Educational Technology: Concepts, Roles, and Definitions

 Technology in Education: This refers to the use of audio-visual aids and

software to support teaching and learning.
 Technology of Education: This encompasses a broader view, focusing on
the application of technology to design and improve the entire teaching-
learning process.
 Educational Technology: This term encompasses both the development
and application of systems, techniques, and aids to enhance learning. It is
grounded in scientific knowledge about learning and utilizes empirical testing
to improve educational practices.
Roles of Educational Technology
Educational technology plays a crucial role in improving the efficiency and
effectiveness of teaching and learning by:
 Increasing the quality of learning: It helps learners achieve a higher
degree of mastery.
 Decreasing learning time: Learners can attain desired objectives more
quickly.
 Increasing teacher efficiency: Teachers can teach more effectively without
compromising quality.
 Reducing educational costs: It can help optimize resources and minimize
expenses.
Psychological Perspectives on Learning
The document explores three major psychological perspectives on learning:
 Behaviorist Perspective: This perspective emphasizes the role of
reinforcement and rewards in shaping behavior.
 Cognitivist Perspective: This perspective focuses on how learners process
and manipulate information, emphasizing the role of mental models and
memory.
 Constructivist Perspective: This perspective emphasizes the active role of
learners in constructing their own knowledge and understanding.
Instructional Methods
The document outlines various instructional methods, including:
 Presentation: One-way communication controlled by the instructor.
 Demonstration: Learners observe a real-life example of a skill or procedure.
 Discussion: Interactive exchange of ideas and opinions among learners and
the instructor.
  Drill-and-Practice: Repetitive practice exercises to enhance fluency.
 Tutorial: Guided instruction with feedback and practice.
 Cooperative Learning: Learners work together in small groups to achieve a
common goal.
 Gaming: Learning through structured play with rules and goals.
 Simulation: Realistic practice in a scaled-down version of a real-life
situation.
 Discovery Learning: Learners solve problems through trial and error,
discovering rules and procedures.
 Problem Solving: Learners actively engage in finding solutions to novel
problems.
 Programmed Instruction: Individualized learning using printed materials or
computers.
 Programmed Tutoring: One-on-one instruction with programmed
responses.
 Programmed Teaching: Direct instruction in a large-group setting.
 Personalized System of Instruction (PSI): Individualized learning with
mastery-based assessments.
Technologies for Learning
The document highlights various technologies used in education, including:
 Cooperative Learning: Collaborative learning activities that foster social
skills and interdependence.
 Games: Instructional games that provide engaging and motivating learning
experiences.
 Simulations: Realistic representations of real-life situations that allow
learners to practice skills in a safe and controlled environment.
 Learning Centers: Self-contained learning environments that promote
individual or small-group learning.
 Programmed Instruction: Computer-based instruction that provides
individualized learning experiences.

