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Waste Management technologies

Academy of Environmental Sciences and Agriculture

 Waste

• Waste is a product or substance which is no longer suited for its intended use.

• Solid waste means any garbage or refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water
supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other discarded material, resulting
from industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural operations, and from community
activities.

• Solid-waste management means collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is
discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful.
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 Incineration/combustion
❑Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances
contained in waste materials.

❑It is a rapid oxidation process or dry oxidation process

❑Incineration is a exothermic process.

❑An incinerator is a furnace for burning waste.

❑The process consists of controlled burning of waste at high temp (1200- 1500°C).

❑Operated at high temp., so known as Thermal treatment

❑Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gas and heat.

❑In some cases, the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric
power.

❑The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste.

❑It is one of the most effective method of reducing the volume and weight of
municipal solid waste
❑The process can reduce MSW by about 90% (95-96%) in volume and 75% (80-85%) in weight.

❑It sterilizes and stabilizes the waste with reduction in the volume.

❑For complete oxidation the waste must be mixed with appropriate volume of air.

❑Approx. 5000kg of air is required for each tone of solid waste burned. It differs with moisture
content, heating values of waste and type of combustion .

❑Many different types of hazardous materials can be treated by incineration, including soil,
sludge, liquids, and gases.

❑Although it destroys many kinds of harmful chemicals, such as solvents, PCBs (polychlorinated
biphenyls), and pesticides, incineration does not destroy metals, such as lead and chromium.
❑Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy technologies

such as gasification, pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion.

❑While incineration and gasification technologies are similar in principle, the energy

produced from incineration is high-temperature heat whereas combustible gas is

often the main energy product from gasification.

• The first UK incinerators for waste disposal were built in Nottingham by Manlove,

Alliott & Co. Ltd. in 1874 to a design patented by Alfred Fryer.

• They were originally known as destructors.

• The first US incinerator was built in 1885 on Governors Island in New York, NY.

• The first facility in the Czech Republic was built in 1905 in Brno.
❑ Major objectives of incineration
1. Volume Reduction

2. Stabilization of waste

3. Recovery of energy from waste

4. Sterilization of waste

❑ Output of incineration are

▪ Solids: Fly and bottom ash, PM, heavy metals
▪ Liquids: hydrochloric acid
▪ Gaseous: CO2, dioxins, furans, sulfur dioxide, NOx, heavy metals, unpleasant odors

❑ The concerns over the health effects of dioxin and furan emissions have been significantly
lessened by advances in emission control designs and very stringent new governmental
regulations that have resulted in large reductions in the amount of dioxins and furans emissions
Types of incinerators:

1. Burn pile

✓ includes burning combustible material piles on the ground in an open area.

2. Burn barrel

✓ combustible material is placed inside a metal barrel and is burnt.

✓ This method avoids the spread of burning materials and the ash produced at the end of the
incineration settle down to the bottom of the barrel.
Types of incinerators:

3. Rotary-kiln

✓ A rotary-kiln is a type of incinerator.

✓ These incinerators are used in industrial scale applications.

✓ It has more equipment, and the incineration process is more advanced and complicated.
4. Fluidized bed

✓A strong airflow is forced

through a sandbed.

✓this method includes passing

heated air through a sand bed
until a fluidized bed condition is
created.

✓Then the waste particles are

introduced into this fluidized
bed.
5. Moving grate

✓ this is the typical type of incinerator

used in municipal waste
management processes.

✓ Moving grate incinerators are

sometimes referred to as municipal
solid waste incinerators (MSWIs)

✓ The combustion is more efficient

and is a complete
6. Multiple Hearth Incinerator
• Operating temperatures
ranging from 760- to 980℃.
Advantages of incineration

✓ The volume and weight of the waste are reduced to a fraction of its original size.

✓ Waste reduction is immediate, does not require long term residence.

✓ Waste can be incinerated on-site without carted to a distant area

✓ Air discharge can be effectively controlled for minimal impact on the atmospheric environment.

✓ The ash residue is usually non putrescible or sterile.

