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Lectures 2-3
PRAGMATIC ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION

1. Concept of pragmatics
2. Author’s communicative intention
3. Communicative effect upon the receptor
4. Translator’s impact
5. Translation of pragmatic idioms
6. Pragmatic adaptation of a target text: adding explications
7. Reproduction of speech acts
8. Reproduction of indirect speech acts in translation
9. Transposition of a directive into an indirect directive-quesitive
10. Transposition of a constative into a rhetoric question
11. Translation of rhetoric questions
12. Translation of signs and notices
13. Peculiarities of using numbers and measurement unit conversion
in English translation
14. Reproduction of Politeness and Political Politeness in translation
15. Political correctness in naming older people
16. Political correctness in naming people of different ethnic
(national) or race groups

1. Concept of pragmatics.
Semiotics (the science investigating the general properties of sign
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system) distinguishes the following types of relations: semantic (sign to

object), syntactic (sign to sign) and pragmatic (sign to man). One of the most
essential requirements imposed on translation is that the two texts (the original
and its translation) should semantically be equivalent. In other words, they
should have the equivalent sets of relationships between the linguistic signs
and their referents. The goal of translation is to produce a text bearing the
same extralinguistic situation as the original. Semantic equivalence of
messages does not necessarily imply the semantic identity of each linguistic
sign. Semantically equivalent utterances include not only those made of
semantically identical signs ( e.g. He lives in Kyiv – Він живе в Києві), but
also utterances comprising different sets of signs which in their totality yield
the same type of relationship to the extralinguistic world denoting the same
extralinguistic situation (e.g. “Wet” or “Fresh paint” – Обережно,
пофарбовано! Keep off the grass. – По газонах не ходити!).
People develop a certain attitude to the words they use. Some of the
words acquire definite implications, they evoke a positive or negative
response, they are associated with certain theories, beliefs, likes or dislikes.
Words can be nice or ugly, attractive or repulsive. Such relationships between
the word and its users are called “pragmatic”.
The pragmatic implications of a word are an important part of its
meaning that produces a certain effect upon the Receptor. Of even greater
significance is the pragmatic aspect of speech units. Every act of speech
communication is meant for a certain Receptor, it is aimed at producing a
certain effect upon him. In this respect any communication is an exercise in
pragmatics.
Pragmatics is a study of the use of language in communication,
particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and
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situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of:
• how the interpretation and the use of utterances depends on
knowledge of the real world;
• how speakers use and understand speech acts;
• how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship
between the speaker and the hearer.
There are two types of language sign users: an addresser (author) and
an addressee (receptor). When speaking, an addresser has a communicative
intention, or purpose of the speech act. An utterance has a communicative
effect on the receptor: it can inform a receptor of something, or cause some
feelings, etc. A communicative effect is virtual: e.g., an advertising text may
persuade a receptor to buy something but the receptor may remain indifferent
to the promotion. The potential effect of the utterance is its functional force.
The communicative effect may override both literal sense and functional
force and add further consequences depending on the situation. For example,
Shut the door is imperative in a sense. Its communicative intention may be to
carry the force of a request, but the communicative effect could be to annoy
the receiver. Communicative intention does not always coincide with the
communicative effect. A vulgar anecdote, told to make the audience laugh,
may have a contrary effect of disgusting the listeners.
In terms of linguistic pragmatics, developed by J. Austen, the three types
of relations are locution (reference and the utterance sense), illocution
(communicative intention and functional force), and perlocution
(communicative effect).
The adequate translation is the one whose communicative effect is close
to that of the source text; at best, its communicative effect coincides with the
author’s communicative intention. Regarding this principle, P. Newmark
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introduced two types of translation – communicative translation, which

attempts to produce on its receptors an effect as close as possible to that
produced on the readers of the original, and semantic translation, which
attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the
second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Taking
these concepts into consideration, the sentence Beware of the dog! could be
rendered as Обережно, злий пес! (communicative translation) or
Стережіться собаки! (semantic translation).
As it has already been mentioned, the communicative effect of the
source and target text upon the receptor should be similar. A lot depends on
the functional style (register), genre, language and speech norms. Neither of
them can be changed in translation because, ultimately, they make up the
functional force of the text, so important from the point of view of pragmatics.
Disregard of the style or register produces a strange impact upon the
receptor. Imagine a person declaring love in a businesslike manner – he will
not be esteemed in the proper way.
Very often genre requirements of the text are so strict that they cannot
but be met in translation, or the target text may be spoiled. For instance, when
translating patents, one should observe all the elements of the structure and the
necessary formulas and set phrases.
Shifting a set of language units leads to changes in text perception. For
example, a scientific text is characterized by impersonal constructions, such
as passive voice and indefinite structures. If a text is abundant in personal
pronouns, interjections and other expressive means, it will never be considered
as belonging to the scientific register.
Incorrect choice of words may result in comic consequences contrary to
the expectations of the text author. A. Chuzhakin in his practicum-book “Мир
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перевода- 2” quotes a number of signs and notices discovered in different

countries. They are funny because of the violation of speech and English
language norms (incorrect meanings and collocations). A notice in a Bucharest
hotel lobby: The lift is being fixed for the next day. During that time we regret
that you will be unbearable. An ad in a Greek tailor shop: Order your summer
suit. Because in big rush we execute customers in strict rotation.
Thus, a translator should have a good command not only of the target
language but also of the style and genre requirements, in particular of style and
genre distinctive features in the two languages.
Sometimes the translator faces the contradiction between a text form and
its function. In this case, the function predominates. It is the text function that
should be kept in translation first and foremost, not the form. For example,
the phatic function of formal greeting in English normally has the form of the
interrogative sentence: How do you do? In Ukrainian translation, the form is
shifted by the imperative Здрастуйте!/Добридень! to preserve the function.
In non-literary texts, it is necessary to distinguish between the functions
of the source text and those of the translated texts. The reasons for
commissioning or initiating a translation are independent of the reasons for the
creation of any particular source text. This idea brought to life the so called
Skopos theory developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The Greek word
skopos is used as the technical term for the purpose of a translation. Hans
Vermeer, the founder of the theory, postulates that it is the intended purpose
of the target text that determines translation methods and strategies. The
initiator’s, or client’s needs determine the skopos of the target text. The
skopos of the target text should be specified before the translation process
begins. In short, when producing a TT “the end justifies the means” (Reiss and
Vermeer). An awareness of the requirements of the skopos thus “expands the
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possibilities of translation, increases the range of possible translation