Technologies for Learning

This document delves into the concept of "technologies for learning," which are
specific teaching-learning patterns designed to achieve demonstrably effective
learning outcomes. It focuses on cooperative learning, games, simulations, and
learning centers, highlighting their advantages, limitations, and integration into
educational practices.
3.1 Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning involves small, diverse groups of students working together to
achieve a common academic goal while simultaneously developing collaboration
and social skills. This approach has gained popularity due to the increasing demand
for collaborative skills in real-world settings and the recognition of the benefits of
social interaction in learning.
Advantages:
 Active Learning: Requires students to actively interact with each other.
 Social Skills Development: Enhances interpersonal, communication,
leadership, compromise, and collaboration skills.
 Interdependence: Promotes accountability and shared responsibility for
group success.
 Individual Accountability: Ensures each member contributes to the group's
success.
Limitations:
 Student Compatibility: Difficult to form groups that work well together.
 Student Dependency: Can create reliance on stronger students, hindering
individual growth.
 Time Consuming: Requires more time to cover the same content compared
to other methods.
 Individualist Preferences: May not suit students who prefer independent
work.
 Logistical Obstacles: Requires careful planning and management of group
dynamics.
Integration:
Cooperative learning is not simply assigning tasks to groups. It involves a deeper
level of interaction where students articulate and negotiate ideas, leading to
improved understanding and retention.
3.2 Games
Games are activities with prescribed rules that deviate from real-life scenarios,
offering a challenging goal for participants. Games are attractive because they are
fun, novel, and create a relaxed atmosphere conducive to learning.
Advantages:
 Attractiveness: Appeals to learners of all ages due to their inherent
enjoyment.
 Novelty: Provides a change from routine classroom activities, stimulating
interest.
 Atmosphere: Creates a relaxed environment, especially beneficial for
reluctant learners.
 Time on Task: Keeps learners engaged in repetitive tasks, making them
more enjoyable.
Limitations:
 Competition: Can be counterproductive for students who are less
competitive or struggle with the content.
 Distraction: Can lead to a focus on the game rather than learning objectives
without careful management.
 Poor Design: Games must provide actual practice of the target skill to be
instructionally meaningful.
Integration:
Instructional games are most effective for:
 Cognitive Objectives: Discrimination, memorization (grammar, phonics,
spelling, math).
 Motivating Learners: Adding interest to less engaging topics (grammar,
spelling).
 Small Group Instruction: Providing structured activities for independent
learning.
3.3 Simulations
Simulations are abstractions or simplifications of real-life situations or processes.
Participants take on roles and interact with the simulated environment, providing
realistic practice with feedback and social interaction.
Advantages:
 Realistic Practice: Offers experience similar to real-life situations.
 Safety: Allows practice of potentially hazardous skills in a safe environment.
 Simplified Conditions: Provides a controlled environment for focused
learning.
Limitations:
  Time Consuming: Can be time-intensive to set up and run.
 Oversimplification: May not fully capture the complexity of real-life
situations.
Integration:
Simulations are valuable for:
 Motor Skills Training: Athletic and mechanical skills, complex skills.
 Social Interaction Skills: Empathy, coping with reactions of others.
 Decision-making Skills: Microteaching, mock court, management
simulations.
3.4 Simulation Games
Simulation games combine the elements of simulation and games, providing holistic
learning experiences. They model real-life situations while incorporating the
engaging elements of games.
Advantages:
 Holistic Learning: Offers a comprehensive view of the process being
studied.
 Motivation: Encourages engagement through the excitement of play.
Integration:
Simulation games are effective for:
 Societal Processes: Cultural conflicts, historical eras, ecological systems.
 Large, Dynamic Processes: Providing an overview before delving into
specific details.
3.5 Learning Centers
Learning centers are self-contained environments designed for individual or small-
group learning focused on a specific task. They can range from simple tables and
chairs to sophisticated networked computers.
Advantages:
 Self-Pacing: Allows learners to work at their own pace.
 Active Learning: Encourages engagement and exploration.
 Teacher Role: Provides support and guidance as needed.
Limitations:
 Cost: May require significant investment in materials and resources.
 Management: Requires careful planning and organization.
  Student Responsibility: Students must be responsible for their own
learning.
 Student Isolation: May lead to isolation if not carefully managed.
Specialized Types of Centers:
 Skill Centers: Focus on developing specific skills.
 Interest Centers: Cater to individual interests.
 Remedial Centers: Provide support for struggling learners.

