Data cleaning and

Data preprocessing

1.

preprocessing 1
Outline

„ Introduction
„ Data cleaning
„ Data integration and transformation
„ Data reduction
„ Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
„ Summary
preprocessing 2
Why Data Preprocessing?

„ Data in the real world is dirty

‰ incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of
interest, or containing only aggregate data
‰ noisy: containing errors or outliers
‰ inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names
„ No quality data, no quality mining results!
‰ Quality decisions must be based on quality data
‰ Data warehouse needs consistent integration of quality data

preprocessing 3
Data Understanding: Relevance

„ What data is available for the task?

„ Is this data relevant?

„ Is additional relevant data available?

„ How much historical data is available?

„ Who is the data expert ?

preprocessing 4
Data Understanding: Quantity

„ Number of instances (records, objects)

‰ Rule of thumb: 5,000 or more desired
‰ if less, results are less reliable; use special methods (boosting, …)

„ Number of attributes (fields)

‰ Rule of thumb: for each attribute, 10 or more instances
‰ If more fields, use feature reduction and selection

„ Number of targets
‰ Rule of thumb: >100 for each class
‰ if very unbalanced, use stratified sampling

preprocessing 5
Multi-Dimensional Measure of Data Quality

„ A well-accepted multidimensional view:

‰ Accuracy
‰ Completeness
‰ Consistency
‰ Timeliness
‰ Believability
‰ Value added
‰ Interpretability
‰ Accessibility
„ Broad categories:
‰ intrinsic, contextual, representational, and accessibility.

preprocessing 6
Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
„ Data cleaning
‰ Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers, and
resolve inconsistencies
„ Data integration
‰ Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
„ Data transformation
‰ Normalization and aggregation
„ Data reduction
‰ Obtains reduced representation in volume but produces the same or
similar analytical results
„ Data discretization
‰ Part of data reduction but with particular importance, especially for
numerical data
preprocessing 7
Forms of data preprocessing

preprocessing 8
 Outline

„ Introduction
„ Data cleaning
„ Data integration and transformation
„ Data reduction
„ Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
„ Summary
preprocessing 9
 Data Cleaning

„ Data cleaning tasks

‰ Data acquisition and metadata
‰ Fill in missing values
‰ Unified date format
‰ Converting nominal to numeric
‰ Identify outliers and smooth out noisy data
‰ Correct inconsistent data

preprocessing 10
Data Cleaning: Acquisition

„ Data can be in DBMS

‰ ODBC, JDBC protocols
„ Data in a flat file
‰ Fixed-column format
‰ Delimited format: tab, comma “,” , other

‰ E.g. C4.5 and Weka “arff” use comma-delimited data

‰ Attention: Convert field delimiters inside strings

„ Verify the number of fields before and after

preprocessing 11
 Data Cleaning: Example

„ Original data (fixed column format)

000000000130.06.19971979--10-3080145722 #000310 111000301.01.000100000000004
0000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.0000
00000000000. 000000000000000.000000000000000.0000000...…
000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.00
0000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.0000
00000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000
000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.00 0000000000300.00 0000000000300.00

„ Clean data
0000000001,199706,1979.833,8014,5722 , ,#000310 ….
,111,03,000101,0,04,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0300,
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0300,0300.00

preprocessing 12
 Data Cleaning: Metadata
„ Field types:
‰ binary, nominal (categorical), ordinal, numeric, …
‰ For nominal fields: tables translating codes to full
descriptions
„ Field role:
‰ input : inputs for modeling
‰ target : output
‰ id/auxiliary : keep, but not use for modeling
‰ ignore : don’t use for modeling
‰ weight : instance weight
‰ …

„ Field descriptions

preprocessing 13
Data Cleaning: Reformatting

Convert data to a standard format (e.g. arff or csv)

„ Missing values
„ Unified date format
„ Binning of numeric data
„ Fix errors and outliers
„ Convert nominal fields whose values have order to
numeric.
‰ Q: Why? A: to be able to use “>” and “<“ comparisons
on these fields)

preprocessing 14
Missing Data

„ Data is not always available

‰ E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several attributes, such as
customer income in sales data
„ Missing data may be due to
‰ equipment malfunction
‰ inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
‰ data not entered due to misunderstanding
‰ certain data may not be considered important at the time of entry
‰ not register history or changes of the data
„ Missing data may need to be inferred.

