Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage 32 (2024) e00316

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/daach

Developing digital Islamic heritage sites in Jordan: The case of al-Mafraq

Nedhal Jarrar
University of Cantabria, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Purpose: Digital documentation has become a key factor in cultural heritage conservation in the world. It fa­
Digitization cilitates the preservation of culturally valuable sites into a digital form allowing more comprehensive and
Al-mafraq governorate concurrent access to sites, showing their details, structural system, materials, etc., and making them available to
Islamic heritage
the largest possible number of researchers. This research proposes integrating digitization into defining the
Jordan
significance and location of many Islamic heritage sites in al-Mafraq Governorate, Jordan.
Design/methodology/approach: A deep understanding for the digitization of al-Mafraq Islamic heritage sites ob­
tained by using archival research and surveys. Dozens Islamic heritage sites have been studied in the gover­
norate, out of 450 sites all over Jordan.
Findings: Five categories were used in the analysis of the heritage digitizing project: location, typology, structure,
significance, and conservation attempts and alterations.
Originality/value: This research raises awareness of the digitizing Heritage sites. It is positioned as unique in terms
of its complex nature of transforming old Islamic heritage sites to become smart heritage sites based on cultural
heritage and open and coordinated inclusion of stakeholders.
Limitations: This research has its limitations as it is based on 50 qualitative cases selected based on the obser­
vations of the sites included in the Islamic Heritage Sites Project in Jordan within al-Mafraq governorate.

1. Introduction longitude 35◦ and 39◦ east. It is bound by Syria to the north, Saudi
Arabia to the south and east, Iraq to the east, while other Jordanian
This paper is based on a previous project lunched in two editions last governorates are located to the west and south-west: Irbid, Jerash, and
years under the name “Islamic Heritage Sites in Jordan” (IHSJ), pub­ az-Zarqa, with an approximate area of 26,551 km2 (10,251 sq mi).
lished by Prof. Thomas M. Weber -Karyotakis and Architect Ammar There are 50 Islamic heritage sites that have been studied in al-
Khammash, published on EDIT platform in 2022,1 where many sites Mafraq governorate out of 450 sites (or a little more) all over Jordan,
have been covered in terms of historical, architectural, and geographical constituting around 10 % of the total number of Islamic heritage sites in
aspects. the country. Undoubtedly, this number is not sufficient to cover all Is­
The second revised electronic edition of the IHSJ project, lunched in lamic heritage sites in the governorate. However, it can be increased by
2022, followed the effort to digitize all possible information about more future studies of other colleagues, although valuable observations pre­
than 450 heritage sites all over Jordan. Taking into consideration that viously made by Jordanian and foreign researchers and archeologists
the first version project was prepared by master’s students enrolled in were also relied upon. Also, the study of Jordan’s Islamic heritage sites is
the Architectural Conservation program at the German-Jordanian an endless subject for research and documentation.
University between 2018 and 2020. It is estimated that this number On the other hand, the project editors decided to add only a handful
constitutes only 30 to 40 percent of the total stock of monuments of this of significant monuments to the gazetteer project as addenda, where al-
category preserved in Jordan, that they can be cover completely in the Mafraq Governorate had one added site, al-Fudayn Ottoman Hajj Fort.
future, as the project sheds light on only a small part of the country’s rich Most of the sites have a simple rectangular or square plan (Rjoub and
Islamic cultural heritage (IHSJ, 2022). Housan, 2013). As for construction materials, Labisi (2015, 72)
As for al-Mafraq Governorate, it is one of twelve governorates in described them in some of the sites:
Jordan, located between latitude 31◦ and 32◦ north, and between

E-mail address: [email protected].

1
A research platform for digital publications of the Gerda Henkel Foundation, which was the IHSJ project sponsor.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2024.e00316
Received 21 March 2023; Received in revised form 16 December 2023; Accepted 16 January 2024
Available online 1 February 2024
2212-0548/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N. Jarrar Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage 32 (2024) e00316

