Academy of Environmental Sciences & Agriculture

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RSPCB JSO/JEE Exam 2023
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साझा/क़ॉपी/प्रकालशत िही ों कर सकते।

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 10/19/2023

Air Quality Indices & Air Quality Standards

वायु गुणव ा सूचकांक और वायु गुणव ा मानक

Academy of Environmental Sciences and Agriculture

Air Pollution & Air Pollutants

According to Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, “Air pollution
is the presence of any solid, liquid, or gaseous substances in the atmosphere in
such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other
living creatures or plants or property or environment”.

The WHO (1999) has defined “Air pollutants” as substances put into air by the
activities of mankind, in such concentrations, which are sufficient to cause
harmful effect to human health, vegetation, property or to interfere with the
enjoyment of property.
 10/19/2023

Types of air pollutants

• Primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from a process,

such as ash from a volcanic eruption, CO, CO2, SO2, NOx, NO, N2O,
NO2, Particulate matters, VOCs (CH4 & NMVOCs), CFCs, toxic metals,
NH3, Radioactive pollutants, aerosols and mists

• Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. They are form in the
air when primary pollutants react. example of a secondary pollutant
are NO2, PAN, ground level ozone, photochemical smog, acid rain

Wood-Burning Stoves Power Plants Forest Fires

Air pollutants sources

Industrial Sources Heavy Duty Diesel Engines

Non-Road Vehicles Natural Sources Cars and Trucks

 10/19/2023

• To address the air pollution concerns, the concept of an Air Quality Index
(AQI) has been developed and used effectively in many developed countries
for over last three decades.

• There have not been significant efforts to develop and use AQI in India,
primarily due to the fact that a modest air quality monitoring programme was
started only in 1984 and public awareness about air pollution was almost non-
existent.

Air Quality Index (AQI)

• Launched in 2014 with outline ‘One Number – One Color -One Description’ for the
common man to judge the air quality within his vicinity.

• The AQI is most commonly used to describe ground-level ozone levels .

• The measurement of air quality is based on eight pollutants, namely:
 Particulate Matter (PM10),
 Particulate Matter (PM2.5),
 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2),
 Carbon Monoxide (CO),
 Ozone (O3),
 Ammonia (NH3), and
 Lead (Pb)
 10/19/2023

• AQI has six categories of air quality. These are:

 Good,

 Satisfactory,

 Moderately Polluted,

 Poor,

 Very Poor and

 Severe

• It has been developed by the CPCB in consultation with IIT-Kanpur and an

expert group comprising medical and air-quality professionals.

• AQI is a huge initiative under ‘Swachh Bharat’

 10/19/2023

Other Air Quality Indices

Index Year Pollutants included Application
Air Quality Index (AQI) 2014 PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, Air quality levels
and Pb

Green Index (GI) 1966 SO2 and COH (coefficient of Haze ) Air quality levels

Fenstock Air Quality Index 1969 CO, TSP, SO2 Data on source emissions and
(AQI) meteorological conditions

Ontario Air Pollution Index 1970 COH and SO2 Daily information of AQ levels

Oak Ridge Air Quality Index 1971 SO2, NO2, PM, CO, Photochemical Based on the 24-hour average
(ORAQI) Oxidants concentrations

Greater Vancouver Air SO2, NO2, O3, TSP, COH, PM10 Designed to protect public
-
Quality Index (GVAQI) health and environment

Most Undesirable 1968 coefficient of Haze (COH) Routinely used in the city of
Respirable Contaminants Detroit to report air quality data
Index (MURC)
 10/19/2023

Applications of Air Quality Index

Ott (1978) has listed the following six objectives that are served by an AQI:

1. Resource Allocation: To assist administrators in allocating funds and determining priorities.

Enable evaluation of trade-offs involved in alternative air pollution control strategies.

2. Ranking of Locations: To assist in comparing air quality conditions at different

locations/cities. Thus, pointing out areas and frequencies of potential hazards.

3. Enforcement of Standards: To determine extent to which the legislative standards and

existing criteria are being adhered. Also helps in identifying faulty standards and inadequate
monitoring programs.

4. Trend Analysis: To determine change in air quality (degradation or improvement) which

have occurred over a specified period. This enables forecasting of air quality (i.e., tracking the
behaviour of pollutants in air) and plan pollution control measures.

5. Public Information: To inform the public about environmental conditions (state of environment).
It’s useful for people who suffer from illness aggravated or caused by air pollution. Thus it enables
them to modify their daily activities at times when they are informed of high pollution levels.

6. Scientific Research: As a means for reducing a large set of data to a comprehendible form that
gives better insight to the researcher while conducting a study of some environmental phenomena.
This enables more objective determination of the contribution of individual pollutants and sources
to overall air quality. Such tools become more useful when used in conjunction with other sources
such as local emission surveys.

 Briefly, an AQI is useful for: (i) general public to know air quality in a simplified way, (ii) a
politician to invoke quick actions, (iii) a decision maker to know the trend of events and to chalk
out corrective 3 pollution control strategies, (iv) a government official to study the impact of
regulatory actions, and (v) a scientist who engages in scientific research using air quality data.
 10/19/2023

AQ standards

• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are standards for air
quality that are set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) that are
applicable all over the country.
• The current NAAQS (2009) comprise 12 pollutants.