preprocessing 15
How to Handle Missing Data?
„ Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing (assuming the
tasks in classification—not effective when the percentage of missing values
per attribute varies considerably.
„ Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
„ Use a global constant to fill in the missing value: e.g., “unknown”, a
new class?!
„ Imputation: Use the attribute mean to fill in the missing value, or use the
attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same class to fill in the
missing value: smarter
„ Use the most probable value to fill in the missing value: inference-based
such as Bayesian formula or decision tree
preprocessing 16
Data Cleaning:
Unified Date Format
„ We want to transform all dates to the same format internally
„ Some systems accept dates in many formats
‰ e.g. “Sep 24, 2003” , 9/24/03, 24.09.03, etc

‰ dates are transformed internally to a standard value

„ Frequently, just the year (YYYY) is sufficient

„ For more details, we may need the month, the day, the hour, etc
„ Representing date as YYYYMM or YYYYMMDD can be OK, but has
problems
„ Q: What are the problems with YYYYMMDD dates?
‰ A: Ignoring for now the Looming Y10K (year 10,000 crisis …)
‰ YYYYMMDD does not preserve intervals:
‰ 20040201 - 20040131 /= 20040131 – 20040130
‰ This can introduce bias into models

preprocessing 17
Unified Date Format Options

„ To preserve intervals, we can use

‰ Unix system date: Number of seconds since 1970
‰ Number of days since Jan 1, 1960 (SAS)

„ Problem:
‰ values are non-obvious
‰ don’t help intuition and knowledge discovery

‰ harder to verify, easier to make an error

preprocessing 18
KSP Date Format

days_starting_Jan_1 - 0.5
KSP Date = YYYY + ----------------------------------
365 + 1_if_leap_year
„ Preserves intervals (almost)
„ The year and quarter are obvious
‰ Sep 24, 2003 is 2003 + (267-0.5)/365= 2003.7301 (round to 4 digits)
„ Consistent with date starting at noon
„ Can be extended to include time

preprocessing 19
Y2K issues: 2 digit Year

„ 2-digityear in old data – legacy of Y2K

„ E.g. Q: Year 02 – is it 1902 or 2002 ?
‰ A: Depends on context (e.g. child birthday or year of
house construction)
‰ Typical approach: CUTOFF year, e.g. 30

‰ if YY < CUTOFF , then 20YY, else 19YY

preprocessing 20
Conversion: Nominal to Numeric

„ Some tools can deal with nominal values internally

„ Other methods (neural nets, regression, nearest
neighbor) require only numeric inputs
„ To use nominal fields in such methods need to
convert them to a numeric value
‰ Q: Why not ignore nominal fields altogether?
‰ A: They may contain valuable information

„ Differentstrategies for binary, ordered, multi-valued

nominal fields

preprocessing 21
Conversion: Binary to Numeric

„ Binary fields
‰ E.g. Gender=M, F
„ Convert to Field_0_1 with 0, 1 values
‰ e.g. Gender = M Æ Gender_0_1 = 0
‰ Gender = F Æ Gender_0_1 = 1

preprocessing 22
Conversion: Ordered to Numeric

„ Orderedattributes (e.g. Grade) can be converted to

numbers preserving natural order, e.g.
‰ A Æ 4.0
‰ A- Æ 3.7

‰ B+ Æ 3.3

‰ B Æ 3.0

„ Q: Why is it important to preserve natural order?

„ A: To allow meaningful comparisons, e.g. Grade >
3.5

preprocessing 23
Conversion: Nominal, Few Values

„ Multi-valued,
unordered attributes with small (rule of
thumb < 20) no. of values
‰ e.g. Color=Red, Orange, Yellow, …, Violet
‰ for each value v create a binary “flag” variable C_v , which is 1

if Color=v, 0 otherwise

ID Color … ID C_re C_orange C_yello …

d w
371 red 371 1 0 0
433 yellow 433 0 0 1

preprocessing 24
 Conversion: Nominal, Many Values

„ Examples:
‰ US State Code (50 values)
‰ Profession Code (7,000 values, but only few frequent)

„ Q: How to deal with such fields ?

„ A: Ignore ID-like fields whose values are unique for each
record
„ For other fields, group values “naturally”:
‰ e.g. 50 US States Æ 3 or 5 regions
‰ Profession – select most frequent ones, group the rest

„ Create binary flag-fields for selected values

preprocessing 25
Noisy Data
„ Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable
„ Incorrect attribute values may due to
‰ faulty data collection instruments
‰ data entry problems
‰ data transmission problems
‰ technology limitation
‰ inconsistency in naming convention
„ Other data problems which requires data cleaning
‰ duplicate records
‰ incomplete data
‰ inconsistent data

preprocessing 26
 How to Handle Noisy Data?