✓ Technology exists to completely destroy even most hazardous material in a complete effective manner.

✓ Requires relatively small disposal area compare to land burial.

 Disadvantages of incineration

✓ The capital cost is high

✓ Skilled operators are required

✓ All materials are not incinerable (construction and demolition waste).

✓ Supplemental fuel is required to initiate and at times to maintain the incineration process.

✓ The solid residue remaining in the furnace after incineration is called as bottom ash which ultimately go for
land disposal.

✓ Chances of air pollution due to fly ash emission

✓ Health hazards due to dioxin and furan emissions

 Pyrolysis
❑ Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition of organic material

❑ at elevated temperatures (450-550°C) in the absence of oxygen.

❑carried out in an inert atmosphere such as in the presence of vacuum gas.

❑ Pyrolysis is an endothermic process.

❑ Pyrolysis, is also called dry distillation, thermal decomposition or carbonization

❑ Pyrolysis utilizes thermal instability of the organic matter, in the absence of oxygen condition,
break large molecules into small molecules of fuel gas, liquid (oil, grease) and coke.
❑It involves the simultaneous changes of chemical composition and physical phase and is
irreversible.

❑It is considered as the first step in the processes of gasification or combustion.

❑Pyrolysis of organic substances produces gas and liquid products and leaves solid residue richer
in carbon content.

❑Produce solid (biochar), liquid and non-condensable gases (H2, CH4, CnHm, CO, CO2 and N).
• Feedstock for pyrolysis should have high calorific value with very less moisture content and
should be homogenous in nature.

• Many plastics, particularly the polyolefins, which have high calorific values and simple chemical
constitutions of primarily carbon and hydrogen, are usually used as a feedstock in pyrolysis.

• More recently, pyrolysis plants are being tested to degrade carbon-rich organic material such as
MSW.
❑Pyrolysis of biomass produces three products - a liquid, a gas and a solid:
1) Bio-oil: Bio-oil can be used as a low grade diesel oil.
2) Bio-char: is the solid material that is created in the process.
3) Syngas: CO2, CO, H2, light hydrocarbons

❑There are mainly two types of Pyrolysis systems.

1. Fast Pyrolysis: It optimizes bio-oil production by increasing the rate of pyrolysis temperature to
1000°C/second. This process yields approximately 60-70% bio-oil, 15-25% bio-char, and 10-15%
syngas.

2. Slow Pyrolysis: It uses slower heating rates and bio-char is the major end product.
• Plasma pyrolysis vitrification is a modified pyrolysis technology which employs
application of high voltage to decompose inorganic matter in waste stream
(extremely high temperature (5,000°C–14,000°C).
Which one is better?
 Which one is better?

Pyrolysis > Incineration

• Less pollution from the pyrolysis

• Pyrolysis produces less flue gas and have small content of heavy metals, dioxin and other
pollutant

• Pyrolysis is carried out under the condition of hypoxia, so there are fewer NOX, SOX, HCI and
other pollutants

• Pyrolysis operation is simple, convenient and safe

The EPA announced in 2012 that the safe limit for human oral consumption for dioxin and furan
is 0.7 picograms Toxic Equivalence (TEQ) per kilogram bodyweight per day.
 Gasification

• Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil-based carbonaceous materials at high

temperatures (>700°C or 800-1200°C), without combustion, with a controlled/little amount of
oxygen and/or steam into carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide.

• Gasification is a thermal conversion process – as is combustion – in which both heat and a

combustible product gas are produced.

• One method of gasification, referred to as ―partial oxidation, is very similar to combustion

except that it occurs with insufficient oxygen supply for complete combustion to occur.

• In a second method, the biomass is indirectly heated in the absence of oxygen or air, with
steam as the oxidizing agent.
• The product gas is either a medium-energy content gas referred to as synthetic
gas or syngas or a low-energy content gas often referred to as producer gas.

• Syngas = CO, H2, CO2, and CH4

• Producer gas = Gas mixture containing CO, H2, CO2 and N2

 Types of Gasifiers

• Gasification technology is selected on the basis of available fuel quality, capacity range, and gas
quality conditions.