being before the year 1750 CE” (DoA, 2004). As for other heritage sites
that are built after that year, they are protected by law No. 5 for the year
2005. In both cases, documentation is the considered primary tool to
begin maintaining and preserving these sites.
Furthermore, Jordan has witnessed significant initiatives related to
the digitization and archiving of its architectural and urban heritage,
whether at local or international levels, such as Aerial Photographic
Achieve for Archeology in Middle East (APAAME),3 in addition to the
photo archive of the American Center of Research (ACOR), Mapping
Digital Cultural Heritage in Jordan (MaDiH), Open Jordanian Heritage,
and others. All of those private or public initiatives played an active role
in preserving visual and written memory of very significant sites, a large
part of which is difficult to access. According to the MADiH repository,
more than 300 datasets related to Jordan’s cultural heritage are recor­
ded (Bala’awi et al., 2021).
Fig. 1. Screenshot of the project cover page in its second edited version, For years, most of the surveyed sites were a key destination for both
EDIT platform. domestic and international researches by archeologists, which added
significantly to the area local memory. However, most of the sites are
“The construction techniques of the buildings were those widely employed now at risk of physical deterioration, and they are becoming increas­
in the region in the same period, that is walls with a rubble masonry core ingly likely that local knowledge and expertise in heritage protection
and a cladding of squared blocks in the door jamb (but not in the corners will also be lost through using traditional documenting tools. Gehan
of the rooms) and irregularly shaped blocks with wedging to establish the et al. (2021, 13) elaborated that an important definition of the partici­
laying surface. The blocks are mainly of local limestone, although some patory nature of cultural heritage was provided in 2009 by the infor­
basalt blocks were used” (see Fig. 1). mation and library scientist Marija Dalbello, who wrote that:
Furthermore, the contribution of master’s students of Architectural “heritage is created through acts of collecting and preservation by in­
Conservation at the German Jordanian University has been preceded by stitutions such as archives, libraries, museums, through processes of social
the documentation of many Jordanian and foreign archaeologists, memory by which popular significance becomes based on memory stores
where digital technologies were used, such us satellite and arial imagery and historical materials”.
and photography, photogrammetry, laser scanning, building informa­
tion modeling (BIM), 3D modeling, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3, in addition As part of a broader exploration of cultural heritage management,
to GIS mapping, which has improved in visual quality, in its flexibility in this study incorporates insights from various international contexts
handling data in a variety of formats, and in its availability (Alhasanat exemplified by recent research in the Arab world, showcasing the use of
et al., 2012). 3D technologies, including aerial and terrestrial photogrammetry, for
comprehensive documentation and analysis, while also highlighting the
2. Literature review intricate challenges faced in preserving historical sites through effective
documentation and emphasizing the integration of technologies like GIS
The world witnessed a massive digital revolution in recent decades as innovative strategies in the global landscape of cultural heritage
(Huang, 2017). This was present and represented in all disciplines and management (Simou et al., 2020, 2022).
fields, particularly architectural and urban heritage documenting, which
is called “Digital Heritage”. UNESCO defines digital heritage as a new 3. Research design and methods
type that has been formed due to the production, distribution, use and
preservation of information resources related to heritage in a digital Yin (2014) defines the case study approach as an empirical enquiry
form (UNESCO, 2003). which investigates the single or multiple cases in great depth within its
It is worth mentioning that Jordan has joined the heritage digitiza­ real world context. This research applies a qualitative approach based on
tion field early. One of the best examples of this progress was the Jordan case studies to develop a deep understanding of the digitized Islamic
Antiquities Database and Information System (JADIS), which was the heritage sites documentation in al-Mafraq and all over Jordan using
first of its kind in all over the Arab World. It was launched by the Jor­ spatial surveys of Islamic heritage sites in the governorate as a primary
dan’s Department of Antiquities (DoA) in 1990 in cooperation with the data collection method, as well as complementary informal conversa­
American Center for Research (ACOR), registering over 10,800 antiq­ tions with archeologists and researchers involved in the surveyed sites.
uities. The system was in use until 2002, when it was superseded by A total of 50 case studies (buildings/sites) were surveyed based on
another one, Middle Eastern Geodatabase for Antiquities (MEGA) - the “Islamic heritage sites Project”, lunched in 2022 (see Table 1). This
Jordan, which is computerized database system for archaeological sites number represents a sample of heritage sites in the government and in
(Trillo et al., 2021). The DoA established the new system in 2011 in Jordan that can be considered under Islamic heritage classification and
cooperation with the Getty Conservation Institute and the World Mon­ covering most of accessible locations in the governorate out of around
ument Found. It is considered a national system that uses Global Posi­ 450 sites all over the country. The research used an archival research
tioning System (GPS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) to be and reconnaissance survey, which has widely been used in the IHSJ
accessible by researchers with specific rules and instructions. According project (e.g. Dumitru and Cosma, 2015; Xu et al., 2017) and can also be
to the Jordan’s law of antiquities No. 21 for the year 1988 issued by the referred to as “impact assessment” or “rapid inventory”. Reconnaissance
DoA,2 “antiquities” mean “any movable or immovable object that was survey is different from the intensive survey, despite the fact that both of
made, written, inscribed, built, discovered or modified by a human them involve the same process of documentation where sufficient data
should be gathered to give a professional description of the physical
appearance and condition of a site or structure. The difference is that an
intensive survey is designed to identify wholly and precisely all sites or
2
Jordan’s Department of Antiquities, The law of Antiquities No. 21 for the
year 1988 and it amendments in 2004: http://publication.doa.gov.jo/upl
3
oads/publications/203/Law%20of%20Antiquities-Jordan.pdf%20. Please refer to: http://www.apaame.org/.

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Fig. 2. Photogrammetric documentation in Umm al-Jimal converted mosque (Arce et al., 2014).

photos, architectural drawings, historical documentation and huge data

and text have been open-accessed as part of the free knowledge. It is
worth noting that the project distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution + ShareAlike 4.0 license, which reflects the au­
thors’ view of making the information available to the largest number of
researchers and students in an easy way, and making the project to be as
part of free knowledge and open content.
Five categories were used in the analysis of these heritage sites:
location, typology, structure, significance, and conservation attempts
and alterations. These categories are discussed in more details at the
findings section.