sstrategies, and releases the translator from the corset of an enforced – and
hence often meaningless - literalness” (Vermeer). A skopos-based approach
represents a “dethroning” of a ST: rather than presenting the translator with a
fixed body of “facts” which he or she must pass on to the target audience, ST
is seen as an INFORMATION OFFER, which the translator must interpret by
selecting those features which most closely correspond to the requirements of
the target situation. In this way a translation is thought of as communicating
something new and original, rather than simply furnishing the TL reader with
the same information in a recodified form. For example, consideration of the
precise audience for which a TT was intended would determine whether
translation, paraphrase or even re-editing was the most appropriate strategy to
adopt in a given situation.
Depending on the skopos, the translation can be full or partial
(restricted). This classification, in terms of the extent of translation, belongs to
J. Catford. In full translation, every part of the source text is replaced by the
target language text material. In partial translation, some part or parts of
the source language text are left untranslated. According to the
commissioner’s needs, translation can be adapted (that is, adjusted to the
target language culture), free, literal or it can be a faithful imitation of the
source text.

2. Author’s communicative intention

A translator should be aware of the author’s purpose of introducing this
or that element into the text. Some problems are associated with this
requirement:
• Rendering regional dialect;
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• Rendering social dialect;

• Rendering foreigners’ speech;
• Rendering substandard speech.
Why did the author use these elements, challenging the translation? To
answer the question is to find a clue to the problem.
A regional dialect may be introduced into the text either as a means of
the author’s narration or as a means of a character’s speech characteristics.
When used as a means of the author’s narration, the regional dialect is
neutralized in translation, since it is inappropriate and misleading to substitute
a Ukrainian dialect with an English one (for example, Southern American). Of
course, this can lead to the loss of local coloring in translation, but the miss
can be compensated by using realia belonging to the region.
A regional dialect used as a means of a character’s traits is normally
compensated by a social dialect (sociolect). Dialect words are colloquialisms,
or slang, that is they evoke certain social associations. In “Pygmalion” by
B. Shaw, London cockney spoken by Eliza Doolittle reveals a low-class girl.
To translate this type of vocabulary, it is necessary to compensate it with
stylistically marked, expressive colloquial words and structures, which lack a
local ring.
Sociolect is used in the text for the stratifying characteristics of a
character, that is, to show social class the person belongs to. A translator is
free to manipulate these locally and socially colored elements. S/he can make
the compensation in some other part of the text. S/he can compensate phonetic
peculiarities of speech with phraseological or syntactical units, etc. For
example, in the beginning of the play, Eliza Doolittle speaks the following
way: Nah then, Freddy: look wh’ y’ gowin’, deah. <…> Theres menners f’
yer! Te-oo banches o voylets trod into the mad. <…> Ow, eez ye-ooa son, is
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e? Wal, fewd dan y’ de-ooty bawmz a mather should, eed now bettern to spawl
a pore gel’s flahrzn than ran awy athaht pyin. Will ye-oo py me f’ them?
which means Now then, Freddy: look where you are going, dear. There’s
manners for you. Two bunches of violets trodden into the mud. <…> Oh, he’s
your son, isn’t he? Well, if you’d done your duty by him as a mother should,
he’d know better than to spoil a poor girl’s flowers and then run away without
paying. Will you pay me for them?
The Ukrainian translation:
Квіткарка: Ну, ти Хреді, диви, куди сунеш! Фреді: Вибачте.
Квіткарка: Оце тобі й манери. Два букети хвіалків мені виваляв! О!
Так це синок ваш?! Нічо’ не ска’еш, виховала мамуся! Це ж тра’:
виваляв мені всі хвіалки в грязюці і втік! На’іть не заплатив бідній
дівчині! Так мо’, ви заплатите?
When rendering a foreigner’s speech, it is necessary to take into
account contrastive typology of the languages under consideration and
traditions of the target language literature.
Regarding typology, a translator must know the contrastive features that
differ one language from another and reveal a foreigner at once. For example,
a typological mistake made by a foreigner speaking Ukrainian is the usage of
the verb aspect form. A German or English-speaking person tends to use
analytical forms of the verb, since their mother tongue is analytical, unlike
synthetic Ukrainian. Therefore, it is typical for a German to say in Ukrainian
Я буду приходити. instead of Я прийду. Me blingee beer. Now you pay. –
Моя принесла пиво, твоя тепель платити.
Most typically, when translating foreign speech from English into
Ukrainian, a translator has to violate Ukrainian rules of morphological and
syntactic bonds between the words to show a foreign accent.
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A non-traditional way of rendering Russian words in the speech of

English teenagers was found by the translator of Anthony Burgess’s novel
“Механічний апельсин”. Burgess used Russian words, sometimes distorted,
but written in Latin letters, to make the text sound strange for an English-
speaking reader, to produce an ironic effect upon the receptor. This is mostly
youth slang or neutral words, the meaning of which is incomprehensible for an
English reader. To produce the same strange effect upon the translation reader,
the translator borrowed a transliterated form of these Russian words and wrote
them in Latin letters: Тут мы уже выступали этакими pai-malltshikami,
улыбались, делали благовоспитанный zdrasting… In Ukrainian translation
the Russian words are transcribed: we sat in the Korova Milkbar making up
our rassoodocks what to do with the evening, a flip dark chill winter bastard
though dry. The Korova Milkbar was a milk-plus mesto, and you may, O my
brothers, have forgotten what these mestos were like, things changing so
skorry these days and everybody very quick to forget, newspapers not being
read much neither. - Ми … сиділи в молочному барі «Корова»,
напружуючи ізвіліни…
Substandard speech includes four-letter and other taboo words as well
as agrammatical forms and constructions. To maintain communicative
adequacy in translation, it is necessary to understand that, transferred from one
culture into another, these forms may provide a different, often inappropriate
response from the receptor if translated too literally. In English many words
of this type (abundant in videos) sound less rude than they do in Ukrainian.
Therefore, they are often neutralized in Ukrainian translation.
This tactic is vital in oral translation of negotiations, interviews and the
like. If there happens to be a participant who prefers an obscene word, the
professional etiquette will not allow an interpreter to translate it. An
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experienced interpreter will soften the expressiveness of the word. A good