• The main reactors used for gasification of MSW are fixed beds and fluidized beds.

1. Fixed Beds

• Fixed bed gasifiers typically have a grate to support the feed material and maintain a stationary
reaction zone.

• They are relatively easy to design and operate, and are therefore useful for small and medium scale
power and thermal energy uses.

• The two primary types of fixed bed gasifiers are updraft and downdraft.
2. Fluidised Beds
▪ Fluidized bed are preferred for gasification of
MSW as it can be used with multiple fuels,
offers relatively compact combustion
chambers and good operational control.

Thermal Capacity of Different Gasifier Design

basic gasifier designs
Emerging Trends in gasification

❑Plasma gasification or plasma discharge

• Plasma gasification or plasma discharge uses extremely high temperatures in an oxygen-starved
environment to completely decompose input waste material into very simple molecules in a
process similar to pyrolysis.

• The heat source is a plasma discharge torch, a device that produces a very high temperature
plasma gas.
 Parameter Incineration/combustion Pyrolysis Gasification
In controlled amount of O2
In presence of O2
(less than stoichiometric
Oxidising agent (greater than stoichiometric In absence of O2
supply of O2)
supply of O2)

Temperature 1200- 1500°C 450-550°C >700°C or 800-1200°C

Oil, tar, heat, Combustible Heat, Combustible liquids

Principle products Heat, flue gases
liquids and gases and gases
Principle component gas
CO2 and H2O CO and H2 CO and H2

Operating pressure Atmospheric Higher or Atmospheric Atmospheric

Reaction exothermic process endothermic process endothermic process

Dioxin and furans, Tar, particulates and oxides Tar, particulates and oxides
Pollutants
particulates of S, chlorine and N of S, chlorine and N
 Torrefaction

❑Torrefaction: It converts biomass in the absence of

oxygen at a temperature of 200–300°C to produce
torrefied materials, bio-oils, biochar, etc.

❑Torrefaction changes biomass properties to provide a

better fuel quality for combustion
and gasification applications.

❑The difference between the two processes is that

torrefaction employs milder temperatures of 200–300
°C in comparison to slow pyrolysis 350–700 °C, when
conducted at low heating rates.
• Torrefied biomass is the most elegant solution to convert raw biomass into a
coal-like material.

• The final product is the remaining solid, dry, blackened material that is referred
to as torrefied biomass or bio-coal.

• During the process, the biomass typically loses 20% of its mass (bone dry basis)
and 10% of its heating value, with no appreciable change in volume.
 Discussion of some important
&
Previous years exams questions
Q. In the context of which one of the following are the terms ‘pyrolysis and plasma gasification’ mentioned?

(a) Extraction of rare earth elements

(b) Natural gas extraction technologies

(c) Hydrogen fuel-based automobiles

(d) Waste-to-energy technologies

Q. Consider the following statements on Pyrolysis.
1.Pyrolysis is the burning of a substance in the absence of oxygen.
2.Pyrolysis normally takes place at temperatures ranging from 500 to 600 degrees Celsius.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Bothe 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Q. Which of the following factors influence pyrolysis?
1.Temperature
2.Particle Size
3.Material Composition
4.Physical Structure
Choose the correct answer using the following codes
(a) 1 and 3 Only
(b) 1, 2 and 3 Only
(c) 1 and 4 Only
(d) All of the above
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Academy of Environmental Sciences and Agriculture

Effluents Standards of Industries/Factories

RSPCB JSO Exam

Textile Industry
Tannery Industry

PAPER
Dairy Industry
Distillery Industry
Pharmaceutical Industry

2010
Organic Chemical Industry
Vegetable Oil Refinery
Sugar Industry
Thermal Power Plants
CETPs
STPs

Academy of Environmental Sciences and Agriculture

Both in Hindi & English
 Textile industry
▪ It is largest industries in the world and different fibres such as cotton, silk, wool as well as
synthetic fibres are all pre‐treated, processed, coloured and after treated using large amounts of
water and a variety of chemicals.