Technology for Teaching and Learning

 Media: Channels of communication between the source and the receiver.
Examples include video, television, diagrams, printed materials, computers,
and instructors. Instructional media carry messages with an instructional
purpose.
 The Concrete-Abstract Continuum: Instructional media that incorporate
concrete experiences help students integrate prior experience and facilitate
learning of abstract concepts. This is represented by Edgar Dale's "Cone of
Experience," which illustrates the progression from direct, concrete
experiences to more abstract representations.
Roles of Media in Learning
The presentation highlights three main roles of media in learning:
 Instructor-Directed Instruction: Media is used as supplemental support
for the live instructor in the classroom. It can enhance and promote learning
by providing additional information, visuals, and activities.
 Instructor-Independent Instruction: Media can be used effectively in
situations where a live instructor is not available. It often provides packaged
materials with objectives, guidance, materials, and self-evaluation guidelines.
 Media Portfolios: A collection of student work that illustrates growth over a
period. It includes artifacts such as student-produced illustrated books,
videos, and audio-visual presentations. Portfolios allow students to gather,
organize, analyze, communicate, and reflect on their learning.
Instructional Methods
The presentation outlines ten common instructional methods:
1. Presentation: One-way communication controlled by the instructor.
2. Demonstration: Learners observe a real-life example of a skill or procedure.
 3. Discussion: Interactive exchange of ideas and opinions among learners and
the instructor.
4. Drill-and-Practice: Repetitive practice exercises to enhance fluency.
5. Tutorial: Guided instruction with feedback and practice.
6. Cooperative Learning: Learners work together in small groups to achieve a
common goal.
7. Gaming: Learning through structured play with rules and goals.
8. Simulation: Realistic practice in a scaled-down version of a real-life
situation.
9. Discovery Learning: Learners solve problems through trial and error,
discovering rules and procedures.
10.Problem Solving: Learners actively engage in finding solutions to novel
problems.
Group Activity
The presentation concludes with a group activity where students are divided into
groups and assigned a specific instructional method. They are tasked with creating
an infographic that illustrates the method and its application in education.

Visual Principles in Education and Training

 Visual Principles: Guidelines for creating effective visual displays that
enhance communication and understanding.
 Visual Literacy: The ability to interpret and create visual messages
accurately. It encompasses both decoding (reading) and encoding (writing)
visual information.
 Visual Design Goals: Four basic goals of visual design:
o Ensure Legibility: Remove obstacles that impede the transmission of
the message.
o Reduce Interpretation Effort: Conveying the message in a way that
requires minimal effort to understand.
o Increase Active Engagement: Making visuals appealing to attract
and hold the viewer's attention.
 o Focus Attention on Key Parts: Arranging elements to emphasize
the most important parts of the message.
Visual Literacy Approaches
The document outlines two main approaches to visual literacy:
 Input Strategy: Helping learners "decode" or read visuals proficiently
through visual analysis (picture analysis, multimedia and video program
discussion).
 Output Strategy: Helping learners "encode" or write visuals to express
themselves and communicate with others (planning and producing photo and
video presentations).
Visual Design Elements
The document discusses key elements of visual design:
 Visual Elements: Realistic visuals, analogic visuals, and organizational
visuals.
 Verbal Elements: Letter style, number of lettering styles, capitals, lettering
color, lettering size, spacing between letters, spacing between lines.
 Elements that Add Appeal: Surprise, texture, interaction.
Visual Design Patterns
The document explores key patterns in visual design:
 Alignment: Positioning elements within a display to create a clear visual
relationship.
 Shape: Arranging visuals according to their shape for easier interpretation.
 Rule of Thirds: Placing elements along one-third dividing lines for emphasis
and liveliness.
 Balance: Achieving equilibrium or balance in the "weight" of elements on
either side of the axis.
 Style: Choosing a design style appropriate for the audience and setting.
 Color Scheme: Selecting harmonious color combinations for visual appeal.
Visual Design Arrangement
The document highlights key principles of visual arrangement:
 Proximity: Placing related elements close together and separating unrelated
elements.
 Directional: Using visual elements to direct attention.
  Figure-Ground Contrast: Using color combinations to create visual
separation.
 Consistency: Maintaining consistent placement, treatment, and color
schemes throughout a series of visuals.
Visual Planning Tools
The document emphasizes the importance of visual planning tools:
 Storyboarding: Arranging and rearranging a sequence of thumbnail
sketches to plan a visual presentation.
Types of Visuals
The document discusses various types of visuals used in education:
 Drawing, Sketching, and Cartooning: These visuals can enhance learning
and are often found in magazines, textbooks, and advertisements.
 Digital Images: Digital cameras, scanners, and photo CDs provide tools for
capturing, editing, displaying, sharing, and networking still and video images.