„ Binning method:
‰ first sort data and partition into (equi-depth) bins
‰ then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin median, smooth
by bin boundaries, etc.
„ Clustering
‰ detect and remove outliers
„ Combined computer and human inspection
‰ detect suspicious values and check by human
„ Regression
‰ smooth by fitting the data into regression functions

preprocessing 27
Simple Discretization Methods: Binning

„ Equal-width (distance) partitioning:

‰ It divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform grid
‰ if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the attribute, the
width of intervals will be: W = (B-A)/N.
‰ The most straightforward
‰ But outliers may dominate presentation
‰ Skewed data is not handled well.
„ Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning:
‰ It divides the range into N intervals, each containing approximately
same number of samples
‰ Good data scaling
‰ Managing categorical attributes can be tricky.

preprocessing 28
Binning Methods for Data Smoothing
* Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34
* Partition into (equi-depth) bins:
- Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34
* Smoothing by bin means:
- Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9
- Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23
- Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29
* Smoothing by bin boundaries:
- Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34

preprocessing 29
Cluster Analysis

preprocessing 30
Regression
y

Y1

Y1’ y=x+1

X1 x

preprocessing 31
Outline

„ Introduction
„ Data cleaning
„ Data integration and transformation
„ Data reduction
„ Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
„ Summary
preprocessing 32
Data Integration
„ Data integration:
‰ combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store
„ Schema integration
‰ integrate metadata from different sources
‰ Entity identification problem: identify real world entities from
multiple data sources, e.g., A.cust-id ≡ B.cust-#
„ Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
‰ for the same real world entity, attribute values from different sources
are different
‰ possible reasons: different representations, different scales, e.g., metric
vs. British units

preprocessing 33
Handling Redundant Data in
Data Integration
„ Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple
databases
‰ The same attribute may have different names in different databases
‰ One attribute may be a “derived” attribute in another table, e.g.,
annual revenue
„ Redundant data may be able to be detected by correlational
analysis
„ Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may
help reduce/avoid redundancies and inconsistencies and
improve mining speed and quality
preprocessing 34
Data Transformation

„ Smoothing: remove noise from data

„ Aggregation: summarization, data cube construction
„ Generalization: concept hierarchy climbing
„ Normalization: scaled to fall within a small, specified range
‰ min-max normalization
‰ z-score normalization
‰ normalization by decimal scaling
„ Attribute/feature construction
‰ New attributes constructed from the given ones

preprocessing 35
 Data Transformation:
Normalization
„ min-max normalization
v − minA
v' = (new _ maxA − new _ minA) + new _ minA
maxA − minA
„ z-score normalization
v − mean A
v'=
stand _ dev A
„ normalization by decimal scaling
v
v' = j Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(| v ' |)<1
10

preprocessing 36
Unbalanced Target Distribution

„ Sometimes, classes have very unequal frequency

‰ Attrition prediction: 97% stay, 3% attrite (in a month)
‰ medical diagnosis: 90% healthy, 10% disease

‰ eCommerce: 99% don’t buy, 1% buy

‰ Security: >99.99% of Americans are not terrorists

„ Similar situation with multiple classes

„ Majority class classifier can be 97% correct, but
useless

preprocessing 37
Handling Unbalanced Data

„ With two classes: let positive targets be a minority

„ Separate raw held-aside set (e.g. 30% of data) and raw
train
‰ put aside raw held-aside and don’t use it till the final model
„ Select remaining positive targets (e.g. 70% of all targets)
from raw train
„ Join with equal number of negative targets from raw train,
and randomly sort it.
„ Separate randomized balanced set into balanced train and
balanced test

preprocessing 38
Building Balanced Train Sets

Y
Targets ..
.. Balanced set
Non-Targets N
N
N
..
..
..
..
Balanced Train
Raw Held
..
Balanced Test

preprocessing 39
Learning with Unbalanced Data

„ Buildmodels on balanced train/test sets

„ Estimate the final results (lift curve) on the raw held
set

„ Can generalize “balancing” to multiple classes

‰ stratified sampling
‰ Ensure that each class is represented with approximately
equal proportions in train and test

preprocessing 40
 Outline

„ Introduction
„ Data cleaning
„ Data integration and transformation
„ Data reduction
„ Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
„ Summary
preprocessing 41
 Data Reduction Strategies
„ Warehouse may store terabytes of data: Complex data
analysis/mining may take a very long time to run on the
complete data set
„ Data reduction
‰ Obtains a reduced representation of the data set that is much smaller
in volume but yet produces the same (or almost the same) analytical
results
„ Data reduction strategies
‰ Data cube aggregation
‰ Dimensionality reduction
‰ Numerosity reduction
‰ Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

preprocessing 42
 Data Cube Aggregation
„ The lowest level of a data cube
‰ the aggregated data for an individual entity of interest
‰ e.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse.
„ Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes
‰ Further reduce the size of data to deal with
„ Reference appropriate levels
‰ Use the smallest representation which is enough to solve the task
„ Queries regarding aggregated information should be answered
using data cube, when possible
preprocessing 43
 Dimensionality Reduction