▪ Various Organic substances such as dyes, starches and detergents in effluent undergo chemical
and biological changes which consume dissolved oxygen from the receiving stream and destroy
aquatic life.
❑All stakeholders to utilize three tools for improvements
STANDARDS FOR DISCHARGE OF EFFLUENTS FROM TEXTILE INDUSTRY
 Tannery industry
▪ Leather industry in India accounts for around 13% of the world’s leather production
of hides/skins and annual production of about 3 bn sq. ft. of leather.

▪ Tanning is the process of treating skins and hides of animals to produce leather.

▪ Leather tannery sector has been categorized as one of the 17 categories of highly
polluting industries by CPCB.

▪ There are a large number of small, micro and medium sized tannery units operating
in India.

▪ The process operations in these units are highly polluting in nature.

❑Beamhouse operations
• The steps in the production of leather between curing and tanning are
collectively referred to as beamhouse operations.

• They include, in order, soaking, liming, removal of extraneous tissues (unhairing,

scudding and fleshing), deliming, bating or puering, drenching, and pickling.
Chrome tanning

▪ Chromium(III) sulfate ([Cr(H2O)6]2(SO4)3) has long been regarded as the most efficient
and effective tanning agent.

▪ Chromium(III) compounds of the sort used in tanning are significantly less toxic
than hexavalent chromium, although the latter arises in inadequate waste treatment.

▪ Chromium(III) sulfate dissolves to give the hexaaquachromium(III) cation, [Cr(H2O)6]3+,

which at higher pH undergoes processes called olation to give polychromium(III)
compounds that are active in tanning, being the cross-linking of the collagen subunits.
❑Tawing
▪ Tawing is a method that uses alum and other aluminum salts, generally in
conjunction with binders such as egg yolk, flour, or other salts.

▪ The hide is tawed by soaking in a warm potash alum and salts solution, between 20
and 30°C.

▪ The process increases the hide's stretchability, softness, and quality.

 Effluents
limits after
primary
treatment
Environment
(Protection)
Fourth
Amendment
Rules, 2021

These
standards
shall come
into force on
the 1st day of
July 2022.
Dairy industry
• The dairies/gaushalas may be categorized on the basis of nos. of animals (adult
cows & female buffaloes) in a dairy/gaushala i.e.

1. Category-I (upto 25 animals),

2. Category-II (26-50 animals),

3. Category-III (51-75 animals),

4. Category-IV (76-100 animals) and

5. Category-V (above 100 animals).

Distillery industry
• India is the largest sugar consumer and second largest producer of sugar and
molasses.

• It is also the fourth largest producer of alcohol in the world while being the
leading producer of alcohol in the South-East Asian region with about 65% of the
total share.

• The major raw material for distilleries is molasses, a waste byproduct of sugar
mills and grains
Q. Bagasse, Molasses, Press mud are some of the types of ____.

A) refined sugar

B) by-products of sugar

C) raw sugar

D) Alcohol residue
▪ 1 litre alcohol production required: 8-15 litre water (12
lit)

▪ Bagasse, molasses and press mud are sugarcane

residues or by-products.

❑Bagasse:
▪ It is the dry pulpy fibrous excess that remains, after
sugarcane/sorghum stalks are smashed and the juice is
extracted.
❑ Molasses:

• Molasses or black treacle is a juice extracted from crushing or smashing sugarcane and
it is boiled in order to concentrate it.

• Molasses differ based on the amount of sugar, method of extraction, and age of the
plant.

• Molasses are used as the principal ingredient in the distillation of rum.

❑ Press mud:

• The utilization of press mud is for fertilizers in both unprocessed and processed form.

• Press mud is also a residue or left over from sugarcane after extraction of juice.

• Press mud is also called filter cake or press cake.

• It is used to produce top quality bio manure.