Media and Materials in Education and Training

Manipulatives
 Real Objects: The most accessible and engaging materials, such as coins,
tools, artifacts, plants, and animals. They provide concrete experiences and
stimulate imagination.
 Modified Real Objects: Cutaways, specimens, exhibits. These enhance
understanding and provide hands-on learning experiences.
Advantages of Manipulatives:
 Presentation, Questioning, and Hands-on Learning: They facilitate the
presentation of information, encourage questioning, and provide hands-on
experiences.
 Evaluation: They play a valuable role in the evaluation phase of instruction.
 Real-World Application: They emphasize the real-world application of the
topic, aiding transfer of training and transcending the purely verbal level of
learning.
Models
 Three-Dimensional Representations: Models provide learning
experiences that real things cannot. They can be larger, smaller, or the same
size as the object they represent.
Advantages of Models:
 Appeal to All Ages: They appeal to both children and adults.
 Stimulate Inquiry and Discovery: They encourage exploration and
investigation.
 Sharpen Cognitive and Psychomotor Skills: They help develop both
mental and physical skills.
Mock-Ups
 Simplified Representations: Mock-ups clarify complex devices or
processes, illustrating basic operations.
Advantages of Mock-Ups:
 Clarify Complexity: They make complex concepts easier to understand.
 Illustrate Operations: They demonstrate the basic workings of real devices.
 Hands-on Manipulation: They allow individuals or groups to interact with
the subject matter.
Field Trips
 Excursions Outside the Classroom: Field trips provide firsthand
experiences with real processes, people, and objects, allowing students to
encounter phenomena that cannot be brought into the classroom.
Advantages of Field Trips:
 Firsthand Experiences: They offer direct engagement with real-world
phenomena.
Virtual Field Trips:
 Extension of Actual Field Trips: Virtual field trips provide access to
locations that are geographically or financially inaccessible.
Justifying Field Trips:
 Relevance: Field trips should be directly related to the course of study.
 Preparation and Follow-Up: Lead-in activities prepare students, and
follow-up activities help them integrate the experience.
Printed Materials
 Textbooks: The foundation of classroom instruction.
 Other Printed Materials: Fiction and non-fiction books, booklets,
pamphlets, study guides, manuals, worksheets, and word-processed
documents.
Advantages of Printed Materials:
  Availability: They are readily available on a variety of topics and formats.
 Flexibility: They are adaptable to many purposes and can be used in any
lighted environment.
 Portability: They are easily carried and do not require equipment or
electricity.
 User-Friendly: They are easy to use and navigate.
 Economical: They are relatively inexpensive to produce or purchase and can
be reused.
Limitations of Printed Materials:
 Reading Level: They are written at a specific reading level, which may be
inaccessible to some learners.
 Prior Knowledge: Learners may struggle to comprehend text if they lack
prerequisite knowledge.
 Memorization: Textbooks can place a heavy cognitive burden on students,
especially when introducing a large number of terms and concepts.
 One-Way Presentation: Most printed materials are not interactive, leading
to passive learning.
 Curriculum Determination: Textbooks can sometimes dictate the
curriculum rather than supporting it.
 Cursory Appraisal: Textbooks may not be carefully examined before
selection.
Integration of Printed Materials:
 Content Presentation: Printed materials are commonly used for presenting
content information.
 SQ3R Method: A technique for using printed materials effectively:
o Survey: Scan the material and read the overview or summary.

o Question: Write questions to answer while reading.

o Read: Look for the organization of the material, underline key ideas,
and answer questions.
o Recite: Test yourself by putting the content into your own words.