example was provided by R. Minyar-Beloruchev’s practice. As a simultaneous
interpreter, he happened to be translating Nikita Khrushchev at the Communist
Parties leaders’ meeting in Moscow (1959). When the leader of Albanian
communist party began to criticize Khrushchev for reducing help to Albania,
the latter blew his cool, «И этот человек обос…л нас с ног до головы,
туды его мать!» What should a simultaneous interpreter do in his booth?
Minyar-Beloruchev, who was translating into French, used a milder phrase, of
the kind “this man has thrown mud at me from head to toe”. At first this
translation infuriated the General Secretary’s assistant, but in some minutes
Krushchev sent his thanks to the interpreter, as he did not want his rude
expressions to be heard in all the languages.
Agrammatical phrases purposefully used by the author to create a
character can be compensated by other agrammatical forms typical of the
speech in the target language or by colloquial structures, also typical of
uneducated people.

3. Communicative effect upon the receptor

A target text should convey the same information as the source text and
produce the same impact on the receptor as does the source text. To get full
information from the text, the receptor must have adequate background
knowledge. This knowledge may not be enough if the receptor is not well
acquainted with the source language culture. New realia, habits and customs
are usually commented upon by a translator. Sometimes a translator uses
commentary notes in the text, but they are inconvenient, as they distract the
reader’s attention. It is also possible to place a commentary in the footnote.
But most typically, explication is given after the text or, more rarely, before it.
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Besides extended commentaries, a translator can use a technique of

explicatory translation: Вчора ми купили коробку «Пташиного молока». –
We bought a box of chocolates “Bird Milk” yesterday. Irrelevant information
can be reduced from the text or generalized, if its explanation distracts the
reader’s attention: “I’m very busy,” Ollie answered as he sat in a worn
Naugahyde chair. (Grisham) – «Я дуже зайнятий,» - відповів Оллі, який
сидів у старому дермантиновому кріслі.
Substitutions, the aim of which is to make the text closer and more
comprehensible for the receptor, are not infrequent in translation. A good
example of substitution is provided by V. Nabokov’s Аня в стране чудес, a
translation of Alice in Wonderland by L. Carroll. Addressing the tale to a
young reader, Nabokov replaced some English realia with their Russian
analogues (for example, when Alice grew so tall that her feet seemed to be
almost out of sight, she started planning how she would send them presents to
the following address:
Alice’s Right Foot, Esq. Hearthrug,
near the Fender;
Nabokov simulated a Russian address:
Госпоже Правой Ноге Аниной, Город Коврик
Паркетная губерния,
and changed the names into Russian (Alice – Аня, Mary-Anne – Маша,
Pat – Петька).
Ukrainian translation:
Ш-ній ПРАВІЙ НОЗІ АЛІСИНІЙ
КИЛИМОК-ПІД-КАМІНОМ
ВІД АЛІСИ, 3 ЛЮБОВ'Ю (translated by V. Korniienko)
He even used Russian poetry allusions instead of English nursery
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parodies written by Carroll:

“‘You are old, father William,’ the young man said,
‘And your hair has become very white;
And yet you incessantly stand on your head
– Do you think, at your age, it is right?’
“‘In my youth,’ Father William replied to his son,
I feared it might injure the brain;
But now that I’m perfectly sure I have none,
Why, I do it again and again.’” (a parody on R. Southey)
These lines are generally unfamiliar to a Russian child. To make a
Russian reader enjoy the parody, Nabokov alluded to Lermontov lines, known
by every Russian schoolchild:
-Скажи-ка, дядя, ведь недаром
Тебя считают очень старым:
Ведь, право же, ты сед
И располнел ты несказанно.
Зачем же ходишь постоянно
На голове? Ведь, право ж, странно
Шалить на склоне лет!
И молвил он: «В былое время
Держал, как дорогое бремя,
Я голову свою…
Теперь же, скажем откровенно,
Мозгов лишен я совершенно
И с легким сердцем, вдохновенно
На голове стою.»
One more example of pragmatic adaptation in the Ukrainian translation:
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‘Twinkle, twinkle, little bat!

How I wonder what you’re at!’
Іди, іди, борщику,
Зварю тобі дощику
В олив'янім горщику... (translated by V. Korniienko)
Regarding the receptor’s comprehension of the text, another problem
arises – rendering the historical overtone of a text. A source text can be
distanced from the target language receptor not only in culture, but also in
time. Books belonging to earlier literature are understood differently by source
language readers and target language readers, due to the difference in their
knowledge and cultural backgrounds. How can a translator solve the problem
of conveying a historical coloring? There are two main ways: 1) using an
archaic syntax and vocabulary, typical of the target language works; 2)
using today’s syntax and some archaic words and culture-bound words for the
local and historical coloring.
The first method may be misleading in the sense that it can make the
reader imagine him/herself reading a Ukrainian original rather than a
translation. Therefore, translators mostly prefer the second way of rendering
historical texts.

4. Translator’s impact
In the attempt to make a good translation, a translator, nevertheless bears
the influence of cultural and literary trends typical of the time, which effect
his/her outlook and have a certain impact on the translation. It brings us back
to the history of translation. An example of ideological incursion in translation
was Voltaire’s translation of Hamlet’s soliloquy, not as a meditation on death,
but as a diatribe against religion.
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These days it is considered necessary for a translator to follow only the

source language author, sometimes at the expense of his/her own artistic work.
Nevertheless, there is no doubt that the quality of translation is
dependent on translator’s personal knowledge, intuitions and artistic
competence.