 Process flow
diagram for alcohol
production from
sugarcane juice

Spent wash is the residual

liquid waste generated
during alcohol production
and pollution caused by
it is one of the most critical
environmental issues.
Thermal Power Plant standards
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Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)
श्रेणीबद्ध प्रतिक्रिया कायय योजना (जीआरएपी)

For Competitive exams

o RSPCB, CPCB, SPCB Exam
o Environmental Scientist
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Academy of Environmental Sciences and Agriculture

 Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)

▪ GRAP is a set of emergency measures that kick in to prevent further deterioration of air
quality once it reaches a certain threshold in the Delhi-NCR region.

▪ It was approved by the Supreme Court in 2016 after the Supreme Court’s order in the matter
of M. C. Mehta vs. Union of India (2016).

▪ The Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change (MoEF&CC) notified the plan in
2017.

▪ Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) implements the Graded Response Action
Plan.
▪ Till 2020, the Supreme Court-appointed Environment Pollution (Prevention & Control)
Authority (EPCA) used to order States to implement GRAP measures.

▪ The EPCA was dissolved and replaced by the Commission for Air Quality Management
(CAQM) in 2020.

▪ From 2021 onwards, the GRAP is being implemented by the CAQM.

▪ CAQM relies on air quality and meteorological forecasts by the Indian Institute of Tropical
Meteorology (IITM) and the India Meteorological Department (IMD).
▪ Graded Response Action Plan has been prepared for implementation under

different Air Quality Index (AQI) categories namely, Moderate to Poor, Very Poor,

and Severe.

▪ Later on, a new category of “Severe+ or Emergency” has been added.

▪ Total categories (4): Moderate to Poor, Very Poor, Severe and Severe+ or

Emergency.
▪ CAQM is a statutory mechanism to coordinate and oversee diverse efforts to
improve air quality in Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and UP, with the
underlying remedial approach.

▪ GRAP works only as an emergency measure in case of deteriorating air quality in

Delhi- NCR. The plan requires action and coordination among 13 different agencies
in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan (NCR areas).
Stages of GRAP

Stage AQI AQI Value PM2.5 level (µg/m3) PM10 level (µg/m3)

Stage I Moderate to Poor 201-300 61-120 101-350

Stage II Very Poor 301-400 212-250 351-430

Stage III Severe 401-450 251-300 431-500

Stage IV Severe Plus > 450 > 300 > 500

GRAP - Stage 1
GRAP - Stage 2
GRAP - Stage 3
GRAP - Stage 4
▪ Recently, the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) has said that the
measures under the “very poor” and “severe” category of the Graded Response Action
Plan (GRAP) will kick in only when the air quality deteriorates further and stays in
prescribed levels for 48 hours.

▪ Environment Protection Charge (EPC): In 2016, the SC imposed an EPC of 1% on the

sale of 2000cc and above diesel cars in Delhi and NCR.

▪ Environment Compensation Charge (ECC): In the year 2015, the SC imposed ECC on
trucks entering Delhi.
Government Initiatives to Combat Air Pollution?

▪ Graded Response Action Plan (Delhi)

▪ Polluter Pay principle

▪ Smog Tower

▪ Tallest Air Purifier

▪ National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)

▪ BS-VI vehicles
▪ New Commission for Air Quality Management

▪ Turbo Happy Seeder (THS)

▪ Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research (SAFAR)

▪ Dashboard for Monitoring Air Quality

▪ National Air Quality Index (AQI)

▪ Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

▪ Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY)

System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting And Research (SAFAR)

▪ It is a national initiative introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) in 2010 to

measure the air quality of a metropolitan city, by measuring the overall pollution level and
the location-specific air quality of the city.

▪ The system is indigenously developed by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology

(IITM), Pune.

▪ Operationalized by the India Meteorological Department (IMD), New Delhi.

▪ It is currently operationalized in metros Delhi, Pune, Mumbai and Ahmedabad.

▪ It has a giant true color LED display that gives out real-time air quality index on a 24x7
basis with color-coding (along with 72 hours advance forecast).

▪ SAFAR is an integral part of India’s first Air Quality Early Warning System operational in
Delhi.

▪ It monitors all weather parameters like temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed,
and wind direction, UV radiation, and solar radiation.

▪ Pollutants monitored: PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, and Mercury.
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