• WHO air quality standards given in 2005, revised in 2021

• WHO listed only 6 Air pollutants (PM2.5 and PM10, O3, NO2, CO and SO2)
for guidelines

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS, 2009)

Industrial/
Time Weighted Ecologically
Pollutant Residential/rural Methods of Measurement
average Sensitive Areas
areas
SO2 Annual 50 20 -Improved West and Gaeke method
(g/m³) 24 hours 80 80 -Ultraviolet fluorescence

NO2 Annual 40 30 -Jacob &Hochheiser modified Method

(g/m³) 24 hours 80 80 -Gas Phase Chemiluminescence

PM10 Annual 60 60 -Gravimetric

-TEOM
(g/m³) 24 hours 100 100 -Beta attenuation
PM2.5 Annual 40 40 Gravimetric
-TEOM
(g/m³) 24 hours 60 60 -Beta attenuation
O3 8 hours 100 100 -UV Photometric
-Chemiluminescence
(g/m³) 1hour 180 180 -Chemical Method
Pb Annual 0.50 0.50 -AAS/ICP Method
(g/m³) 24 hours 1.0 1.0 -ED-XRF using Teflon filter
CO 8 hours 02 02
Non dispersive infrared spectroscopy (NDIR)
(mg/m³) 1 hour 04 04
NH3 Annual 100 100 -Chemiluminescence
(g/m³) 24 hours 400 400 -Indophenol method
Benzene
Annual 05 05 -Gas Chromatography (GC)
(g/m³)
-Solvent extraction followed by HPLC/GC
Benzo(a)Pyrene (ng/m3) Annual 01 01 analysis
As (ng/m3) Annual 06 06 -AAS/ICP Method
NI (ng/m3) Annual 20 20 -AAS/ICP Method
 10/19/2023

• Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a

particular site taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform interval.
• 24 hourly or 08 hourly or 01 hourly monitored values, as applicable
shall be complied with 98% of the time in a year. 2% of the time, they
may exceed the limits but not on two consecutive days of monitoring.
• Whenever and wherever monitoring results on two consecutive days
of monitoring exceed the limits specified above for the respective
category, it shall be considered adequate reason to institute regular or
continuous monitoring and further investigation.

WHO Air quality guidelines recommend levels

WHO listed only 6 Air pollutants (PM2.5 and PM10, O3, NO2, CO and SO2) for guidelines
 10/19/2023

World Air Quality Report 2022

• Prepared by IQAir

• IQAir, a Swiss air quality technology company, prepares the annual world air
quality reports based on data from monitoring stations

• The 2022 report is based on PM2.5 data from 7,323 cities and 131 countries.

• Delhi ranked 4th out of 50 of the world’s most polluted cities in terms of PM2.5
levels in 2022.

• Lahore was the most polluted city in the world, followed by Hotan in China, and
Bhiwadi in Rajasthan.

• Chad, Iraq, Pakistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh are the 5 most polluted countries in
2022.
 10/19/2023

Discussion
of
some important
&
Previous years exams questions
10/19/2023
 10/19/2023

Q. According to NAAQS, annual; average concentration of nitrogen dioxide (µg/m3), in ecological sensitive
areas, as notified by Government of India is:
a) 40
b) 80
c) 30
d) 20
10/19/2023
10/19/2023
10/19/2023
 Air Pollution Management Technologies
RSPCB Recruitment 2023

वायु प्रदष
ू ण प्रबंधन प्रौद्योगिकियाया

Academy of Environmental Sciences and Agriculture

 Air Pollution

According to Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, “Air pollution is the presence of
any solid, liquid, or gaseous substances in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or
tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or
environment”.

Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamination
of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans drastically.
 Pollutants Vs Contaminants
Pollutant Contaminant
• Pollution is contamination that results in or can • Contamination is simply the presence of a
result in adverse biological effects to resident substance where it should not be or at
communities.
concentrations above background.
• Pollutant is a harmful or poisonous substance that
• Contaminant is a foreign substance or impurity
pollutes something.
that contaminates something.
• Pollutants always create harmful effects.
• Contaminants do not always create harmful
• Pollutants can be either foreign substances or a
effects.
component of the original substance that has
exceeded the harmless level. • Contaminants usually refer to foreign matter that
are introduced from the outside.
 Types of air pollutants
Primary pollutants Secondary pollutants
❑ Primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from a • Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly.
process,
• They are form in the air when primary pollutants
❑ Example
react.
✓ Ash from a volcanic eruption
✓ CO • example of a secondary pollutant are
✓ CO2 ✓ NO2
✓ SO2 ✓ PAN
✓ NOx (NOx = NO + NO2) ✓ Ground Level Ozone
✓ NO
✓ Photochemical Smog
✓ N2O
✓ Acid Rain
✓ NO2
✓ Particulate matters
✓ VOCs (CH4 & NMVOCs)
✓ CFCs
✓ Toxic metals
✓ NH3
✓ Radioactive pollutants
✓ Aerosols and Mists
Wood-Burning Stoves Power Plants Forest Fires

Air pollutants sources

Industrial Sources Heavy Duty Diesel Engines

Non-Road Vehicles Natural Sources Cars and Trucks

 Techniques of air pollution control

❑ Used to reduce the gaseous & particulate emissions of harmful substances.

❑ The best way to protect air quality is to reduce the emission of pollutants by changing to cleaner fuels and
processes.

❑ Pollutants not eliminated in this way must be collected or trapped by appropriate air-cleaning devices as
they are generated and before they can escape into the atmosphere.

❑ Selection of techniques is based on the characteristics of pollutants.

 Types of technologies
Cyclones (Inertial separation)
Scrubbers Dry/dry, venturi
Particulate Filters Baghouse/Fabric, Mist filters, Cartridge filters
ESP (Electrostatic Precipitator)
Settling chambers (gravity)
HEPA filters (High Efficiency Particulate Air)

Wet Gas Scrubbers (absorption)

Air Pollutants
Biofilters
Adsorption (Activated C)
Incineration/Combustion
Gaseous
Oxidizers
FGD/absorption
Packed scrubber
Carbon sequestration
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR)
Particulate Matter Control Devices
पार्टि कुलेट मैटर र्ियंत्रण उपकरण
Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
▪ It is a filterless device that removes fine particles, such as dust and
smoke, from a flowing gas using the force of an induced electrostatic
charge minimally impeding the flow of gases through the unit.

▪ It is the most commonly used device for air pollution control.

▪ also known as an electrostatic air cleaner.