To pragmatic problems of translation we also refer those problems

that deal with the rendering of the communicative intention of the author of
the original text, with the rendering of pragmatic characteristics of the original
text and taking into consideration the target audience (the use of pragmatic
adaptation for complete understanding of the target text, the choice of one of
the variants of the multinational literary language the text should be translated
into). This lecture will cover the following pragmatic problems of translation
as translation of pragmatic idioms,pragmatic adaptation of a sentence taking
into consideration a difference in the character and volume of background
knowledge of a ST and a TT recipients, translation of indirect speech acts,
translation of signs and notices as specific kinds of speech acts and a sentence
adaptation caused by discrepancies in levels of politeness of Ukrainian and
English speech and norms/standards of political correctness existing in the
English speaking society especially in the USA.

5. Translation of pragmatic idioms

In all languages there exist pragmatic idioms – full or elliptical set
expression used in specific speech situations the meaning of which sometimes
is not easily deduced from the content of a sentence, e.g.:
Fresh/Wet paint! – Обережно, пофарбовано!
Take it or leave it! - Як знаєте. (answering a message, or negation)
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Agree my Aunt Fanny! - Дідька лисого я погоджусь! (categorical

disagreement)
The use of such sentences in speech makes indirect speech acts, the
propositional and illocutive content do not coincide. A translator must know
these idioms to identify them and not to understand them literally. Thus, the
main difficulty in rendering pragmatic idioms, as in the case with other idioms,
is to identify them as pragmatic idioms – indirect speech acts.
As well as usual idioms, pragmatic idioms in different languages may
either coincide or not in their content. The latter are the most difficult for a
translator as the sentences expressing them are either completely or partially
different in their structure or may contain different words, e.g.: Keep off the
grass! – По газонах не ходити! As we can see the English sentence lacks
the words “ходити” and “газон” though these sentences are used in identical
situations.
Some more examples of English and Ukrainian pragmatic idioms are
given below:
Після вас. – After you.
Посадку закінчено! – All aboard!
Будь ласка, сплачуйте проїзд! – (All) Fares, please! Автобус далі
не йде! – All change!
Вимітайся! – Take a running jump!
Про вовка промовка! – Talk of the devil.
Обережно, під струмом! (Висока напруга!) – Live with lightning!
Тебе не питають. – None of your business (Keep your opinion to
yourself). Караул, грабують! – Stop, thief!
Ані руш! – Stop where you are!
Обережно, пофарбовано! – Wet (Fresh) paint! Обережно, скло! –
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Fragile!
Службове приміщення! – Authorized Persons/Personnel Only! Вхід
заборонено! – No entrance/No admittance/Off limits!
Стоянку заборонено! – No parking!

17. Pragmatic adaptation of a target text: adding explications

To understand a translated text better (especially names of products,
organizations, companies etc) it is sometimes necessary to pragmatically adapt
it taking into consideration the volume of a recipient’s knowledge, that is
either to add explications or to omit excessive words, e.g.:
Нова „Таврія” значно краща від „Запорожця”. – A new Tavria car
is better than a Zaporozhets car.
„АвтоЗАЗ” переходить на випуск нових автомобілів. – The AvtoZAZ
car factory switches to a new car production.
Компанія „Вестингауз” має намір інвестувати більше 1 млрд.
доларів у розвиток української енергетики. – Westinghouse Electric
intends to invest more than $1 billion dollars in the development of Ukrainian
power engineering.
In the first two sentences words car and car factory are added in the
translation for an English speaking addressee to better understand what Tavria
and Zaporozhets are. The third example illustrates a reverse case - the word
компанія is omitted as the company is a well known for English speaking
people. At the same time the word Electric is added to the name of the
company as this is its full name under which it is known. So, a translator
should always be aware of the background knowledge of a TT addressee
while adapting a translated text in these ways.
Explications are used while translating sentences which contain names
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of famous people and place names that are not known in English speaking
countries:
Місцем народження Степана Бандери є Старий Угринів. – The
birthplace of Stepan Bandera, the leader of Ukrainian nationalists in the
1940s, is Staryi Uhryniv.
Бахчисарай є колишньою столицею Кримcького ханства. –
Bakhchysarai is a former capital of the Crimean Khanate (Tartar Moslem
State).
Pragmatic adaptation can be used while translating sentences containing
rate of exchange:
Одна гривня – це приблизно 1,5 датських крони. – US $ 100 is
approximately 13 krone.
The sentence is taken from a text about Denmark. As the translation is
done into English it is inexpedient to use hryvnia rate, that’s why a dollar rate
is used.

18. Reproduction of speech acts

It should be borne in mind that in different languages speech acts are
characterized by certain discrepancies, i.e. speech acts of one kind or type may
correspond to speech acts of other kinds or types. From the point of view of
translation the following types of correlation between different kinds of
speech acts within one type can be distinguished:
1) A speech act of one kind in Ukrainian corresponds to the speech act
of the same kind in English;
2) A speech act of one kind in Ukrainian corresponds to the speech act
of another kind in English;
3) A direct speech act corresponds to indirect speech act or vice versa.
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During the translation process not infrequently we observe the first kind
of correlation, however in some cases the kind of correlation is observed,
when different kinds of transformations of speech acts are resorted to. The
following are the most frequently used transformations:
1) Transformation of direct acts into indirect ones;
2) Transformation of indirect acts into direct ones;
3) Transformation of speech acts within one type.

