in the form of strips
Primary winding-connected to AC Supply
Secondary winding-connected to load

• If one coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage, an alternating

flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linked with the other
coil,in which it produces mutually induced emf according to Faraday’s laws
of Electromagnetic Induction as e=M* dI /dt

• If the secondary coil is closed, a current flows

• Energy is drawn from secondary coil
Symbolic Representation
Two vertical lines are used to represent magnetic core,which signify the tight
magnetic coupling between the windings
 Transformer EMF Equation
𝑉1 = Primary Applied voltage
𝐼1 = Primary current
𝐸1 = RMS value Primary induced emf
𝑁1 = Number of turns in primary
𝐸2 = RMS value secondary induced emf
𝑁2 = Number of turns in secondary
𝑉2 =Terminal (secondary )voltage
𝐼2 = Secondary current
Ф𝑚 = Maximum value of magnetic flux in the core
f= Frequency of supply voltage
Let 𝛷=𝛷𝑚 sinωt
According to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction,
𝑑Φ
Emf induced is E= -N
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
E= -N (𝛷𝑚 sinωt)
𝑑𝑡
E= -NΦ𝑚 ω Cosωt= NΦ𝑚 ωsin(ωt-900)
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 =NΦ𝑚 ω

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁𝜔Φ𝑚 2𝑁П𝑓Φ𝑚

𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = = 4.44NfΦ𝑚
2 2 2

RMS value of emf induced in primary winding

𝐸1 = 4.44𝑁1 f Φ𝑚

Similarly, RMS value of emf induced in secondary winding

𝐸2 = 4.44𝑁2 fΦ𝑚

𝐸1 induced in the primary lags behind the flux by 900

𝐸2 induced in the secondary lags behind flux by 900
 Transformation Ratio
• Voltage ratio:

𝐸1 =4.44𝑁1 fΦ𝑚
𝐸2 =4.44𝑁2 fΦ𝑚

𝐸1 𝐸2
= =4.44fΦ𝑚 i.e EMF per turn is same in both primary and secondary
𝑁1 𝑁2

In an ideal transformer,𝑉1 =𝐸1 and 𝑉2 =𝐸2 (voltage drops in both coils negligible)

The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is same as ratio of secondary turns to the
primary turns. This ratio is Transformation ratio, K

𝐸2 𝑉 𝑁2
K= = 2=
𝐸1 𝑉1 𝑁1

For step-up Transformer 𝑉2 >𝑉1 i.e K>1

For step-down Transformer 𝑉2 <𝑉1 i.e K<1
• Current Ratio

• In an ideal transformer, losses are negligible so V-I input to primary is

approximately equal to V-I output from the secondary

• Input VA= Output VA on no load

𝐸1 𝐼1 =𝐸2 𝐼2

𝑉2 𝐼1
𝑉1 𝐼1 =𝑉2 𝐼2 → =
𝑉1 𝐼2

𝐼1 𝑉2 𝐸2 𝑁2
So = = = =K
𝐼2 𝑉1 𝐸1 𝑁1

i.e Primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to their

respective turns
 For an ideal transformer
• No winding Resistance
• No Leakage flux i.e the same flux links with both the windings
• No iron losses(i.e eddy current and hysteresis losses) in the core
• Consider an ideal transformer on no load i.e the secondary is open circuited

• When an alternating voltage V₁ is applied to the primary, it draws a small

alternating magnetizing current Iₘ(𝐼0 ) which lags behind the V₁ by 900 as
the coil is purely inductive

• Iₘ produces an alternating flux ϕ which is proportional and in phase with it

• The alternating flux ϕ links both the windings and induces emf E ₁ primary
and emf E ₂ in secondary

• E ₁ is at every instant, equal to and in opposition to V₁ (Lenz’s law)

• Both emfs E ₁ and E ₂ lag behind flux ϕ by an 900

Magnitudes depend upon 𝑁1 and 𝑁2
• Phasor Diagram for Ideal Transformer

• Let 𝛷=Φ𝑚 sinωt= Φ𝑚 ∠00 is taken as reference phasor as Φ is same in both windings

• According to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction,

𝑑Φ
𝐸1 = −𝑁1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝐸1 = −𝑁1 (Φ𝑚 sinωt)
𝑑𝑡
𝐸1 = −𝑁1 Φ𝑚 ω Cosωt
𝐸1 = 𝑁1 Φ𝑚 ωsin(ωt-900 )
𝐸1 = 𝐸1𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin(ωt-900 ) =𝐸1𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∠−900