4. Findings

Many of the identified Islamic heritage sites in al-Mafraq Gover­

norate that were studied in the project date back to the period of
Umayyads, Ayyubids and Mamluks (ca. 661–1517), except some ruins
that belong to other periods such as Rashidūn Caliphate (Rjoub and
Housan, 2013). Table 1 summarizes the technical features of the iden­
tified case studies. The 50 Islamic heritage sites and buildings in
al-Mafraq Governorate were listed in alphabetical order, which are part
of dozens of sites in all over Jordan, representing the Islamic heritage.
Fig. 3. Reconstruction of stucco-decorated qibla-wall with miḥrab of al-Fedayn It is worth mentioning that many Safaitic, Arabic or even Greek in­
jami’ (Labisi, 2015). scriptions have been identified on the stones of the governorate Islamic
heritage sites as shown in Fig. 5, such as Ḥamad desert open-air mosque
structures in an area. In contrast, a reconnaissance survey includes an or Khirbet Ḥamnāneh or Tell al-Fahdāwı̄ sites (De Vaux, 1951; Jbour,
inspection of a site, where it is used to form the basis for more intensive, 2001; Betts et al., 2013; Talafha, 2015). At least 33 inscriptions were
detailed survey efforts. Additionally, these surveys cover the investiga­ recorded at different sites in al-Mafraq Governorate, most of which were
tion of the current and future levels of interventions. They aimed to written in Arabic language in different periods, while the rest were
identify marginalized Islamic heritage sites. Samples of those sites/ written in Greek and Safaitic languages. The first were found in many
buildings dated back from a period ranging from ca. the 7th century to sites where the ancient Byzantine sites were reused at a later time, while
the 20th century were identified. the second exists by the fact that the study area is part of the al-Harra
The IHSJ project contains, in alphabetical order, sites of mosques, desert,4 which is known for having vast number of those inscriptions,
significant tombs, and other memorials of Jordan’s rich Islamic history, graffiti carved by ancient nomads roughly between the 1st century BC
where each surveyed site at the project is classified and has its own temp and the 4th century AD (see Fig. 7) (see Fig. 6).
late describing all relent data in terms of location, building materials and It is worth mentioning that a number of Byzantine tomb stones in
construction system short description, coordinates, in addition to the Greek languages have been re-used in some of the heritage mosque sites
geodatabases. Taking into consideration that the DIN 31635/DMG1
standard has been used in the Romanization of the Arabic name, as
shown in Fig. 4. Moreover, all of the sites are categorized under two
4
Jordan’s geodatabase systems, JADIS and MEGA-Jordan, while most of It is a basalt rocky desert area that forms a large part of al-Mafraq Gover­
the sites have accurate coordinates, connected with Google maps. norate and other regions of Jordan’s neighboring countries. The site was added
to the UNESCO tentative list in 2019 (Ref. 6425). For more info about Jordan’s
Therefore, it is possible to search the sites by map location or by
world heritage list check: https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/_‫ﻕﺍﺉﻡﺓ_ﻡﻭﺍﻕﻉ_ﺍﻝﺕﺭﺍﺙ‬
governorate as well as alphabetical search. Moreover, thousands of rare
‫( ﺍﻝﻉﺍﻝﻡﻱ_ﻑﻱ_ﺍﻝﺃﺭﺩﻥ‬in Arabic).

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N. Jarrar Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage 32 (2024) e00316

Table 1
Studied sites of the Islamic Heritage Sites in Jordan Project within al-Mafraq Governorate, Jordan (2018–2022).
No. Site Name Typology/Period Coordinates Data Base Building Materials/ Plan Image
(Arabic Name) No. Construction Details

1 Abū ‘Ayāt/Abū Maqām/Weli Abū 32◦ 20′56.8″N JADIS no. Yellowish-brown local No information available
‘Ayāteh ‘Ayāt with masjid 35◦ 59′17.8″E 2419010 limestone.
‫ﺃﺏﻭ ﻉﻱﺍﻁ‬ al-Mafraq/ MEGA no.
Jerash7 7251

2 Ain Beni Ḥasan Jāmi’/masjid 32◦ 16′14.5″N JADIS no. Yellowish-brown

‫ﻉﻱﻥ ﺏﻥﻱ ﺡﺱﻥ‬ Umayyad 36◦ 03′13.8″E 241 8025 limestone of local
MEGA no. origin/Irregular
13010 masonry of coarsely
dressed limestone
boulders, in sectors two-
sided technique with fill
of smaller flaked and
unworked fieldstones
bound with mortar.
3 Belā‘mā, Masjid ‘Abū Ṭalāḥa 32◦ 14’02.5″N JADIS no. Basalt as building
formery named al- ‘Ansārı̄ Rashidūn 36◦ 05’14.0″E 2518001 material and the floor
Bil‘ām Caliphate MEGA no. out of mud.
‫ﺏﻝﻉﻡﺍ‬ 7498

4 Bqēa’wı̄a, al-/ Jāmi’,Umayyad 32◦ 03’58.0″N Basalt stones with mud. Long rectangular, single room,
Buqāy’wı̄yeh, al 37◦ 08’52.0″E covered by flat roof
‫ﺍﻝﺏﻕﻱﻉﺍﻭﻱﺓ‬

5 Brēqā Masjid 32◦ 26’43.0″N JADIS no. Basalt with mud floor/ Rectangular, with miḥrāb in S
‫ﺏﺭﻱﻕﺍ‬ AyyubidMamlu 36◦ 01’30.0″E 242 0004 Arch system to support wall.
(approx.) MEGA no. the roof.
3255

6 Burqu’, area of Masjid - open air Desert field stones, most

‫ﺏﺭﻕﻉ‬ desert mosque probably basalt with
chert.

7 Burqu’ Qaṣr Nabatean or 32◦ 36′30.0″N JADIS no. Basalt/All structures in

‫ﺏﺭﻕﻉ‬ Islamic (700 ?) 37◦ 57′44.0″E 422 2001 coarse basalt masonry
MEGA no. with squared blocks in
2797 horizontal courses.