▪ They are used in industries like steel plants, and thermal power plants.

▪ In 1907, chemistry professor Frederick Gardner Cottrell invented and

patented the first ESP used to collect sulphuric acid mist and lead oxide
fumes emitted from various acid-making and smelting activities.
▪ The first use of corona discharge to remove particles from an aerosol was by Hohlfeld in 1824.

▪ Maximum efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator is 99%.

▪ Corona effect is also known as corona discharge and is caused due to the ionization of the fluid such as
the surrounding air. This effect is usually observed in high voltage systems (usually between 20 kV to 70
kV).

▪ Rapping System

▪ The mechanism used to shake (bang/hit) the plates is referred to as the rapping system whilst the
process is known as rapping.
Working Principle of ESP

• It consists of two sets of electrodes: positive and negative.

• The negative electrodes are in the form of a wire mesh, and the

positive electrodes are plates.

• These electrodes are vertically placed and are alternate to each

other.

• The gas borne particles such as ash are ionized by the high

voltage discharge electrode by the corona effect.

• These particles are ionized to a negative charge and are

attracted to positively charged collector plates.

• The negative terminal of the high voltage DC source is used to

connect the negative electrodes, and the positive terminal of

the DC source is used to connect the positive plates.

• To ionize the medium between the negative and the positive electrode, a certain distance is maintained between the
positive, negative electrode and the DC source resulting in a high voltage gradient.

• The medium that is used between the two electrodes is air.

• There might be corona discharge around the electrode rods or the wire mesh due to the high negativity of negative
charges.

• The entire system is enclosed in a metallic container containing an inlet for flue gases and an outlet for filtered
gases.
• The entire system is enclosed in a metallic container containing an inlet for flue gases and an outlet for filtered
gases.

• There are plenty of free electrons as the electrodes are ionized, which interact with the dust particles of the gas,
making them negatively charged.

• These particles move towards positive electrodes and fall off due to gravitational force.

• The flue gas is free from the dust particles as it flows through the electrostatic precipitator and is discharged to the
atmosphere through the chimney.
Efficiency of ESP
▪ The efficiency (η) of an electrostatic precipitator is related to its capacity of collecting ionized particles.
▪ The formula for electrostatic precipitator efficiency
 Efficiency of ESP

❑ Factors that affect the efficiency of ESP

▪ Corona power ratio
▪ The ability to collect dust from the flue gases
▪ The particle size ❑ Factors that affect the corona discharge
▪ Atmospheric conditions
▪ Condition of conductors
▪ Spacing between conductors
Types of ESP
1. Plate precipitator:

▪ Most basic precipitator type

▪ Consists of rows of thin vertical wires and stack of vertically arranged large flat metal
plates that are placed at a distance of 1cm to 18cm apart.

▪ Air stream is passed horizontally through the vertical plates and then through the large
stack of plates.

▪ In order to ionize the particles, a negative voltage is applied between the wire and the
plate.

▪ These ionized particles are then diverted towards the grounded plates using
electrostatic force.

▪ When the particles get collected on the collection plate, they are removed from the air
stream.
2. Dry electrostatic precipitator:

▪ Used to collect pollutants like ash or cement in a dry state.

▪ It consists of electrodes through which the ionized particles are

made to flow through and a hopper through which the collected

particles are extracted out.

▪ The dust particles are collected from a stream of air by

hammering the electrodes.

3. Wet electrostatic precipitator

▪ Used to remove resin, oil, tar, paint that are wet in

nature.

▪ It consists of collectors that are continuously sprayed

with water making the collection of ionized particles

from the sludge.

▪ more efficient than dry ESPs.

4. Tubular precipitator

▪ It is a single-stage unit consisting of tubes with high

voltage electrodes that are arranged parallel to each other
such that they are running on their axis.

▪ The arrangement of the tubes could either be circular or

square or hexagonal honeycomb with gas either flowing
upwards or downwards.

▪ The gas is made to pass through all the tubes.

▪ Used for the sticky particles removal.

Advantages of ESP
▪ Durability is high.

▪ Can be used for the collection of both dry and wet impurities.

▪ Low operating costs.

▪ Collection efficiency of the device is high even for small particles.

▪ Can handle large gas volumes and heavy dust loads at low pressures.
Disadvantages of ESP
▪ Can’t be used for gaseous emissions.

▪ Require more space

▪ High capital investment

▪ Not adaptable to change in operating conditions

❑ Dry ESP ❑ Wet ESP
❖ Advantages
❖ Advantages
▪ Can be designed for wide range of gas stream
temperature (to 700 C) ▪ Washing of collectors eliminates re-entrainment of
▪ Dry collection may lead to easier handling of captured
PM due to rapping
PM
▪ Humid atmosphere allows collection of PM with high
❖ Disadvantages
▪ Explosion hazard when treating combustible gases or PM resistivity, sticky particles and mists, and absorption of
▪ Certain PM have too high or too low resistivity for
soluble gases
effective collection
❖ Disadvantages
▪ Not recommended for collection of sticky or moist
materials ▪ Inlet gas stream temperature
 Electrostatic Precipitator Wet Scrubber

It is a single-stage system. It is a multi-stage system.

It sprays numerous dry agents making a powderish brittle It sprays water or some aqueous solution to create a slug for
product for the exhaust stream. the exhaust stream.

Unable to remove corrosive or highly toxic gasses able to remove corrosive gasses from the incoming source

This system is comparatively lighter in weight and more The accumulation of the collected slug makes this system very
compact for industrial use. heavy.
Cyclone Separators
▪ Cyclone separators/cyclones/cyclonic scrubber are separation devices
(dry scrubbers) that use the principle of inertia/centrifugal
sedimentation to remove particulate matter from flue gases.

▪ It is one of many air pollution control devices known as precleaners since

they generally remove larger pieces of particulate matter.