19. Reproduction of indirect speech acts in translation

As it is known, all speech acts may be subdivided into direct and indirect
ones, the difference between them lies in the correlation of semantic and
syntactic characteristics of proposition on the one hand and their illocutive
force on the other hand: immediate correlation is more characteristic of direct
speech acts than of indirect ones.
Let’s consider the following examples:
1) Give me the book, please.
2) I don’t have the book.
The first sentence clearly demonstrates the direct speech act of request,
as its communicative and intentional content is in direct correlation with its
structure and semantics. The second sentence being declarative in its form and
informative in its content, in some situation can be an indirect request, if in the
addressee’s interpretation it gets the illocutive force of request.
Contrastive analysis of speech acts and means of their realization is
important in sociological, sociolinguistic and especially translation aspects: it
helps to determine relevant peculiarities and similarities of speech
communication in different ethnospecific communities as speech acts are its
main and minimal units. One of the urgent tasks of this analysis is to establish
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the number, frequency and means of speech act realization, both direct and
indirect ones, the character of their correlation in the two languages that
would significantly expand our idea about the pragmatic component of
translation theory.
From the translation angle it is relevant to establish a volume and
conditions under which pragmatic transformations of speech acts can be used.
A large number of mistakes in practical activity of translators and interpreters
that may lead even to serious misunderstandings because of different
characteristic features of speech acts in different languages point out at the
necessity of this analysis. The following case that happened during the
negotiations between Nixon and a Japanese emperor clearly illustrates this.
Nixon asked the emperor about regulation of the trade policy. In the English
translation the emperor’s answer sounded as I’ll think about it, and Nixon
considered it as consent to discuss the issue, while the emperor, in fact,
politely refused to discuss this issue.
In the result of this pragmatic transposition that leads to the appearance
of indirect speech acts, the illocutive force can change in two directions: 1)
decrease of illocutive force (for example in indirect directives as compared to
the direct ones); 2) increase of the illocutive force (for example in indirect
negations as compared to the direct ones). Translators/interpreters should take
it into notice while changing direct speech acts into indirect ones and vice
versa.
The following types of pragmatic transformations connected with
indirect speech acts can be distinguished:
1. An indirect speech act is changed into another indirect speech act
with a bit different illocutive force:
Невже так неодмінно дірявити один одного сорок п’ятим
 20

калібром? Well – it isn’t as if we were going to stand up and pot each

other with forty-fives.
Here the Ukrainian sentence is used in indirect speech act of
suggestion, while the English one – in indirect negation.
2. An indirect speech act is changed into a direct one with the same
illocutive force:
Хочете прогулятися в садку? – запропонував він. Let’s go walk in
the garden, - he suggested.
Here the Ukrainian speech act is an indirect suggestion, and the English
one is a direct suggestion.
3. A direct speech act is changed into an indirect one with the same
illocutive force:
Дай мені краще води. I would like some water.
The Ukrainian sentence expresses a direct speech acts of request, and
the English sentence expresses the indirect request.
4. An indirect speech act with one illocutive force is changed into a
direct speech act with a different illocutive force:
Нащо їй зараз набридати. Don’t bother her now.
The Ukrainian sentence expresses an indirect act of advice in negative
form and the English one is a direct prohibition.
5. A direct act with one illocutive force is changed into an indirect
speech act with a different illocutive force:
Їдьмо з нами.
You must come with us.
These transformations in some cases may be accompanied by
transformationsof addition or omission of performative expressions:
Дайте мені ще один тільки шанс… I ask only a chance in life…
 21

Прошу нам не заважати. Don’t disturb us.

In the first example a performative expression “I ask” is added in the
English translation, while in the second one the translation lacks the
performative verb «прошу».
While rendering speech acts a simple sentence may be changed into a
complex sentence, where a principle clause is a performative expression:
Я перед вами в такому боргу…
Let me tell you my debt to you is so large…
As we can see, there exist linguistically specific peculiarities of
transposition of sentences of different pragmatic types and kinds into indirect
speech acts. In translation theory and practice this fact should be taken into
consideration to achieve communicative and pragmatic equality of sentences
and phrases during translation. At the same time the translation practice
testifies to some losses while rendering indirect speech acts: not always while
rendering Ukrainian indirect speech acts it is possible to use English indirect
speech acts in translation.

9. Transposition of a directive into an indirect directive-quesitive

One more transformation of transposition of a Ukrainian direct speech
act into an English indirect speech act deals with the transposition of a direct
directive into an indirect directive expressed by an interrogative sentence:
Давай підемо до Степенків. Why not go to the Stepenkos? А ти
спитай Катрусю.
Why don’t you ask Katrusia?
Будь ласка, приходьте до нас на обід. Won’t you please come enjoy
dinner with us? Не стій, роззявивши рота!
Why do you stand here gaping?
 22

10. Transposition of a constative into a rhetoric question

Constative speech acts may be translated not only by constatives but
also by rhetoric questions, that are, actually, emphatic constatives:
Зміни не потрібні.
But why the change?
Ти ж нічого не знаєш про космос.
What do you know of Space?
Ми не можемо очікувати, що він нас пощадить.
How can we expect him to spare us?

11. Translation of rhetoric questions

Rhetoric questions are usually translated in two ways:
1) By a corresponding rhetoric question:
«Чому він відмовив вам?» «Хто знає?» “Why did he refuse you?”
“Who can tell?”
Сашко, я кохаю тебе. Хіба цього недостатньо?
Sashko, I love you. Isn’t it enough?
2) A rhetoric question is transformed into a constative (declarative
sentence):
Хіба ж можна таке забути?
That’s something that can never be forgotten.
Хіба чотири з половиною градуси так уже й багато? Four and a
half degree isn’t that much.

12. Translation of signs and notices

Notices constitute a specific kind of speech acts, as sentences used in
them are built differently in different languages. To some extent notices may
 23

be regarded ethnospecific from the point of view of their lexical and

grammatical peculiarities.
Not infrequently Ukrainian notices expressed by a
nominative/substantive group correspond to English signs and notices also
expressed by a nominative/substantive group:
Вхід за перепустками.
Admission by order.
Вхід тільки за запрошеннями.
Admission by invitation only.
Ukrainian signs with a word “обережно” correspond to English
signs expressed by a nominative/substantive group:
Обережно, розмінувальні роботи!
Emergency – Bomb Disposal!
Обережно, пофарбовано!
Wet/Fresh paint!
Signs and notices expressed in Ukrainian by imperative sentences
are also rendered by nominative/substantive groups:
Оплачуйте проїзд! All fares, please!
Ukrainian notices including words “заборонено” and “немає” may
be also expressed in English by a nominative/substantive group:
Стороннім вхід заборонено. Private.
Входу немає.
Exit only.
Notices of the structure “no + a nominative/substantive group” are
quite often used in English. They have the following correspondences in
Ukrainian:
1) A sentence with a word “заборонено”:
 24

Стоянку заборонено! No parking!