(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued )
No. Site Name Typology/Period Coordinates Data Base Building Materials/ Plan Image
(Arabic Name) No. Construction Details

8 Fahdāwı̄, al-, Masjid - open air 32◦ 10′57.6″N JADIS no. Undressed basalt
Tell, Wādı̄ desert mosque 37◦ 14′45.6″E 361 7001 stones/The basalt
Rājel/Rajil ‫ﺕﻝ‬ (approx.) MEGA no. boulders are arbitrarily
‫ﻭﺍﺩﻱ‬/‫ﺍﻝﻑﻩﺩﺍﻭﻱ‬ 2767 piled up to form the
‫ﺭﺍﺝﻝ‬ rectangular prayer
place, without use of
mortar.

9 Fedayn, al- Jāmi’ 32◦ 20’42.3″N JADIS no.

‫ﺍﻝﻑﺩﻱﻥ‬ 36◦ 12’02.8″E 2619001
MEGA no.
58436/
7562/35,043

10 Ḥājj fort, Qal’a 32◦ 20′43.5″N MEGA no. Limestone with a

Ottoman 36◦ 12′05.0″E 58455, considerable portion of
58,436 reused basalt blocks/
Two sided masonries of
predominantly
brownish to white
limestone blocks with
the occasional intrusion
of basalt ashlars.

11 Ḥabbābı̄yah Jāmi’/open air Mixed limestone with No information available

‫ﺍﻝﺡﺏﺍﺏﻱﺓ‬ desert mosque? basalt, with mud floor

12 Ḥamad Masājid - various Basalt

‫ﺍﻝﺡﻡﺍﺩ‬ open air desert
mosques

13 Ḥam(n)āneh, Jāmi’ Limestone/Post and No information available

Khirbet beam system, mud floor
‫ﺥﺭﺏﺓ ﺡﻡﻥﺍﻥﺓ‬

14 Ḥamrāh Soḥem Jâmi’/desert 32◦ 10′44.0″N JADIS no.252 Mixed basalt with Rectangular, miḥrāb in S wall.
‫ﺡﻡﺭﺍﺀ ﺍﻝﺱﺡﻱﻡ‬ mosque? 36◦ 45′39.0″E 0006 MEGA limestone
(approx.) no.12889

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Table 1 (continued )
No. Site Name Typology/Period Coordinates Data Base Building Materials/ Plan Image
(Arabic Name) No. Construction Details

15 Ḥayān Mishrēf Jāmi’/masjid 32◦ 16’02.3″N JADIS no. White, brownish and
‫ﺡﻱﺍﻥ ﺍﻝﻡﺵﺭﻑ‬ Umayyad 36◦ 09’13.0″E 2518014. reddish well-dressed
MEGA no. limestone blocks, mixed
7505; 34,887 with some coarsely
broken fieldstones.

16 Ḥayān Jāmi’ 32◦ 14’40.0″N Basalt with Rectangular with No information available
Rowaybed east AyyubidMamluk/ 36◦ 07’50.0″E mud floor/ miḥrāb in S wall
‫ﺡﻱﺍﻥ ﺍﻝﺭﻭﻱﺏﺽ‬ Rebuilt Cross vault
‫ﺍﻝﺵﺭﻕﻱ‬ roof system

17 Ḥayān Masjid ‘Umar bin al- 32◦ 14’35.0″N Limestone with earth
Rowaybed west Khaṭṭāb/Salāḥ ad- 36◦ 07’17.5″E and hay mortar.
‫ﺡﻱﺍﻥ ﺍﻝﺭﻭﻱﺏﺽ‬ Dı̄n
‫ﺍﻝﻍﺭﺏﻱ‬ AyyubidMamluk/
Rebuilt

18 Ja’āda Jāmi’ Basalt/Vault system Rectangular with miḥrāb in S

‫ﺍﻝﺝﻉﺩﺓ؟‬ wall

19 Jāwa, Wādı̄ Open air mosque 32◦ 20’32.3″N JADIS no. Basalt/space of the
Rājel ‫ﻭﺍﺩﻱ‬/‫ﺝﺍﻭﺍ‬ 36◦ 59’30.0″E 3319002 mosque lined by heaped
‫ﺭﺍﺝﻝ‬ MEGA no. unworked stones, floor
8008 cleaned.

20 Jubat at-Tbala Open air desert 32◦ 02’23.6″N Basalt/Walls piled up of Approximately circular, only
‫ﺝﺏﺓ ﺍﻝﻁﺏﺍﻝﺍ‬ mosque 37◦ 30’16.2″E unworked basalt faint traces of the miḥrāb are
boulders; probably once still visible.
partly covered by a tent

21 Khanāzira/ Jāmi’ Ayyubid/ 32◦ 23’38.8″N JADIS no. Limestone rusticated Broad rectangular with
Khanāṣry Mamluk 36◦ 02’49.2″E 242 0002 ashlars of early Roman entrance in N (?), miḥrāb in S
‫ﺍﻝﺥﻥﺍﺹﺭﻱ‬ MEGA no. origin/spoils sitting on wall; paved space in front of N
2782 coarse field stone wall; surrounded by a
foundations. cemetery.
22 Khatla Anonymous 32◦ 17’26.0″N JADIS no. Local limestone. No information available
‫ﺥﻁﻝﺓ‬ Maqām/Weli 35◦ 57’13.0″E 2318021
MEGA no.
6641