▪ Cyclonic scrubbers can be used to removal of 10µm size particles

▪ Their size can be variable as per requirement

▪ Cyclone collector is used for the 5 to 25µm size particles.

▪ The cleaning efficiency for cyclonic separator may be as high as 90% for
particulates of 5-10µm size.
▪ Used for course particulate removal

▪ Typically used as pre-filter

▪ Can function at high temperatures without

moving parts

▪ Efficiency greatly depends on particle size

▪ Inlet swirling action moves suspended

particles to walls then drops out

▪ A cyclone separator has several colloquial names. These names include ‘dust separator’, ‘dust
collector’, ‘dust extractor’, ‘cyclone extractor’ and ‘cyclone separator’.

▪ Generally, smaller units are referred to as ‘dust’ separators or extractors, whilst large scale
industrial separators are referred to as ‘cyclone separators’.

▪ Cyclonic separation is a method of removing particulates from an air, gas or liquid stream,
without the use of filters, through vortex separation.

▪ When removing particulate matter from liquid, a hydrocyclone is used; while from gas, a gas
cyclone is used.

▪ Rotational effects and gravity are used to separate mixtures of solids and fluids.

▪ The method can also be used to separate fine droplets of liquid from a gaseous stream.
❑ Working principle
▪ Cyclone separators work much like
a centrifuge, but with a continuous feed of
dirty air.
▪ In a cyclone separator, dirty flue gas is fed
into a chamber.
▪ The inside of the chamber creates a spiral
vortex, similar to a tornado.
▪ The lighter components of this gas have
less inertia, so it is easier for them to be
influenced by the vortex and travel up it.
▪ Contrarily, larger components of particulate
matter have more inertia and are not as
easily influenced by the vortex.
▪ Since these larger particles have difficulty following the high-speed

spiral motion of the gas and the vortex, the particles hit the inside

walls of the container and drop down into a collection hopper.

▪ These chambers are shaped like an upside-down cone to promote

the collection of these particles at the bottom of the container.

▪ The cleaned flue gas escapes out the top of the chamber.

▪ Most cyclones are built to control and remove particulate matter

that is larger than 10µm in diameter.

▪ Cyclones operate to collect relatively large size PM from a gaseous stream, and can operate at
elevated temperatures.

▪ Cyclones are typically used for the removal of particles 50 microns (µm) or larger.

▪ Efficiencies greater than 90% for particle sizes of 10 µm or greater are possible, and efficiency
increases exponentially with particle diameter and with increased pressure drop through the cyclone.

▪ Cyclones are widely used; they control pollutants from cotton gins, rock crushers, and many other
industrial processes that contain relatively large particulate in the gas stream.

▪ They can be use to remove either solid particles or liquid droplets.

 Gas Cyclone Separators
▪ two main categories, reverse-flow and axial-flow.
1. Reverse flow cyclone separators

▪ These are cone shaped.

▪ Gas enters the top of the separator body, flows

downwards, then flows back upwards and is discharged.
Reverse flow
2. Axial flow cyclone separators

▪ In these cyclone separators, gas enters at one end and is

discharged at the opposite end.

▪ Axial flow separators are not as common as reverse flow

separators.

Axial flow
❑ Performance & Collection Efficiency

▪ Linear increases with: particle density, gas stream velocity, and rotational passes

▪ Linear decrease with fluid viscosity

▪ Exponential increase with particle diameter

❑ Cyclone Advantages ❑ Cyclone Disadvantages
• Low cost • Inefficient collection of small PM
• Simple; no moving parts • Unable to handle sticky or tacky PM
• Low pressure drop compared to PM removed • Increase in collection efficiency only with high pressure
• Wide temperature & pressure capabilities drop
• Dry collection of PM

• Relatively small space requirement

Baghouse filter

▪ One of the most efficient devices for removing

suspended particulates is an assembly of fabric-
filter bags, commonly called a baghouse.

▪ comprises an array of long, narrow bags-each

about 25 cm (10 inches) in diameter-that are
suspended upside down in a large enclosure.

▪ Dust-laden air is blown upward through the

bottom of the enclosure by fans.

▪ Particulates are trapped inside the filter bags,

while the clean air passes through the fabric and
exits at the top of the baghouse.
▪ A baghouse, also known as a baghouse filter, bag filter, or fabric filter is an air pollution
control device and dust collector that removes particulates or gas released from commercial
processes out of the air.

▪ Most baghouses use long, cylindrical bags (or tubes) made of woven or felted, Polyester,
Polypropylene, Aramid, Rayton, Fiberglass, PTFE as a filter medium.

▪ For applications where there is relatively low dust loading and gas temperatures are 250°F
(121°C) or less, pleated, nonwoven cartridges are sometimes used as filtering media instead of
bags.

▪ Fabric filter bags are oval or round tubes, typically 15–30 feet long and 5 to 12 inches in diameter,
made of woven or felted material.
▪ A fabric-filter dust collector can remove very nearly 100% of particles as small as 1μm and a
significant fraction of particles as small as 0.01μm.

▪ Fabric filters, however, offer relatively high resistance to airflow, which leads to substantial energy
usage for the fan system.

▪ In addition, in order to prolong the useful life of the filter fabric, the air to be cleaned must be cooled
(usually below 300°C) before it is passed through the unit; cooling coils needed for this purpose add
to the energy usage.

▪ Certain filter fabrics, e.g., those made of ceramic or mineral materials—can operate at higher
temperatures.
▪ The bags are cleaned by removing the excess layer of surface dust.

▪ This is done in several different ways:

✓ by mechanically shaking them;

✓ by temporarily reversing the flow of air and causing them to collapse; or

✓ by sending a short burst of air down through the bag, causing it to briefly expand.

▪ After the dust is removed from the filters, it falls into a hopper below and can be collected for disposal or
further use.

▪ In most filter types the filter itself is only a substrate that allows for the formation of a layer of dust cake,
which then captures the majority of the particulates.