𝐸1𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑁1 Φ𝑚 ω

i.e 𝐸1 Lags the flux Φ by an angle 900

𝑑Φ
𝑉1 =−𝐸1 =𝑁1
𝑑𝑡
i.e 𝑉1 leads the flux Φ by an angle 900
 𝑑Φ
Emf induced in secondary 𝐸2 = −𝑁2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝐸2 = −𝑁2 (Φ𝑚 sinωt)
𝑑𝑡
𝐸2 = −𝑁2 Φ𝑚 ω Cosωt
𝐸2 = 𝑁2 Φ𝑚 ωsin(ωt-900)
𝐸2 = 𝐸2𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin(ωt-900)= 𝐸2𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∠−900
𝐸2𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑁2 Φ𝑚 ω

i.e 𝐸2 Lags the flux Φ by an angle 900, So 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 are phase

Transformation ratio for ideal Transformer

• In an ideal transformer, there is no power Loss(losses are negligible )

• so V-I input to primary is approx. equal to V-I output from the secondary
Input VA= Output VA on no load
(𝑉1 =𝐸1 and 𝑉2 =𝐸2 )

𝐸1 𝐼1 =𝐸2 𝐼2

𝑉2 𝐼1
𝑉1 𝐼1 =𝑉2 𝐼2 → =
𝑉1 𝐼2

𝐼1 𝑉2 𝐸2 𝑁2
So = = = =K
𝐼2 𝑉1 𝐸1 𝑁1

i.e Primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to their

respective turns
 It has
• Iron Losses- Eddy current &
Practical hysteresis loss
Transformer
• Winding resistances

• Magnetic leakage, giving rise to

leakage reactances
Practical Transformer with Iron Losses

• Iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs eddy

current and hysteresis loss in it
• Iron Losses are also known as core losses
• Iron Losses depend upon
1. Supply frequency
2. Maximum flux density
3. Volume of core

 Magnitude of iron losses is quite small in practical transformer compared

to other losses
 • Windings consist of copper conductors, winding
resistances 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 act in series with respective
Practical windings

Transformer • When current flows through the windings, there will be

with Winding power loss as well as a loss in voltage due to IR drop

resistances • This will affect power factor and 𝐸1 will be less than 𝑉1
while 𝑉2 will be less than 𝐸2
Practical Transformer with Leakage Reactance

Practical Transformers with leakage fluxes

• The flux 𝛷1 , 𝛷2 which links only one winding is called “Leakage flux”. Leakage flux
paths are mainly through the air
• The effect of these leakage fluxes would be same as though inductive reactance
were connected in series with each winding of transformer that had no leakage
flux

𝛷1 introduces inductive reactance 𝑋1 in series with primary winding

𝛷2 introduces inductive reactance 𝑋2 in series with secondary winding

• No Power Loss due to leakage reactance

• Presence of leakage reactance in the windings changes the power factor as well,
as there is voltage loss due to IX drop
 Practical Transformer on No-Load

• In case of ideal Transformer, losses are neglected, but practically it is not

possible.

• When the primary of a transformer is connected to AC supply source,

and the secondary is open, the transformer is said to be on no-load
• When the transformer is on no-
load, the primary current is not
completely reactive. But it has to
supply iron losses in the core and
a very small amount of copper
losses in primary (there being no
copper loss in secondary as it is
open).

• Hence, the no load primary input

current 𝐼0 is not at 900 behind 𝑉1
but lags it by an angle Φ0 <900
• No load input power of the
Transformer is 𝑊0=𝑉1 𝐼0CosΦ0
From the Phasors diagram 𝐼0 has two components

(i) Working or active component, 𝐼𝑊 =𝐼0 cosΦ0 , which is in phase with 𝑉1

(i) Magnetizing component, 𝐼𝑚 =𝐼0 sinΦ0 , which is in quadrature with 𝑉1

2 +𝐼2
𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑤 𝑚
Practical Transformer on Load
• When the transformer is loaded, the secondary current,𝐼2 is set up.
𝐼2 will be in phase with 𝑉2 if the load is resistive
𝐼2 lags 𝑉2 if the load is inductive
𝐼 2 leads 𝑉2 if the load is capacitive
• 𝐼2 sets up its own MMF(=𝑁2 𝐼2 ) and hence it produces flux Φ2 , which is in
opposition to main primary flux Φ1 , which is due to 𝐼0 .
• Secondary flux Φ2 weakens main flux Φ momentarily and hence primary
back emf 𝐸1 tends to be reduced.
• For a moment 𝑉1 gains the upper hand over 𝐸1 and hence causes
additional current 𝐼2′ to flow in primary and hence flux Φ2′ (due to MMF
𝑁1 𝐼2′ ) which counter-balances the secondary flux Φ2

𝑁2
Φ2′ = Φ2 𝑁1 𝐼2′ =𝑁2 𝐼2 𝐼2′ = 𝐼
𝑁1 2
𝐼1 = 𝐼0 + 𝐼2′

𝐼2′ =𝐾𝐼2 is load component of primary current and anti-phase with 𝐼2

Equivalent circuit of a transformer
Transformer with winding
resistance and Reactance