23 Jāmi’ Ayyubid/ 32◦ 17’26.0″N JADIS no. Basalt, floor out of mud. Square, praying hall with
Mamluk 35◦ 57’13.0″E 2318021 local yellowishbrown miḥrāb in qibla (S) wall
MEGA no. limestone, most of the
6641 (jāmi’ massive, welldressed
not blocks of preIslamic
registered as origin/Post and beam
a site roof system.
element)

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Table 1 (continued )
No. Site Name Typology/Period Coordinates Data Base Building Materials/ Plan Image
(Arabic Name) No. Construction Details

24 Medwar Nōl, al- Jāmi’/Masjid Salāḥ 32◦ 17’12.7″N JADIS no. Used building materials
‫ﺍﻝﻡﺩﻭﺭ‬ ad-Dı̄n 35◦ 59’48.7″E 2418020 consist of industrially
MEGA no. fabricated naif (clean)
13009 limestone blocks which
are generally well cut
with or without rustica
from stone cutting
workshops.
25 Mnı̄fa/Monēfa Church converted to 32◦ 18’53.0″N JADIS no. Local limestone/Reused
‫ﻡﻥﻱﻑﺓ‬ a Jāmi’ 6th-7th 36◦ 04’46.6″E 2519014 arcades to carry the
centuries BC MEGA no. roof.
3448

26 Moēlı̄q Jāmi’/desert Basalt Rectangular with miḥrāb in

‫ﻡﻉﻱﻝﻱﻕ‬ mosque Umayyad the S wall

27 Qāṣab, Wādı̄ open air desert Limestone mixed with Rectangular

‫ﻭﺍﺩﻱ ﺍﻝﻕﺹﺏ ؟‬ mosque basalt, floor of mud

28 Reḥāb Church converted 32◦ 19′21.5″N JADIS no. In major parts rusticated
‫ﺭﺡﺍﺏ‬ into a mosque 36◦ 05′46.2″E 2519001 limestone blocks mixed
MEGA no. with few basalt ashlars
7506, of Roman date, already
mosque in reuse for the
34,938 construction of the
Christian Basilica.

29 Rı̄shā Jāmi’ - open air 32◦ 51’49.1″N JADIS no. Mixed basalt and Desert mosque, square in plan,
‫ﺍﻝﺭﻱﺵﺓ‬ desert mosque 38◦ 10’58.9″E 4425001 limestone/Heaped without or with only a
MEGA no. stones without mortar. temporary roof; mud floor.
8394,
mosque
36,611.

30 Ṣā’d, north Masjid, Umayyad or 32◦ 20′29.7″N JADIS no. Local brownish to
‫ﺹﻉﺩ ﺍﻝﺵﻡﺍﻝﻱ‬ Mamluk 35◦ 58′49.3″E 2419006 greywhite limestone
MEGA no. and chert, carefully cut
17685 in blocks of considerable
sizes in the N and S long
walls; unworked
fieldstones in the shorter
E and W walls.
31 Ṣā’d, south Masjid, Umayyad or 32◦ 20′21.0″N JADIS no. Local brownish to
‫ﺹﻉﺩ ﺍﻝﺝﻥﻭﺏﻱ‬ Mamluk. 35◦ 58′52.0″E 2419006 greywhite, semi porous
MEGA no. marl limestone
17698,
mosque 3248

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Table 1 (continued )
No. Site Name Typology/Period Coordinates Data Base Building Materials/ Plan Image
(Arabic Name) No. Construction Details

32 Samā’ Sirḥān Church of Saint 32◦ 28′04.2″N JADIS no. Basalt blocks, laid in
‫ﺱﻡﺍ ﺍﻝﺱﺭﺡﺍﻥ‬ Gorge, converted 36◦ 14′30.6″E 2620003 horizontal courses
into a mosque MEGA no. without mortar/Two-
7570, church sided masonry with
35,080 rubble earth fill in the
interior

33 Samra, Masjid, Umayyad 32◦ 10′50.8″N JADIS no. Dark-blue basalt

asKhirbet ‫ﺍﻝﺥﺭﺏﺓ‬ 36◦ 09′46.0″E 251 7001 combined with white
‫ﺍﻝﺱﻡﺭﺍ‬ MEGA no. limestone/Walls of the
2659 mosque are constructed
in twosided basalt
masonry in isodomic
bondage with interior
fill of rubble and earth.

34 Shbēka/ Jāmi’ 32◦ 24’24.8″N JADIS no. Basalt Rectangular, S wall with
Shubaykeh 37◦ 13’57.6″E 352 0003 miḥrāb projecting to the
(north) ‫ﺍﻝﺵﺏﻱﻙﺓ‬ MEGA no. exterior.
‫ﺍﻝﺵﻡﺍﻝﻱ‬ 2803

35 Shbēka/ Jāmi’ 32◦ 24’23.0″N JADIS no. Basalt with mud floor/ Rectangular, S wall with
Shubaykeh 37◦ 13’33.0″E 352 0003 Masonry of semidressed miḥrāb, with minaret
(west) ‫ﺍﻝﺵﺏﻱﻙﺓ‬ (apprx.) MEGA no. basalt blocks without
‫ﺍﻝﻍﺭﺏﻱ‬ 2803 mortar. Cross vault
roofing system

36 Sorra Jāmi’ Umayyad Basalt with mud floor/ Rectangular, praying hall with
‫ﺹﺭﺓ‬ Vault system miḥrāb

37 Ṣubhı̄yeh Qabr Akkab 32◦ 20’32.7″N JADIS no. Basalt blocks of ancient Isolated rectangular tomb
‫ﺹﺏﺡﻱﺓ‬ alFarūkh, Modern 36◦ 29’01.7″E 281 9012 pre-Islamic origin, memorial of a four stepped
(1966) MEGA no. constructed with the use cube, in E-W orientation,
7713 of concrete. covered with concrete.