▪ Filters with an applied membrane coating such as polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) do not require the use of
dust cake to operate at their highest efficiency.
▪ Fabric filters, also commonly referred to as bag houses, are used in many industrial applications.

▪ They operate in a manner similar to a household vacuum cleaner.

▪ Common materials for these filters include paper, cotton, Nomex, polyester, fiberglass, Teflon, and even
spun stainless steels.

▪ Bag houses maximize the filtration area by configuring the fabric filter media into a series of long small-
diameter fabric tubes referred to as “bags”.

▪ Fabric filters can collect over 99.9% of the entering particulates, even fine PM.
❑ Baghouse Description
▪ Particles trapped on filter media, then removed
▪ Either interior or exterior filtration systems
▪ Up to 99.9% efficiency
▪ Efficiency increases with use; decreases after cleaning
▪ 4 types of cleaning systems –
1. Shaker (off-line)
2. Reverse air (low pressure, long time, off line)
3. Pulse jet (60 to 120 psi air, on line)
4. Sonic horn (150 to 550 Hz @ 120 to 140 dB, on line)
Types of baghouses

▪ Baghouses are classified by the cleaning method used.

▪ The three most common types of baghouses are mechanical shakers, reverse gas, and pulse jet.
❑ Baghouse Advantages ❑ Baghouse Disadvantages

▪ Extremely high collection of coarse and fine PM ▪ Limited to operating temperature

▪ Insensitive to gas stream fluctuations ▪ Certain gas stream constituents can form dioxin

▪ Available in large number of configurations ▪ Concentrations of some dusts susceptible to fire

▪ Collected material is recovered dry ▪ Care is required to prevent corrosion

▪ Collection efficiency not effected by PM resistivity ▪ Relatively high maintenance requirements

▪ Special catalyst-impregnated bags available ▪ Fabric can plug with hygroscopic, tacky material
HEPA filters (High Efficiency Particulate Air)

▪ HEPA is a type of pleated mechanical air

filter.

▪ HEPA theoretically remove at least 99.97%

of dust, pollen, mold, bacteria, and any
airborne particles with a size of 0.3 µm.

▪ Minimum Efficiency Reporting Values

(MERVs), report a filter's ability to capture
larger particles between 0.3 and 10 µm.
❑ Mechanism
▪ HEPA filters are composed of a mat of randomly arranged fibers.

▪ The fibers are typically composed of polypropylene or fiberglass with diameters between 0.5 and
2.0 µm.

▪ Most of the time, these filters are composed of tangled bundles of fine fibers.

▪ Particles are trapped (they stick to a fiber) through a combination of the following three
mechanisms:

▪ The four primary filter collection mechanisms:

• diffusion,
• interception,
• inertial impaction, and
• electrostatic attraction
❑ HEPA Filter Advantages
▪ Specifically designed for collection of submicron PM
▪ Insensitive to major fluctuations in process stream
▪ Very simple operation
▪ Provisions included for sensitive in-place testing
▪ Filters are usually changed outside of housing

❑ HEPA Filter Disadvantages

▪ Media irreversibly damaged by mechanical stresses, high temperature, or high humidity
▪ Frequent filter changes are usual (filters cannot be cleaned)
▪ Spent filters may generate a large volume of secondary waste with high disposal restrictions
Scrubber
▪ Scrubbers are using liquid to wash
unwanted pollutants from a gas stream.

▪ Scrubbers remove the unwanted gases and

particulate matter from industrial
smokestacks before they enter
the atmosphere.

▪ Scrubber systems such as chemical

scrubbers, and gas scrubbers are a diverse
group of air pollution control devices.
Working of Scrubber

▪ A scrubber is a cleaning installation whose main purpose is to neutralize harmful components in

industrial air or waste gas streams.

▪ The removal of gas particles causing many problems from the gas stream during the process is
necessary before disposing of the gases in the open air.

▪ The installation functions by bringing a gas stream in contact with a washing liquid.

▪ Due to this contact, certain gaseous components dissolve and remain in the water.

▪ There is a transfer of the components from the gas phase to the liquid phase. This is
the absorption process.
Broad category of scrubbers
▪ Wet Scrubbers and dry scrubbers

❑ Wet Scrubbers: more common and efficient

▪ Wet scrubbers force the polluted fumes to pass

through a wet limestone slurry/water/caustic solution
which traps sulfur particles.

▪ These can be used to control particulate matter less

than 10 µm as well as inorganic gases such as SO2, H2S,
NH3, and various chlorides and fluorides.

▪ Wet scrubbers may also be useful to control volatile

organic compounds i.e. VOCs.
❑ Dry Scrubbers
▪ Dry scrubbers have an efficiency of more
than 90% for removing SO2 under the right
conditions.

▪ Other contaminants treated by dry

scrubbers are polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons i.e. PAHs, HF, HCL, and
heavy metals.
Types of Scrubber
▪Liquid-Gas i.e. wet scrubber or Gas-Solid powder i.e. dry scrubber.

❑ Wet Scrubbers ❑ Dry Scrubbers

▪ Packed bed scrubbers

▪ Venturi scrubbers

▪ Spray towers

▪ Cyclone spray chambers

▪ Orifice scrubbers
▪ In the scrubber system, the exhaust gas is passed in the column from downside and
scrubbing solution/material is sprayed at top.

▪ Spray-tower scrubbers can remove 90% of particulates larger than about 8 μm.

▪ Orifice scrubbers removal efficiencies of about 90% for particles larger than 2 μm.

▪ Venturi scrubbers are the most efficient of the wet collectors, can remove of more
than 98% for particles larger than 0.5 μm in diameter.
 Venturi Scrubber with Cyclone
Separator and Mist Eliminator
Spray Tower

Diagram of a Venturi Scrubber System

Venturi scrubbers
▪ A venturi scrubber is designed to effectively use the energy from a
high-velocity inlet gas stream to atomize the liquid being used to
scrub the gas stream.