o Review: Review the material immediately after reading, the next day,
and so on.
Free and Inexpensive Materials
  Supplementing Instruction: Free and inexpensive materials can
supplement instruction in many subjects.
 Main Source of Instruction: They can be the primary source of instruction
for certain topics.
 Examples: Posters, games, pamphlets, brochures, reports, charts, maps,
books, audiotapes, videotapes, multimedia kits, and real objects.
Advantages of Free and Inexpensive Materials:
 Up-to-Date: They can provide current information not found in textbooks.
 In-Depth Treatment: They often provide detailed information on a topic.
 Variety of Use: They can be used for classroom presentations, self-study, or
group study.
 Student Manipulation: Expendable materials allow for active student
involvement.
Limitations of Free and Inexpensive Materials:
 Bias or Advertising: Sponsored materials may contain bias or advertising.
 Special Interest: Propaganda or biased materials can enter the curriculum.
 Limited Quantities: Suppliers may limit the number of items available at a
time.
Sources of Free and Inexpensive Materials:
 Local, National, and International Sources: Many organizations provide
free or inexpensive materials.
Obtaining Materials:
 Contact Suppliers: Write to suppliers, being specific about the subject area
and grade level.
 Follow-Up: Send a thank-you note to the supplier, mentioning how the
materials were used.
Appraising Materials:
 Critical Evaluation: Use an appraisal checklist to assess the educational
value of free and inexpensive materials.
Display Surfaces
 Chalkboards: Used for drawing visuals, graphics, charts, and graphs.
 Multipurpose Boards (Whiteboards): Used for writing, displaying visuals,
and projecting images.
  Copy Boards (Electronic Whiteboards): Provide reduced-size paper
copies of what is written on the board.
 Pegboards: Used for displaying heavy objects, three-dimensional materials,
and visuals.
 Bulletin Boards: Used for displaying announcements, student work, and
visuals that complement the curriculum.
 Cloth Boards: Used for illustrating stories, poems, and other reading
materials.
 Magnetic Boards: Used for displaying visuals that are easy to maneuver.
 Flip Charts: Pads of large papers fastened together for sequential
presentation.
 Exhibits: Collections of objects and visuals designed to illustrate a topic.
o Displays: Arrays of objects, visuals, and printed materials.

o Dioramas: Static displays with a three-dimensional foreground and a

flat background.

Visuals in Education and Training

1. Non-Projected Visuals
Non-projected visuals are readily available, inexpensive, and versatile for all levels
of instruction and disciplines. They are particularly useful for:
 Translating Abstract Ideas: They help to make abstract concepts more
concrete.
 Stimulating Creative Expression: They encourage storytelling, poetry
writing, and other creative activities.
 Testing and Evaluation: They can be used in assessment and evaluation.
1.1 Types of Non-Projected Visuals
 Still Pictures: Photographic or photograph-like representations of people,
places, and things. Examples include charts, illustrations, and picture books.
 Drawings: Concrete visual representations of real things, often used for
illustrating lectures through freehand sketching.
 Charts: Visual representations of abstract relationships, such as
chronologies, quantities, and hierarchies. Common types include:
o Organizational Charts: Show the structure or chain of command.
 o Classification Charts: Classify or categorize events, objects, or
species.
o Time Lines: Illustrate chronological relationships between events.

o Tabular Charts (Tables): Contain numerical information.

o Flowcharts: Show a sequence, procedure, or the flow of a process.

 Graphs: Visual representations of numerical data, illustrating relationships

and trends. Common types include:
o Bar Graphs: Easy to read and suitable for elementary students.