38 Tell Bsēs Jāmi’/Open air Mixed basalt with chert. Prayer area with miḥrāb in the
‫ﺕﻝ ﺏﺱﻱﺱ‬ mosque Umayad S wall

39 Tulūl Ashāqı̄f Jāmi’, open air Basalt Rectangular

‫ﺕﻝﻭﻝ ﺍﺃﻝﺵﺍﻕﻑ‬ desert

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Table 1 (continued )
No. Site Name Typology/Period Coordinates Data Base Building Materials/ Plan Image
(Arabic Name) No. Construction Details

40 Umm al-Jimāl Jāmi’ 32◦ 19’29.9″N JADIS no. Roughly shaped basalt No information available
‫ﺃﻡ ﺍﻝﺝﻡﺍﻝ‬ 36◦ 22’13.7″E 2719002 blocks
MEGA no.
7642, 35,290

41 Jāmi’ 32◦ 19’32.3″N Roughly shaped basalt

AyyubidMamluk 36◦ 21’58.1″E blocks without use of
(approx.) mortar/Arches with
beams for roof.

42 Jāmi’ (?) in reuse of 32◦ 19’44.0″N MEGA no. Basalt/Two-sided

the extramural 36◦ 22’04.6″E 2978, 58,332 masonry of carefully
“western basilica” squared basalt blocks
AyyubidMamluk with a core of rubble fill.

43 Umm al-Quṭṭen Jāmi’ 32◦ 18′56.0″N JADIS no. Mixed basalt and Rectangular, single room,
‫ﺃﻡ ﺍﻝﻕﻁﻱﻥ‬ 36◦ 37′45.0″E 3019009 limestone/Vaulted miḥrāb in the S wall.
MEGA no. roofing system, mosaic
2788 floor.

44 Umm aṣ-Ṣurāb Church of Saints 32◦ 25’38.0″N JADIS no. Basalt blocks laid in
‫ﺃﻡ ﺍﻝﺱﺭﺏ‬ Sergius and Bacchus, 36◦ 18’45.0″E 2720001 horizontal layers
converted into a MEGA no. without mortar/Two-
Jāmi’. Umayyad or 2806, sided masonry with
Mamluk mosque rubble fill.
16,584

45 Wādı̄ Selma, Masjid, Open air 32◦ 28’07.7″N JADIS no. Undressed flat basalt
west desert mosque 37◦ 20’10.7″E 362 0011 boulders naturally
‫ﻭﺍﺩﻱ ﺱﻝﻡﻯ‬ (“mosque 1”) MEGA no. available upon the slope
‫ﺍﻝﻍﺭﺏﻱ‬ Umayyad 2819 ascending immediately
to the S of the exterior
qibla wall.

46 Masjid, Open air 32◦ 29’21.7″N JADIS no. Undressed flat basalt
desert mosque 37◦ 22’53.5″E 362 0011 boulders.
(“mosque 2”) (approx.) MEGA no.
2819

47 Masjid, Open air 32◦ 29’21.7″N JADIS no. Undressed flat basalt
desert mosque 37◦ 22’53.5″E 362 0011 boulders.
(“mosque 3”) (approx.) MEGA no.
2819

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N. Jarrar Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage 32 (2024) e00316

Table 1 (continued )
No. Site Name Typology/Period Coordinates Data Base Building Materials/ Plan Image
(Arabic Name) No. Construction Details

48 Masjid, Open air 32◦ 29’21.7″N JADIS no. Undressed flat basalt
desert mosque 37◦ 22’53.5″E 362 0011 boulders.
(“mosque 4”) (approx.) MEGA no.
2819

49 Za‘ātari/Khirbet Masjid, open air 32◦ 10’31.0″N JADIS no. Limestone/Classified Long rectangular single nave.
al-Qaḥātı̄ desert mosque (?) 36◦ 19’11.0″E 271 7006 the construction with
‫ﺥﺭﺏﺓ‬/‫ﺍﻝﺯﻉﺕﺭﻱ‬ Umayyad MEGA no. arches (?) and a roofing
‫ﺍﻝﻕﺡﺍﻁﻱ‬ 7617 in cross vaulted system.

50 Znaya, al-/ Umayyad 32◦ 12’00.0″N JADIS no. Local limestone. Rectangular
alZannı̄yah 36◦ 06’11.4″E MEGA no.
‫ﺍﻝﺯﻥﻱﺓ‬ 7444

and adjacent structures, such as the Umm al-Jimāl and Umm aṣ-Ṣurāb
sites, where the latter has some inscriptions recording the patronage of
the church by some saints.

4.1. Location

The vast majority of the case studies are located in the western and
central thirds of the governorate, specifically inside and around urban
clusters, with some exceptions such as Shubaykeh and Wadi Selma open
air-mosques, as shown in Table 1. The surveyed sites are located among the
following coordinates: 32.287365 N,35.934493E; 33.338789N,
38.799242E; 32.211871N,39.282963E; and 31.690314N,37.785597E.
This research has accurate locations for 45 sites out of the 50 studied sites
due to inability to access the sites or for other logistic reasons. Therefore,
five sites are not illustrated on Fig. 8 (see Fig. 9).