▪ Venturis can be used to collect both particulate and gaseous

pollutants.

▪ Venturi scrubbers use an hourglass-shaped chamber through which

exhaust gases pass at high pressure.

▪ Scrubbing liquid enters the gas stream at a lower pressure.

▪ The high pressure of the gas turns the scrubbing liquid into a fine
mist, which traps gaseous and particulate matter into droplets.
▪ Unfortunately, this type of scrubber requires a lot of power to accommodate the high pressure
drops.

▪ A variation of the Venturi scrubber is the jet model.

▪ This type delivers the scrubbing liquid at high pressure into the narrowest part of the scrubber.

▪ While this method overcomes the extreme pressure drops, it does not operate as efficiently as a
standard Venturi scrubber.

▪ For a lower-cost method that removes both particulate and gaseous materials, a Venturi scrubber
may be the best option.
 Operating characteristics of venturi scrubbers
Liquid-inlet
Pollutant Pressure drop (Δp) Liquid-to-gas ratio (L/G) Removal efficiency
pressure (pL)

Gases 13–250 cm of water 2.7-5.3 L/m3 30-60%

< 7-100 kPa

Particles 50–250 cm of water 0.67-1.34 L/m3 90-99%

❑Performance & Efficiency Parameters For gas collection
▪ maximum equilibrium concentration in solution is described by Henry's law:
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
▪ Converting nitrogen oxides, into N2 and H2O with
the help of catalyst

▪ Reductant used: anhydrous ammonia, aqueous

ammonia (NH4OH), or a urea (CO(NH2)2) solution

▪ Used in Diesel engines

▪ Reduced NOx by 70-90%

▪ SCR of NOx using ammonia as the reducing agent

was patented in the United States by the Engelhard
Corporation in 1957.
❑SCR Description
▪ Ammonia or urea is injected into exhaust streams with plenty of oxygen to reduce nitrogen oxide to
nitrogen and oxygen

▪ Efficiency ranges from 70 to 90 percent

▪ Catalysts made from base and precious metals and zeolites

▪ Operating temperatures range from 600 to 1100°F

▪ SCR catalysts are made from various porous ceramic materials used as a support

▪ Catalyst: Platinum, Rhenium

▪ The catalyst is usually a mixture of titanium dioxide, vanadium pentoxide, and tungsten trioxide.
Q. “Selective Catalytic Reduction” is often seen in news is related to?

[A] Thermal power stations

[B] Bharat Stage - VI norms

[C] Nuclear power plants

[D] Stubble burning

Q. Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD), Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and Once-
through based condenser cooling (OTBCC) are terms used in the context of:

A. Nuclear Power Plants

B. Iron smelting process

C. Bharat Stage VI norms

D. Thermal Power Plants

❑Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD):

▪ It refers to a set of technologies used to remove SO2 from exhaust flue gases of fossil-fuel power plants.
▪ This is achieved through either a wet or a dry process.

❑Selective catalytic reduction (SCR):

▪ This technology is designed to permit nitrogen oxide (NOx) reduction reactions to take place in an oxidizing
atmosphere.

▪ It is termed "selective" as it reduces levels of NOx using ammonia as a reductant within a catalyst system.

❑Once-through based condenser cooling (OTBCC):

▪ EPA defines OTBCC as water passed through the main condensers in one or two passes for the purpose of
removing waste heat.

▪ It also applies to other types of large heat exchangers that use cooling water to remove heat in one or two
passes.
Bio-filtration
▪ Bio-filtration is a pollution control technique using a
bioreactor containing living material to capture and
biologically degrade pollutants.

▪ Common uses include the micro biotic oxidation of

contaminants in air.

▪ When specifically applied to air filtration and

purification, bio-filters use microorganisms to remove
air pollution.

▪ The air flows through a packed bed and the pollutant

transfers into a thin biofilm on the surface of the
packing material.
▪ Microorganisms including bacteria and fungi are immobilized in the biofilm and degrade the
pollutant.

▪ Biofilters operate to destroy VOCs and odors by microbial oxidation of these problem
compounds.

▪ They are most effective on water-soluble materials.

▪ The polluted air is passed through a wetted bed, which supports a biomass of bacteria that
absorb and metabolize pollutants.

▪ Efficiencies over 98%.

Flue-gas desulfurization (FGD)
▪ It is a set of technologies used to remove SO2
from exhaust flue gases of fossil-fuel power plants.

▪ For a typical coal-fired power station, FGD may

remove 90% or more of the SO2 in the flue gases.

▪ SO2 is an acid gas, and, therefore, the typical sorbent

slurries or other materials used to remove
the SO2 from the flue gases are alkaline.

▪ The reaction taking place in wet scrubbing using

a CaCO3 (limestone) slurry produces calcium
sulfite (CaSO3).
❑ FGD systems may involve wet scrubbing or dry scrubbing.

• In wet FGD systems, flue gases are brought in contact with an absorbent,
which can be either a liquid or a slurry of solid material. The Sulphur
dioxide dissolves in or reacts with the absorbent and becomes trapped in
it.

• In dry FGD systems, the absorbent is dry pulverized lime or limestone;

once absorption occurs, the solid particles are removed by means of
baghouse filters.
❑ Measures for NOx control

• Low NOx burners

• Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

• Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)

• NOx scrubbers

• Exhaust gas recirculation

• Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)

❑ Measures for VOC abatement
• Adsorption systems, using activated carbon, such as Fluidized Bed Concentrator

• Flares

• Thermal oxidizers

• Catalytic converters

• Biofilters

• Absorption (scrubbing)

• Cryogenic condensers

• Vapor recovery systems

❑ Acid Gas/SO2 control

• Wet scrubbers

• Dry scrubbers

• Flue-gas desulfurization
❑Combustion
✓ This method is applied when the pollutants are organic gases or vapours.