o Pictorial Graphs: Alternate form of bar graphs using simple drawings,

engaging for young students.
o Circle (Pie) Graphs: Easy to interpret, divided into segments
representing percentages.
o Line Graphs: Most precise and complex, showing trends and
relationships.
 Posters: Combine images, lines, color, and words to catch and hold
attention, communicating a brief message. They should be colorful and
dynamic.
 Cartoons: Line drawings that are rough caricatures of real people and
events. They are popular and familiar, appealing to both children and adults.
Humor and satire are key elements.
2. Projected Visuals
Projected visuals have long been popular for instruction and entertainment,
enlarging still pictures and displaying them on a screen. They are suitable for all
grade levels and subject areas.
2.1 Document Cameras
Document cameras are video cameras mounted on a copy stand, projecting images
of documents, flat pictures, graphics, and small objects onto a screen.
Advantages:
 On-the-Spot Projection: Allows immediate projection of readily available
materials.
 Equal View for All Students: Ensures everyone has a clear view.
 Group Viewing of Student Work: Facilitates group discussions and
critiques of student work.
Limitations:
  Bulky Hardware: Requires a monitor or video projector, making it
cumbersome to move.
 Monitor or Projection Required: Cannot be used without a monitor or
projector.
 Additional Lighting: Requires extra lighting for optimal image quality.
2.2 Overhead Projectors (OHPs)
Overhead projection is widely used in classrooms and training sites.
Types of Projectors:
 Transmissive: Light passes through the transparency.
 Reflective: Light reflects off a mirror-like stage.
Advantages of OHPs:
 Brightness: Project images clearly.
 Eye Contact: Allows the presenter to maintain eye contact with the
audience.
 Ease of Use: Simple and straightforward to operate.
 Abundance of Materials: Many materials are readily available.
 Manipulable: Allows for rearranging elements on the transparency.
 Availability of Materials: Materials are easily obtained.
 Self-Prepared Materials: Teachers can create their own transparencies.
 Advance Preparation: Allows for planning and preparation.
 Impact Attitudes: Can be used to influence attitudes and opinions.
 Organization and Discussion: Facilitates organized presentations and
discussions.
Limitations:
 Not Programmed: Cannot be programmed to display visual sequences
automatically.
 Not Self-Instructional: Designed for large-group instruction.
 Production Process Required: Materials need to be prepared as
transparencies.
 Keystone Effect: Distortion can occur.
2.2.1 Creating Overhead Transparencies
 Direct Drawing Method: Drawing directly on the transparency.
  Electrostatic Film Process (Xerography): Using a copier to create
transparencies.
 Overhead Created by Computer: Using graphics software to create
transparencies.
Types of Graphics Software:
 Presentation Programs: Simplify the creation of slides or transparencies
combining text, data, and visuals.
 Drawing and Paint Programs: Allow users to draw geometric shapes and
figures.
 Photo-Enhancement Programs: Manipulate color and use special effects
to alter photographic styles.
 Desktop Publishing Programs: Combine features of other programs to
create sophisticated products like newsletters and books.
2.3 Slides
Slides are small-format photographic transparencies mounted for individual
projection.
Advantages:
 Ease of Production: Both teachers and students can easily produce slides.
 Digital Photography: Digital cameras are widely used to capture images for
slides.
 Copying Visuals: Macro settings on cameras allow copying flat visuals like
maps and charts.
 Computer-Generated Slides: Computers can generate graphic images for
slides.
2.4 Digital Images
Digital images can be stored and displayed on computers, television monitors, or
projected onto a screen.
Digital Storage Media:
 CD-ROM: Read-only memory, capable of storing large quantities of text,
visuals, sound, and animation.
 Photo CD: Utilizes digital technology to store photographic images.
 DVD-ROM: Read-only memory with greater capacity, ideal for storing large
files.
 Digital Camera: Stores images on computer disks or flash memory cards.
Advantages of Digital Images:
 Random Access: Images can be accessed quickly and randomly.
 Durability: Discs are durable and resistant to fingerprints.
 Storage Capacity: Discs can store thousands of images.
 High-Quality Visuals: Digital images are of higher quality than
photographic slides.
 Portability: Discs are easily transported.
 Less Storage Space: A single videodisc can store thousands of images.
Limitations:
 Expensive to Produce: Time-consuming and costly to create.
 Requires Player and Projection: More complex and difficult to operate.
 Format Becoming Outdated: Laser disc format is being replaced by CD-
ROM and DVD.
2.5 Digital Image Projection
Digital images can be displayed on computer monitors or projected onto a screen
using LCD projection panels.
Advantages:
 Image Choices: Wide range of images available.
 Vast Capacity: Large storage capacity.
 Interactivity: Allows for interactive presentations.
Limitations:
 Lack of Brightness: May not be as bright as other projection methods.
 Legibility: May be difficult to read in certain lighting conditions.
 Expense: LCD projection panels can be expensive.