„ Feature selection (i.e., attribute subset selection):

‰ Select a minimum set of features such that the probability distribution
of different classes given the values for those features is as close as
possible to the original distribution given the values of all features
‰ reduce # of patterns in the patterns, easier to understand
„ Heuristic methods (due to exponential # of choices):
‰ step-wise forward selection
‰ step-wise backward elimination
‰ combining forward selection and backward elimination
‰ decision-tree induction

preprocessing 44
Example of Decision Tree Induction

Initial attribute set:

{A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6}
A4 ?

A1? A6?

Class 1 Class 2 Class 1 Class 2

> Reduced attribute set: {A1, A4, A6}

preprocessing 45
Attribute Selection

„ There are 2d possible sub-features of d features

„ First: Remove attributes with no or little variability
‰ Examine the number of distinct field values
„ Rule of thumb: remove a field where almost all values are the same (e.g. null),
except possibly in minp % or less of all records.
„ minp could be 0.5% or more generally less than 5% of the number
of targets of the smallest class
„ What is good N?
‰ Rule of thumb -- keep top 50 fields

preprocessing 46
 Data Compression
„ String compression
‰ There are extensive theories and well-tuned algorithms
‰ Typically lossless
‰ But only limited manipulation is possible without expansion
„ Audio/video compression
‰ Typically lossy compression, with progressive refinement
‰ Sometimes small fragments of signal can be reconstructed without
reconstructing the whole
„ Time sequence is not audio
‰ Typically short and vary slowly with time

preprocessing 47
Data Compression

Original Data Compressed

Data
lossless

s s y
lo
Original Data
Approximated

preprocessing 48
 Wavelet Transforms
Haar2 Daubechie4
„ Discrete wavelet transform (DWT): linear signal processing
„ Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of the
strongest of the wavelet coefficients
„ Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better lossy
compression, localized in space
„ Method:
‰ Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0s, when necessary)
‰ Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
‰ Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2
‰ Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length

preprocessing 49
Principal Component Analysis
„ Given N data vectors from k-dimensions, find c <= k
orthogonal vectors that can be best used to represent data
‰ The original data set is reduced to one consisting of N data vectors
on c principal components (reduced dimensions)
„ Each data vector is a linear combination of the c principal
component vectors
„ Works for numeric data only
„ Used when the number of dimensions is large

preprocessing 50
Principal Component Analysis

X2

Y1
Y2

X1

preprocessing 51
 Numerosity Reduction

„ Parametric methods
‰ Assume the data fits some model, estimate model parameters,
store only the parameters, and discard the data (except possible
outliers)
‰ Log-linear models: obtain value at a point in m-D space as the
product on appropriate marginal subspaces
„ Non-parametric methods
‰ Do not assume models
‰ Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling

preprocessing 52
Regression and Log-Linear Models
„ Linear regression: Data are modeled to fit a straight line
‰ Often uses the least-square method to fit the line

„ Multiple regression: allows a response variable Y to be

modeled as a linear function of multidimensional feature
vector

„ Log-linear model: approximates discrete multidimensional

probability distributions

preprocessing 53
Regress Analysis and Log-Linear Models
„ Linear regression: Y = α + β X
‰ Two parameters , α and β specify the line and are to be estimated by
using the data at hand.
‰ using the least squares criterion to the known values of Y1, Y2, …,
X1, X2, ….
„ Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2.
‰ Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the above.
„ Log-linear models:
‰ The multi-way table of joint probabilities is approximated by a
product of lower-order tables.
‰ Probability: p(a, b, c, d) = αab βacχad δbcd

preprocessing 54
 Histograms
„ A popular data reduction
40
technique
35
„ Divide data into buckets
and store average (sum) 30
for each bucket 25
„ Can be constructed 20
optimally in one 15
dimension using dynamic
10
programming
5
„ Related to quantization
problems. 0
10000 30000 50000 70000 90000

preprocessing 55
 Clustering
„ Partition data set into clusters, and one can store cluster
representation only
„ Can be very effective if data is clustered but not if data is
“smeared”
„ Can have hierarchical clustering and be stored in multi-
dimensional index tree structures
„ There are many choices of clustering definitions and
clustering algorithms, further detailed in Chapter 8

preprocessing 56
Sampling
„ Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that is
potentially sub-linear to the size of the data
„ Choose a representative subset of the data
‰ Simple random sampling may have very poor performance in the
presence of skew
„ Develop adaptive sampling methods
‰ Stratified sampling:
„ Approximate the percentage of each class (or subpopulation of
interest) in the overall database
„ Used in conjunction with skewed data