✓ The organic air pollutants are exposed to ‘flame or catalytic combustion’ when they are converted to less
harmful product carbon dioxide and product water.
❑Absorption
▪ In this technique, the polluted air containing gaseous
pollutants is passed through a scrubber carrying a
suitable liquid absorbent, which absorbs the harmful
gaseous pollutants present in the air.

❑Adsorption
▪ In this technique, the polluted air is passed through
porous solid adsorbents kept in suitable containers.

▪ The gaseous pollutants are adsorbed at the surface of the

porous solid, and clean air passes through.

❖ Example of adsorbent: Alumina gel, Silica gel, Zeolites, Activated carbon, Graphite
Filtration Efficiencies per Air Pollution Control Equipment
 Device Minimum Particle size (µm) Efficiency (%)

Gravitational settler > 50 < 50

Centrifugal collector 5 -25 50 - 90

Wet collector

Spray Tower > 10 < 80

Cyclonic > 2.5 < 80

Impingement > 2.5 < 80

Venturi > 0.5 < 99

Electrostatic precipitator >1 95 - 99

Fabric filtration <1 > 99

 Technique/Instrument/process Pollutant removed
Cyclones (Inertial separation) Large PM
Scrubbers (dry & wet) Mainly gases
Baghouse/Fabric, Mist filters, Cartridge filters PM
ESP (Electrostatic forces) PM
Settling chambers (gravity) PM
HEPA filters (High Efficiency Particulate Air) PM
Wet Gas Scrubbers (absorption) Gases
Biofilters VOCs, odour, H2S, Mercaptans (organic sulphides)
Adsorption (Activated C) VOC, hazardous air pollutants (HAPs)
Incineration/Combustion/thermal oxidizer VOCs, Fumes, hazardous organics, odour, PM
FGD/absorption Gases mainly SO2
Carbon sequestration Gases
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) NOx
Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) Gases
Packed tower Gases
Spray chamber Gases
Venturi scrubbers Both gases and PM
Catalytic reactors, catalysts VOCs, Gases
Question: In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally
considered in calculating the value of the Air Quality Index?
1.Carbon dioxide
2.Carbon monoxide
3.Nitrogen dioxide
4.Sulphur dioxide
PM10, PM2.5, Ozone,
5.Methane Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrogen
Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide,
Select the correct answer using the code given below. Lead, and Ammonia are
(a) 1, 2, and 3 only the eight contaminants
that comprise the air
(b) 2, 3, and 4 only quality index

(c) 1, 4, and 5 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
 Thank You

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Academy of Environmental Sciences and Agriculture

 10/19/2023

Air pollution dispersion modeling: Basics

(Gaussian Plume Dispersion Model)

Academy of Environmental Sciences and Agriculture

Model ?
A model is a simplified picture of reality or real situation.

It doesn’t contain all the features of the real system but contains the
features of interest for the management of issue or scientific problem we
wish to solve by its use.

Models are widely used in science to make predictions and/or to solve

problems, and are often used to identify the best solutions for the
management of specific environmental problems.
 10/19/2023

Air pollution measurements give important, quantitative information

about ambient concentrations and deposition of air pollutants, but they

can only describe air quality at specific locations and times, without

giving clear guidance on the identification of the causes of the air quality

problem.

 Air pollution modeling, instead, can give

 a more complete deterministic description of the air quality problem,

including an analysis of factors and causes (emission sources, meteorological
processes, and physical and chemical changes), and some guidance on the
implementation of mitigation measures.
 10/19/2023

Air pollution dispersion models

AQMs

Physical Statistical Deterministic

Wind tunnel Regrational Empirical Time Steady

Simulation dependent state

Box Grid Spectral Puff Trajectory Gaussian

Plume

Eulerian Lagrangian

What is air quality model ?

A mathematical relationship between emissions and air quality that incorporates
the transport, dispersion and transformation of compounds emitted into the air.

System approach to air quality model

 10/19/2023

Types of Pollution Sources

 Point Sources

• e.g., stacks or vents

 Line Sources

• e.g., Road

 Area Sources

• e.g., landfills, ponds, storage piles

Factors Affecting Dispersion of Pollutants In The Atmosphere

 Source Characteristics
Emission rate of pollutant
Stack height
Exit velocity of the gas
Exit temperature of the gas
Stack diameter

 Meteorological Conditions
Wind velocity
Wind direction
Ambient temperature
Atmospheric stability
 10/19/2023

Air pollution emission plume

 Plume: Flow of pollutant in the form of vapor or smoke released into the air.

 Plumes are of considerable importance in the atmospheric dispersion modelling of

air pollution.

Gaussian plume dispersion model

 The Gaussian model is perhaps the oldest (1936) and most commonly used model type.

 Gaussian models are most often used for predicting the dispersion of continuous, buoyant
air pollution plumes originating from ground-level or elevated sources.

 The Gaussian plume model is the most commonly used dispersion model to estimate the
concentration of a pollutant at a certain point because of its simplicity.

 Gaussian models may also be used for predicting the dispersion of non-continuous air
pollution plumes (called puff models).
10/19/2023
 10/19/2023

GPM equation
Basic equation

Where;
C( x, y, z ) = mean concentration of diffusing substance at a point ( x, y, z ) [µg/m3]
x = downwind distance [m],
y = crosswind /horizontal distance [m],
z = vertical distance above ground [m],
Q = emission rate of gases [µg/s],
σy = lateral/horizontal dispersion coefficient function [m],
σz = vertical dispersion coefficient function [m],
U = mean wind velocity in downwind direction [m/s],
H = effective stack height [m].
 10/19/2023

Assumptions

 Steady-state conditions, which imply that the rate of emission from the point source is constant.

 Homogeneous flow, which implies that the wind speed is constant both in time and with height (wind
direction shear is not considered).

 Pollutant is conservative and no gravity fallout.

 Perfect reflection of the plume at the underlying surface, i.e. no ground absorption.