Вхід заборонено! No admittance!
Стороннім вхід заборонено! No entry except on business!
2) Imperative sentences:
Не палити! No smoking!
3) A sentence with a word “немає”:
Проїзду немає! No road!
Входу немає! No entry!
4) Other sentences:
Вхід безкоштовний/Вхід вільний.
No charge for admission./Free entry./Free admission.
Ukrainian signs in a form of a sentence with a word “заборонено” may
correspond to English signs expressed by elliptical sentences or by a structure
“No + Participle II”:
Із собаками вхід заборонено! No dogs allowed!
Ukrainian signs in the form of full sentences can be translated into
English by elliptical sentences:
Їжа входить у вартість квитка.
Refreshments provided.
В’їзд заборонено!
Road up!
Ukrainian signs in the form of imperative sentences are rather rarely
translated by means of English imperative sentences:
По газону не ходити!
Keep off the grass!
Обережно, злий собака!
Beware of the dog!
 25

This sign can be translated by a declarative English sentence (especially

with a verb of prohibition):
Не курити!
Smoking is not allowed (here).
Not infrequently Ukrainian signs in the form of full affirmative
sentences (also including a word “заборонено”) are translated into English by
means of the same sentences:
Цей квиток надає пред’явнику право вільного входу. This ticket
entitles the bearer to free admission.
Вхід до магазину із собаками заборонено. Dogs are barred from the
store.
There are, however, some discrepancies between Ukrainian and English
signs and notices, especially those concerning the announcements about plane
boarding:
Здійснюється (почалася) посадка на літак, що летить рейсом
509 до Лондона; прохання пройти (на посадку) до виходу номер 5.
Gate five is open for flight 509 to London, flight 509 to London now
boarding at gate five.
Біля виходу 49 здійснюється посадка на літак, що прямує
рейсом 612 Київ-Лондон.
Flight 612 to London now loading at gate 49.
Пасажирів, які вилітають до Лондона, просять пройти до
виходу номер 6.
Passengers for London should proceed to gate 6.
 26

13. Peculiarities of using numbers and measurement unit conversion

in English translation
In English, unlike in Ukrainian where degrees may be marked both by
letters and by a symbol º, degrees are generally marked by a symbol used after
a number without a space and a scale symbol:
Точка кипіння становить 100 градусів (100º Ц.) The boiling point is
212º F. (100º C 80º R).
While using a Kelvin scale the degree symbol is not used in English:
Точка кипіння становить 373, 15 градусів Кельвіна.
The boiling point is 373.15 K.
Common fractions like ½ 2/3, 3/8 are written in letters in English: one
half, two-thirds, three-eighths. At the beginning of a sentence all fractions are
written in letters:
4/5 класу склали залік.
Four-fifths of the class passed the test.
If a number consists of more than five figures every three figures are
separated by a coma starting from the right side, e.g.: 134, 019; 12, 680; 5,
544, 282.
Coma is not used in numbers consisting of four figures, numbers of
buildings, temperature measurement, telephone numbers etc.

14. Reproduction of Politeness and Political Politeness in translation

A specific type of pragmatic adaptation in translation (especially for
American receptors) is taking into consideration the demands of political
correctness not to offend representatives of different communities and
minorities by using inappropriate words and word combinations. First of all it
deals with the correct choice of words, word expressions and grammatical
 27

constructions that are considered polite in English speech and are used to
denote men and women, representatives of race, ethnic and religious
minorities etc. Political correctness as a term has been broadly used in the
USA since the 1980s; later it has been adopted by other cultures. According to
The Oxford Dictionary, PC is “the avoidance, often considered as taken to
extremes, of forms of expression or action that are perceived to exclude,
marginalize, or insult groups of people who are socially disadvantaged or
discriminated against”[NOAD 2010]. The translator’s role in a politically
correct language culture mediation is very substantial. The degree to which PC
influences translation depends, first of all, on the correlation of PC norms of
the societies for which the source and target texts are created. When these
norms differ, conveying PC concepts in translation can be problematic.
1) Translation adaptation of sentences considering regular
politeness
In Ukrainian directive speech acts an imperative mood form of a
predicate verb is used. The use of the corresponding verb form in English
directive speech act not infrequently is considered by English speakers
impolite as in English directive speech acts an interrogative sentences are used,
e.g.:
Петре, позич мені двадцять гривень. Petro, could you let me have
twenty hryvnias?
Розкажіть мені щось про себе, про свої інтереси, про свої слабкі
місця.
Could you tell us something about yourself, your interests, and your
weaknesses?
Розкажіть докладніше про вашу поточну діяльність. Will you
expand on your current activities?
 28

Interrogative sentences are also used in directive speech acts to express

politeness in Ukrainian though less frequently than in English:
Чи не могли б Ви навести приклад? Could you cite an example?
It should be borne in mind that transposition of Ukrainian imperative
sentences by English interrogative sentences not always may be considered
appropriate and pragmatically reasonable.
2) Translation adaptation of sentences considering political
correctness
In English speaking countries, mainly in the USA, Great Britain and
Canada, special attention is paid to avoid using in speech words and
expressions that either implicitly or explicitly may offend representatives of
different groups. It refers mainly to avoiding preconception against women
and different national, race and sexual minorities etc. A translator/interpreter
should take this into consideration in choosing appropriate words.
a) Political correctness in naming disabled and ill people
Nowadays a lot of words that were used to denote disabled people, like
invalid, handicapped, defective, crippled, deformed and abnormal are
considered impolite and offensive. These derogatory words should not be used
in translations of official documents. A translator should be very careful with
euphemisms like people with special needs, differently abled and physically
challenged that are used instead of the mentioned afore words, as they may be
considered offensive because of their supercilious connotations. More direct
nominations like, for example, people with disabilities are considered less
insultive.
Nominations of people with a certain illness mentioned in them should
also be avoided in translation. A deaf man, for example, should by substituted
by a man with a hearing impairment, a cancer patient by a patient with
 29