𝑍1 = 𝑅1 + j𝑋1 = 𝑅1 2 + 𝑋1 2 𝑉1 = 𝐸1 + 𝐼1 𝑍1

𝑍2 = 𝑅2 + j𝑋2 = 𝑅2 2 + 𝑋2 2 𝐸2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 𝑍2
Equivalent impedance of a transformer

𝑅2
𝑅01 = 𝑅1 + 2 𝑅02 = 𝑅2 + 𝐾 2 𝑅1
𝐾
𝑋2 𝑋02 = 𝑋2 + 𝐾 2 𝑋1
𝑋01 = 𝑋1 + 2
𝐾

𝑍01 = 𝑅01 + j𝑋01 = 𝑅01 2 + 𝑋01 2 𝑍02 = 𝑅02 + j𝑋02 = 𝑅02 2 + 𝑋02
2
 Losses in a Transformer
(i)Core or Iron Losses (ii) Copper Losses
These losses appear in the form of heat and produce (i) an increase in temperature and (ii) a drop in efficiency.
(i) Core or Iron losses (𝑾𝒊 ):
Power loss in the core due to alternating flux in the core

(a) Hysteresis loss(𝑾𝒉 ):

Due to alternating flux setup in the magnetic core of the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of
magnetization and demagnetization resulting in a loss of energy called “Hysteresis Loss”

𝑾𝒉 =η𝑩𝟏.𝟔
𝒎𝒂𝒙 .f.v watts

• Can be minimized by using steel of high silicon content

(b) Eddy current loss(𝑾𝒆 ):

This power loss is due to alternating flux linking the core,which will induce an emf in the core called eddy
emf, due to which a current called eddy current is being circulated in the core.
As there is some resistance in core with this eddy current circulation, converts into heat called “Eddy current
power loss”

𝑾𝒆 = 𝑲𝒆 𝑩𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒇𝟐 𝒕𝟐 watts/𝒎𝟑

• Can be reduced by using core of thin laminations

Iron or core losses,𝑾𝒊 =𝑾𝒉 + 𝑾𝒆

Since Transformers are connected to constant frequency, constant voltage supply, Both f and 𝐵𝑚 are constant.
Hence core or iron losses are practically same at all loads. So called as “Constant losses”
(ii) Copper Losses(𝑾𝑪𝒖 )

It is the power(𝐼 2 R) wasted in the form of heat due to resistance of

primary and secondary windings

𝑾𝑪𝒖 = 𝑰𝟐𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑰𝟐𝟏 𝑹𝟎𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝟎𝟐

Ex: If copper losses are 800W at a load current of 20A, then they will be
𝟏
( )𝟐 x 800= 200W at a load current of 10A
𝟐

This loss is proportional to square of fraction of Full load. Hence it is called

“Variable loss”

Total Losses in a transformer= 𝑾𝒊 +𝑾𝒄𝒖 = constant losses + variable losses

Copper losses account for about 90% of total losses

 Efficiency of a Transformer
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Efficiency, η= =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟+𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐴∗𝑝.𝑓

η𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐴∗𝑝.𝑓+𝑊𝑖 +𝑊𝑐𝑢

𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ
=
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ+ 𝑊𝑖 + 𝐼12 𝑅1 +𝐼22 𝑅2

𝑉2 𝐼2 ∗𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ
= (or)
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ+𝑊𝑖 +𝐼12 𝑅01 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ+𝑊𝑖 +𝐼22 𝑅02

𝑥∗𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐴∗𝑝.𝑓

η𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑥∗𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐴∗𝑝.𝑓+𝑊𝑖 +𝑥 2 𝑊𝑐𝑢

𝑥∗𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ
=
𝑥∗𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ+𝑊𝑖 +𝑥 2 𝑊𝑐𝑢

𝑥= Ratio of actual load to full load Iron loss-Open Circuit Test Copper loss-Short Circuit Test
 Voltage Regulation
𝑉02 −𝑉2
• % 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = X 100
𝑉02
𝑉02 −𝑉2
• % 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑝 = 𝑉2
X 100

𝑉02 = No-Load secondary voltage= K𝑉1

𝑉2 = Secondary voltage on load

𝑉02 − 𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅02 cosϕ2 ± 𝐼2 𝑋02 sinϕ2

• The +ve sign is for lagging p.f. and -ve sign for leading p.f.

• It may be noted that % voltage regulation of the transformer will be the same whether
primary or secondary side is considered

• Unless stated otherwise, regulation is to be taken as regulation down.

• Lesser the regulation better the transformation performance

 Applications of Transformer

There are four principal applications of transformers

(i ) Power transformers ( ii ) Distribution transformers

( iii ) Autotransformers ( iv ) Instrument transformers
Distribution Transformer
Auto Transformer
Instrument Transformers