 The turbulent diffusion in the x-direction is neglected relative to advection in the transport direction ,
which implies that the model should be applied for average wind speeds of more than 1 m/s (> 1 m/s).

 The coordinate system is directed with its x-axis into the direction of the flow, and the v (lateral) and w
(vertical) components of the time averaged wind vector are set to zero.

 The terrain underlying the plume is flat.

 All variables are ensemble averaged, which implies long-term averaging with stationary conditions.

Case-1: At any point on the ground level concentration (when Z=0)

z = vertical distance above ground [m],

C(x, y, 0) =
 10/19/2023

Case-2: ground level concentration (y=z=0)

y = crosswind /horizontal distance [m],
z = vertical distance above ground [m],

Its occur maximum when

Case-3: When H=0, Then concentration at ground centerline

 10/19/2023

Concentration vs Distance

Wind speed changes with elevation

 10/19/2023

P value for rough & smooth terrain

• For rough and smooth terrain p values are given in table.

• For smooth terrain (field/water bodies) p values are multiplied by 0.6. (rough terrain value*0.6).

• Atmospheric stability inversely correlated with p value.

 Table: p value for terrain (Peterson, 1978)

P value for P value for

Stability class Description
rough terrain smooth terrain
A Very unstable 0.15 0.15×0.6= 0.09

B Mod. Unstable 0.15 0.15×0.6= 0.09

C Slightly unstable 0.20 0.20×0.6= 0.12

D Neutral 0.25 0.25×0.6= 0.15

E Slightly stable 0.40 0.40×0.6= 0.24

F Stable 0.60 0.60×0.6= 0.36

Atmospheric stability classes

 10/19/2023

Gaussian dispersion coefficients (σy & σz)

• σy = lateral/horizontal dispersion coefficient function [m]
• σz = vertical dispersion coefficient function [m],

Where, a, c, d & f are constants

(values are given in table)

Values of a, c, d & F
 10/19/2023

Dispersion coefficient in selected downwind direction (km)

Plume rise (∆h)

• H is the sum of the physical

stack height and plume rise.
 10/19/2023

 For plume rise, Briggs (1972) formula recommended by EPA & BIS.

1. Briggs formula:
For stable condition:

Buoyancy flux parameter (m4/s3)

Represent the actual rate of

Stability parameter (s-2) change of ambient temp
with altitude (°C/m)
 10/19/2023

 For neutral or unstable condition:

Minimum stack height

• According to BIS, a minimum stack height should be of 30m.
 10/19/2023

 A minimum stack height of about 2.5 times of the height of the

surrounding building would prevent the formation of eddies and reduce
the maximum ground level concentrations.

 If the maximum ground level concentration of a pollutant should not

exceed X mg/m3 then minimum effective stack height (H) will be

Limitations of GPDM

 It does not take into account the inversion conditions,

chemical transformation, wet deposition or inhomogeneous
terrain.

 Unable to predict concentrations beyond radius of

approximately 20 Km.

 Not suitable if the pollutant is reactive in nature.

 10/19/2023

Discussion
of
some important
&
Previous years exams questions

Q. What is the output of the Gaussian plume model?

a) the concentration of the pollutant at various distances and heights from the source

b) the health effects of the pollutant on the population

c) the cost-benefit analysis of controlling the emission of the pollutant

d) the amount of the pollutant that needs to be emitted to meet the air quality standards
 10/19/2023

Q. What is the stability class in the Gaussian plume model?

a) a measure of the turbulence in the atmosphere
b) a measure of the temperature gradient in the atmosphere
c) a measure of the pressure gradient in the atmosphere
d) a measure of the moisture content in the atmosphere

Q. What are the assumptions of the Gaussian plume model?

a) the atmosphere is horizontally homogeneous and vertically stratified

b) the wind speed and direction are constant

c) the pollutant is emitted from a single point source

d) all of the above

 10/19/2023

Q. What is the Gaussian plume model used for?

a) to estimate the dispersion of air pollutants

b) to measure the concentration of air pollutants

c) to control the emission of air pollutants

d) to estimate the health effects of air pollutants

Q. What is the horizontal dispersion coefficient?

a. The rate at which pollutants settle to the ground

b. The rate at which pollutants diffuse horizontally

c. The rate at which pollutants are transported vertically

d. The rate at which pollutants are emitted from the source

 10/19/2023

Q. What is the ground-level concentration?

a. The concentration of pollutants at the ground level directly beneath the source

b. The average concentration of pollutants in the plume

c. The concentration of pollutants at a given distance downwind from the source

d. The maximum concentration of pollutants in the plume

Q. What is the output of the Gaussian plume model?

a) the concentration of the pollutant at various distances and heights from the source

b) the health effects of the pollutant on the population

c) the cost-benefit analysis of controlling the emission of the pollutant

d) the amount of the pollutant that needs to be emitted to meet the air quality standards
 10/19/2023

Q. In GPM, the plume rise, under neutral or unstable conditions, stack height

varies with the average wind speed (um) as

1) 1/u1/3

2) 1/u2

3) 1/u

4) u
 10/19/2023

Q. For an infinite line source Gaussian model, for a constant emission rate,
the concentration in cross wind direction for a given x-coordinate can be
stated as:
(A) independent of y-coordinate
(B) increases with +y direction and decreases with -y direction
(C) increases with -y direction and decreases with +y direction
(D) decreases exponentially with y-direction

Q. Which of the following processes is not simulated in Air Quality Modelling

(AQM)?

(A)Advection

(B)Diffusion

(C)Removal

(D)Evapo-transpiration
 10/19/2023

Q. According to Gaussian Plume Model, the downwind ground level

concentration (C) varies with effective stack height (H) of release as:

(A)ln(C) ∝ H-3/2

(B)ln(C) ∝ H-1/2

(C)ln(C) ∝ H-1

(D)ln(C) ∝ H-2