4.2. Typology

Fig. 4. Aerial photo documenting of Qaṣr Burqu’ from SW (Kennedy, 2000). Most of the selected sites were built during the Umayyad, Ayyubid
and Mamluk periods, representing valuable examples of dessert open-air
mosques. It is worth noting that five of those mosque sites were origi­
nally Byzantine churches that were completely or partially converted
later on (PPUAES IIA3, 1913). In general, most of the selected sites have
simple rectangular plans with the presence of the convex miḥrāb within
the southern Qibla walls, while the main use of most of those sites was
either as a mosque or Jami’. The latter is where Eid and Friday prayers
are held. Some of the original sites are attached with other facilities such
as Wādı̄ Selma sites, where a horseshoe-shaped water reservoir/birkeh
extends over the full width of the mosque (Bqaʿin, 2004).

4.3. Structure

The most substantial effects of simplicity in the surveyed structures

were construction techniques and materials. There are two materials
that have been used extensively in those sites – basalt and limestone – as
they are considered to be among the main local materials of the region
Fig. 5. A Screenshot of a site template card. (Rjoub and Housan 2013). Whereas, out of the 50 sites, there are around
29 sites built with basalt, 13 built with limestone, and 7 mixed. The two
materials are clearly dominant, either entirely or with partial use of

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Fig. 8. Locations map of al-Mafraq Governorate within Jordan, where most of

the surveyed sites are located in the western half of the governorate.

Fig. 6. Distribution map of the surveyed sites within al-Mafraq Gover­

norate, Jordan.

Fig. 9. A mosque inside old Bezantine church in Erhab.

Fig. 7. A reused lintel of a former Byzantine monastery in Samā’ Sirḥān site
refers in Greek to the year 519 of the Provincia Arabia (Bader, 2009). Byzantine, Rashidun caliphate, late Ottoman or even modern periods
which were built before and during the Hashemite rule. This long-lived
other ones such as mud for floors, chert, or fieldstone for walls (Rjoub era was associated with many architectural styles and effects, although
and Housan, 2013). Furthermore, Concrete was used in a few cases, the vast majority of the sites are considered desert open-air mosques.
especially at rebuilt sites in the twentieth century, where the use of Those structures represented functional and architectural landmarks in
plaster has been noted in some of them as well. On the other hand, there the present-day Jordan for centuries. Many of them are characterized by
is no specific construction system for these structures. However, in considerable extra strength compared to other ordinary structures at
general, they can be classified into four central systems: that time, obtained using different construction techniques such as
vaults and arches (Rjoub and Housan, 2013). Many of the selected
• Undressed flat boulders/Heaped stones without mortar structures represent the innovative use of basalt and limestone masonry
• Roughly shaped blocks/Unworked fieldstone or blocks and the potential to provide information on a particular period
• Masonry of semi-dressed/square blocks without mortar of the vernacular architecture. It is noteworthy that an overwhelming
• Two-sided masonry, fill of rubble and earth, as shown in Fig. 10. percentage of those sites are no longer used for Muslim prayers, with
exceptions for open-desert mosques that are still used by some Bedouin
As for roofing system, the cross-vault and arches systems are widely tribes, in addition to five mosques that were newly built/rebuilt or
noted, even though a significant portion of them have collapsed in attached to modern buildings for prayer.
several locations. Moreover, newly rebuilt sites also relied on these
roofing systems. It is worth noting that parts of earlier buildings, espe­ 4.5. Conservation attempts and alterations
cially churches, have been reused in some of them (Steuernagel, 1927;
Muheisin and Turshan, 1991). The current status of the selected sites is either active, inactive, or
demolished. Also, the sites differ in terms of the degree of conservation
4.4. Significance or even the alterations that have occurred, whether by adding new
structures or demolishing of the sites themselves. However, those works
The examined case studies share values, which give them cultural can be classified into five statuses:
significance. These values include: historical, architectural/structural,
or even religious values. Most of the identified Islamic heritage sites in • Intact: At least four sites are still intact (Burqu’ masjed, Hayan
the governorate date back to the Umayyad, Ayyubid and Mamluk pe­ Mishref, Medwar Nol, and Subhiyeh).
riods (ca. 661–1517), with exception to some ruins that belong to the

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N. Jarrar Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage 32 (2024) e00316

Fig. 10. Sketch ground plan and section of the Umm al-Jimāl site showing construction system. Source: Thomas M. Weber.