cancer. In official translation it is recommended to avoid nominations of

disabled and ill people as victims. For example, the translation of a word
combination особа, прикута до інвалідного візка into English as a person
confined to a wheelchair may sound offensive and it is better to translate it by
a more neutral expression a person who uses a wheelchair. The same refers
to nominations of people with AIDS which should be called a person with
AIDS.
b) Political correctness in naming gender of a person
During the last thirty years there happened significant changes in the
sphere of usage of gender-marked words and expressions in English. More
and more people rather carefully use lexical units that may be accepted by
women as insultive. To avoid words offensive for both sexes a
translator/interpreter has to think whether the word or expression used in
translation sounds offensive from the point of view of a person of certain sex.
Thus, offensive for representatives of different sexes may be words and
expressions that underestimate the role or significance of representatives of
one of the sexes. It is recommended not use these words and word
combinations and to avoid using expressions characterizing the gender of a
person unless it is predetermined by the context. Below are given the words
that should be avoided in usage and the words/word combinations that should
substitute them.
1. Transposition of words man or men and words/word combinations
containing them in cases when a person of any sex is named:
Man Human being, human, person,
individual
 30

Mankind, man Human beings, humans,

(in its collective meaning) humankind, humanity, people,
human race, human species, men
and women, society
Man-made Synthetic, artificial
Workingman Worker, wage earner
Man in the street Average person, ordinary person,
lay person

2. It is recommended to use neutral words that do not mark the

gender of a person in names or professions, posts etc.
a) It is recommended to avoid using words with a semi-affix –man and
other elements denoting gender of a person. It is preferable to use compound
words with a final neutral component –person. Some words, like
spokesperson and salesperson have been widely used while other words, like
weatherperson instead of weatherman and councilperson instead of
councilman are considered awkward. Compound words like anchorwoman,
businessman, saleswoman and salesman are considered acceptable; however
preference is given to neutral words either including -person or lacking this
component (businessperson, anchorperson etc).
anchorman anchor
Businessman Businessperson, business executive,
manager, business owner, retailer
Cameraman Camera operator
Chairman Chairperson
Cleaning lady Cleaner, housecleaner, office
cleaner, housekeeper
 31

Congressman Representative, member of Congress,

legislator
Fireman firefighter
Forefather Ancestor
Housewife Homemaker
Insurance man Insurance agent
Mailman, postman Mail carrier, letter carrier
Policeman Police officer, law enforcement
officer
Salesman Salesperson, sales representative
Spokesman Spokesperson, representative
Stewardess Steward, flight attendant
Weatherman Weather reporter, weathercaster
Workman worker
 32

b) it is undesirable from the point of view of political correctness to

use the prepositive attributes to nouns as lady, female, girl, male etc in word
combinations like lady doctor, female lawyer, girl athlete, male secretary etc
if their usage is irrelevant considering the context. Such word combinations
are considered derogatory. In cases it is necessary to denote the female gender
it is recommended to use female or woman instead of lady, e.g.:
Його бабка стала першою юристкою, яка працювала у цьому селі.
His grandmother was the first woman lawyer to practice in this village.
3. It is recommended to avoid using a third person singular pronoun he
while denoting a job or a profession that can be fulfilled both by men and
women:
Коли репортер висвітлює суперечливу подію, він зобов’язаний
подати всі точки зору на цю подію.
When a reporter covers a controversial story, he has a responsibility to
present both sides of the issue.
To avoid the usage of the pronoun he a translator may paraphrase a sentence:
a) use a plural noun to which a pronoun refers so that a personal or
possessive pronoun in plural could be used:
When reporters cover controversial stories, they have a responsibility to
present both sides of the issue.
Some linguists do not object if a possessive pronoun in plural is used
after a corresponding indefinite pronoun (everyone in particular) in singular
(however, not in the official style):
Everyone packed their own lunch.
b) the use of personal or possessive pronouns of the first or second
person
I/me/my/mine, we/us/our/ours, you/your/yours:
 33

Як репортер, що висвітлює суперечливу подію, я маю

відповідальність подавати всі точки зору на цю подію.
As a reporter covering a controversial story, I have a responsibility to
present both sides of the issue. Or: As reporters covering a controversial
story, we have a responsibility to present both sides of the issue. Or: As
reporters covering a controversial story, you have a responsibility to present
both sides of the issue.
c) the use of the pronoun one:
As a reporter covering a controversial story, one has a responsibility to
present both sides of the issue.
One is widely spread in British English, while in American English the
use of this pronoun seems rather artificial or official. It is recommended not to
overuse this pronoun.
d) the simultaneous use of female and male personal pronouns:
When a reporter covers a controversial story, he or she has a
responsibility to presents both sides of the issue.
In this case the sentence seems to be the most awkward. However, if
these pronouns are not overused, this may be the most acceptable variant.
Contracted forms he/she, his/her, him/her (and in reverse order, the female
pronoun preceding the male one) can also be used, though they are not widely
used in official style texts. S/he can also be used.
e) The use of a verbal non-finite or passive form:
When controversial stories are covered, there is a responsibility to
present
both sides of the issue (or both sides of the issue should be presented).
f) Paraphrase the sentence to exclude the usage of any pronoun:
When covering a controversial story, a reporter has a responsibility …..
 34

g) The use of nouns like person, individual or any other synonym

according to the context:
Reporters often cover controversial stories. In such cases the journalist
has a responsibility to present both sides of the issue.
h) The use of an attributive clause:
A reporter who covers a controversial story has a responsibility to
present both sides of the issue.
4. It is recommended to avoid word combinations that offend or abase
persons of any sex or that are stereotypic regarding persons of different sexes.
a) it is not accepted to address a woman as a girl; women in general –
the distaff side, the fair sex; a wife – the little woman; a groupmate – coed; a
non-married woman – bachelor girl, spinster or old maid.
b) Such generalized phrases as lawyers/doctors/farmers and their wives
or a teacher and her students or a secretary and her boss can be understood
as those that rule out even the possibility of fulfilling this professional role by
a representative of a certain sex at all. In this case it is recommended to use
words or phrases that do not indicate any sex or indicate both sexes as
lawyers/doctors/farmers and their spouses, a teacher and students, teachers
and their students, a secretary and boss.
c) Womanly, manly, feminine or masculine as words denoting features
that are associated with a certain sex should be avoided. In English there are a
lot of adjectives denoting power or weakness, determination and sensuality.
Before using any word indicating sex a translator has to consider
whether this information is relevant in the context. Sometimes while
translating words denoting occupation it is not necessary to indicate a person’s
sex:
Вона працювала ліфтеркою.
 35

She worked as an elevator attendant.