• Ruined: used for Muslim prayers: At least sex sites (e.g. Bela’ma, areas can be understood, which gives indications of the connection of
Wadi Selma west four sites, and Za’atari). Islamic heritage sites with their demographic and geographical sur­
• Ruined: not used for Muslim prayers: At least eighteen sites have roundings. The majority of those sites are distributed in the western
been preserved, but not in use for Muslim prayers any more (e.g. region of the governorate, where the center of the governorate, al-
Bqea’wia, Fedayn two sites, Khanasry, Mnifa, Rehab, Sa’d two sites, Mafraq city, is located in addition to other significant urban areas,
Sama Sirhan, Samra, Shbeka, Umm al-jimal three sites, and Umm as- such as the towns of Erhab, Zaatari, Umm al-Jamal, Balama, and al-
Surab). Khalidiya. The central region of the governorate had a significant
• Demolished: At least five sites have been badly demolished or bull­ number of sites as well, although it is less than that of the western re­
dozed. Some of them have been replaced by modern mosques (e.g. gion. The studied sites in that area form a strip parallel to the Syrian
Hayan Rowaybed east, Hayan Rowaybed west, Jubat at-Tbala, border area, while some of which are located in the desert outside urban
Khatla jami’, and al-zanniyah). areas, as is the case around the town of Safawi. However, the eastern
• Uncertain Status: As for the remaining sixteen sites, there is no ac­ part of the governorate lacks the presence of the sites studied within the
curate information about any preservation work that took place due project. One of the main reasons is the far distance of the most signifi­
to many reasons, including the inability to access the sites, limited cant urban areas in the governorate, with the exception of the town of
historical records, or other impediments that hinder thorough in­ Al-ruwayshid. Those sites are Risha and Burqu’ sites. Therefore, the sites
vestigations (e.g. Fahdawi). of that part are located almost randomly north of the international
highway leading to the Iraqi border to the East.
5. Discussion and conclusions As for typology, it can be concluded that there is a common pattern
among many of the studied sites, in terms of limited height and for­
It has been clear that digital heritage projects, either in Jordan or mation simplicity. This was due to the fact those sites were built in
abroad, have become a significant part of preserving and documenting similar periods of Islamic eras in the region, which their desert buildings
cultural heritage with a flexible and sustainable way. Also, it is impor­ did not include complex patterns or geometric motifs, with exceptions
tant to keep that digital heritage available to the public. Hence, the use regarding the Umayyad desert palaces exist in the Jordanian desert
its material, especially in the public domain, should not be subject to Badiyah.
unreasonable restrictions, taking into consideration the need to establish As for the structures, it is clear that the structural system used in the
a fair balance between the legal rights of rights holders, and the interests buildings was adopted in accordance with the functional need for a
of the public in benefiting from digital heritage materials, in accordance space inside buildings. For example, the gradation of such a structural
with international rules. system with respect to walls from a simple system to a complex one,
This research identified the need to integrate technology in doc­ reflects the impact of the building using on the choice of that system.
umenting the photographic and written memory of heritage and As for the significance, it is clear that the studied sites share a lot of
archaeological sites, specifically in al-Mafraq Governorate, northeastern values. The most dominant value is historical value, as the studied sites
Jordan. It also proposes integrating this kind of digitization into defining represent a very important historical era in the history of the region,
the significance and location of many Islamic heritage sites in the which is the period extents from Umayyad ear to the end of the late
governorate and all over the country, and sheds light on this important Ottoman era. Also it is possible to note the architectural and structural
topic that conveys a sense of place, memory and national identity. This values of those sites, which expresses simplicity. The religious value of
study employed a case study approach and used archival research and a many of those sites is also present in many cases, namely the open-desert
reconnaissance survey of several sites in Jordan, which are documented mosques.
by the “Islamic Heritage Sites Project”, lunched in 2022, to highlight As for the preservation attempts and alterations, it is clear that those
how the technology deals with this heritage and its role in sustainable various attempts came with the intervention of the local communities
development. Most of the case studies are abandoned despite their po­ according to their need to reuse the spaces effectively to serve users of
tential for future development through renovation and the role they can those buildings, although the interventions were sometimes based on
play in sustainable development. In this paper, a very important prob­ removing most of the original building and replacing them with new
lem has been addressed and highlighted how the digitization of heritage features.
sites can significantly contribute to heritage documentation, where five To some extent, digital documentation is a non-tangible resource
themes and categories have been identified for findings. that exists in a virtual computer environment. This type of heritage
The five categories that obtained in the findings are linked to the documentation has many advantages that transcend the boundaries of
Islamic Heritage Sites Project by detailing the results of digitized space and time, including the display of entire historical, geographical
documentation in a simple way that facilitates understanding the stud­ and architectural aspects of a heritage site on the internet, in addition to
ied sites and preserving the visual and written record in a modern way. display of archaeological collections, representing pottery, stone and
As for locations, the concentration of those sites around certain urban other findings of that site. Furthermore, digitization gives the reader an

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N. Jarrar Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage 32 (2024) e00316

opportunity to go through experiences that are difficult to achieve in paper entitled “Developing Digital Islamic Heritage Sites in Jordan: The
real life because of risk and distance factors. The digitized content Case of al-Mafraq” in your Journal, as I believe it is relevant to my topic.
gathers a multiplicity of sources over a wide range of places, where it
works to improve the quality of education regarding cultural heritage. References
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accurate information about some of the studied sites in terms of location karyotakis and ammar Khammash. https://edit.gerda-henkel-stiftung.de/islamic-he
and physical condition due to inability to access the sites or for other ritage-sites-in-jordan/a-students-gazetteer/title_148071.html, 2.8.23.
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CRediT authorship contribution statement Simou, S., Baba, K., Nounah, A., 2022. The integration of 3D technology for the
conservation and restoration of ruined archaeological artifacts. History of science
and technology 12 (1).
Nedhal Jarrar: Writing – original draft. Trillo, C., Aburamadan, R., Mubaideen, S., Salameen, D., Ncube, C., 2021. Towards a
systematic approach to digital technologies for heritage conservation. Insights from
Jordan. Preservation, Digital Technology & Culture 49 (4).
Declaration of competing interest
UNESCO, 2003. Draft charter on the preservation of the digital heritage, paris. https
://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000131178/PDF/131178eng.pdf.multi.
I am, Nedhal Jarrar, An Architect and PhD Candidate at the Uni­ Yin, R.K., 2014. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. SAGE, Los Angeles, CA.
versity of Cantabria – Spain. I am interested to publish my research

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