It is not necessary in this case to translate ліфтеркa as woman elevator
attendant.
It is recommended to avoid in translation compound words containing
the root morpheme man. These words should be substituted by other words
denoting a person of a male sex and a female sex.
Але хто переймається долею всього людства?
But who is concerned about the fate of humankind? (not mankind)
У міліціонерів та пожежників небезпечна робота.
Police officers (not policemen) and fire fighters (not firemen) perform
hazardous jobs.
5. Translators are also recommended to avoid derived words denoting a
female sex, namely words with suffixes –e (blonde, brunette), -euse
(chanteuse, masseuse), -ette (suffragette, usherette), -enne (comedienne,
equestrienne), -ess (actress, stewardess) and –ix (aviatrix, executrix). Words
with these suffixes sound a bit derogatory or as those that irrelevantly denote a
person’s sex. The following words should be used to substitute them:
Authoress Author
Aviatrix Aviator
Poetess Poet
Proprietress Proprietor
Sculptress Sculptor
Suffragette Suffragist
usherette usher

Some of these words, like actress, heiress, hostess are still in active use,
however a lot of women prefer such neutral words as actor, heir and host.
 36

A translator should know peculiarities of the use of words boy and girl,
which are recommended to be used regarding children under 12. To denote
teenagers word combinations young woman and young man are more polite.
Derogatory connotations may appear while using a personal pronoun he
or a possessive pronoun his, anyone being their antecedent, which has no
biological sex characteristics, as in the given below example:
Якщо хтось хоче мати цей роздатковий матеріал, він може зайти
до моєї кімнати пізніше й отримати його.
If anyone wants to have these handouts, he can call at my room later
and receive them.
The sentence being grammatically correct is derogatory from the point of
view of representatives of gender movement as it contains a personal pronoun
his, which substitutes a neutral pronoun anyone. To avoid in translation
prospective derogative connotations a pronoun they can be used:
Якщо хтось хоче мати цей роздатковий матеріал, він (той) може
зайти до моєї кімнати пізніше й отримати його.
If anyone wants to have these handouts, they can call at my room later
and receive them.
The best way out in this situation is the use of a female and male
pronoun as a postcedent of a pronoun anyone:
If anyone wants to have these handouts, he or she can call at my
room later and receive them.
If anyone wants to have these handouts, she or he can call at my
room later and receive them.
If anyone wants to have these handouts, s/he can call at my room
later and receive them.
The best variants of translation of the Ukrainian sentence may be the
 37

following ones:
1) slight deviations from the original text aimed at avoiding the use of
gender pronouns:
Anyone wants to have these handouts, please call at my room later and
receive them.
2) The use of a noun or a pronoun in plural instead of the pronoun
anyone:
If you want to have these handouts, you can call at my room later and
receive them.
Persons who want to have these handouts, please call at my room
later and receive them.
If any people want to have these handouts, they can call at my room
later and receive them.
3) a gender pronoun can be substituted by a neutral noun a
postcedent of a sentence being excluded:
Anyone who wants to have these handouts, please call at my room
later and receive them.

15. Political correctness in naming older people

While translating a word combination «старі люди» into English it is
recommended not to use elderly people or the aged that have pejorative
connotations, the preference should be given to more polite correspondences
older adults or older people. The use in translation the correspondences senior
citizens and seniors regarding people over 65 is also acceptable.
Багато уявлень про людей похилого віку є помилковими. Деякі
роботодавці, наприклад, вважають, що молоді працівники ефективніші,
ніж люди старшого віку. Проте на багатьох видах робіт старші є
 38

кращими працівниками, ніж молоді люди.

Many beliefs about older people are untrue. Some employers, for
example, think that younger workers are more efficient and reliable than older
ones. But in many types of jobs, older people are better workers than younger
people.
Крім того, Армія спасіння має різні інституції, включаючи лікарні,
реабілітаційні центри для осіб, які звично споживають наркотики і
спиртне, табори, клуби для хлопчиків і дівчаток та будинки для людей
похилого віку.
In addition, the Salvation Army operates a variety of institutions,
including hospitals, drug and alcohol rehabilitation centers, camps, boys and
girls clubs and senior citizen residences.

16. Political correctness in naming people of different ethnic

(national) or race groups
Special attention should be paid to the translation of words designating
people who belong to a certain ethnic (national) or race group not to offend
them.
It is recommended to use the words that are preferred by a certain
national or race group. For example, word combinations «чорний
американець» or «американський негр» should be translated as African
American (or Black American or Afro-American being used less frequently
nowadays) but not Negro or colored American. American Indians of Navajo
tribe should be translated as Dine, however for better understanding an
explication can be used in brackets – also known as the Navajos.
While translating names of native people of the USA the preference is
given to the name American Indians and Native Americans; in Canada the
 39

words natives, Natives and native peoples are preferable, the latter cannot be
used in official documents of the USA.
Americans of Asian origin should be designated by a word combination
Asian Americans but not Asiatic Americans, the latter being derogative in its
meaning.
Hispanic Americans is used to denote Spanish-speaking Americans
from Mexico and South America, however, the preference is given to a
Mexican American, Haitian American etc. Some groups of Spanish-speaking
Americans prefer the name Latino. Chicano, being a synonym to a Mexican
American, should be used with care as it can be perceived as a derogatory
word.