„ Sampling may not reduce database I/Os (page at a time).

preprocessing 57
 Sampling

W O R
SRS le random
im p ho ut
(s e wit
p l
sam ment)
pl ac e
re

SRSW
R

Raw Data

preprocessing 58
Sampling

Raw Data Cluster/Stratified Sample

preprocessing 59
 Hierarchical Reduction
„ Use multi-resolution structure with different degrees of
reduction
„ Hierarchical clustering is often performed but tends to define
partitions of data sets rather than “clusters”
„ Parametric methods are usually not amenable to hierarchical
representation
„ Hierarchical aggregation
‰ An index tree hierarchically divides a data set into partitions by value
range of some attributes
‰ Each partition can be considered as a bucket
‰ Thus an index tree with aggregates stored at each node is a
hierarchical histogram
preprocessing 60
Outline

„ Introduction
„ Data cleaning
„ Data integration and transformation
„ Data reduction
„ Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
„ Summary
preprocessing 61
Discretization

„ Three types of attributes:

‰ Nominal — values from an unordered set
‰ Ordinal — values from an ordered set
‰ Continuous — real numbers
„ Discretization:
divide the range of a continuous attribute into intervals
‰ Some classification algorithms only accept categorical attributes.
‰ Reduce data size by discretization
‰ Prepare for further analysis

preprocessing 62
Discretization and Concept hierachy

„ Discretization
‰ reduce the number of values for a given continuous attribute by
dividing the range of the attribute into intervals. Interval labels
can then be used to replace actual data values.
„ Concept hierarchies
‰ reduce the data by collecting and replacing low level concepts
(such as numeric values for the attribute age) by higher level
concepts (such as young, middle-aged, or senior).

preprocessing 63
Discretization and concept hierarchy
generation for numeric data
„ Binning (see sections before)

„ Histogram analysis (see sections before)

„ Clustering analysis (see sections before)

„ Entropy-based discretization

„ Segmentation by natural partitioning

preprocessing 64
 Entropy-Based Discretization

„ Given a set of samples S, if S is partitioned into two intervals

S1 and S2 using boundary T, the entropy after partitioning is
| S 1| |S 2|
E (S ,T ) = Ent ( S 1) + Ent ( S 2)
|S| |S|
„ The boundary that minimizes the entropy function over all
possible boundaries is selected as a binary discretization.
„ The process is recursively applied to partitions obtained until
some stopping criterion is met, e.g.,
Ent ( S ) − E (T , S ) > δ
„ Experiments show that it may reduce data size and improve
classification accuracy

preprocessing 65
Segmentation by natural partitioning
3-4-5 rule can be used to segment numeric data into
relatively uniform, “natural” intervals.
* If an interval covers 3, 6, 7 or 9 distinct values at the most
significant digit, partition the range into 3 equi-width
intervals
* If it covers 2, 4, or 8 distinct values at the most significant
digit, partition the range into 4 intervals
* If it covers 1, 5, or 10 distinct values at the most significant
digit, partition the range into 5 intervals

preprocessing 66
Example of 3-4-5 rule count

Step 1: -$351 -$159 profit $1,838 $4,700

Min Low (i.e, 5%-tile) High(i.e, 95%-0 tile) Max
Step 2: msd=1,000 Low=-$1,000 High=$2,000

(-$1,000 - $2,000)
Step 3:

(-$1,000 - 0) (0 -$ 1,000) ($1,000 - $2,000)

(-$4000 -$5,000)
Step 4:

($2,000 - $5, 000)

(-$400 - 0) (0 - $1,000) ($1,000 - $2, 000)
(0 -
($1,000 -
(-$400 - $200)
$1,200) ($2,000 -
-$300) $3,000)
($200 -
($1,200 -
$400)
(-$300 - $1,400)
($3,000 -
-$200)
($400 - ($1,400 - $4,000)
(-$200 - $600) $1,600) ($4,000 -
-$100) ($600 - ($1,600 - $5,000)
$800) ($800 - ($1,800 -
$1,800)
(-$100 - $1,000) $2,000)
0)

preprocessing 67
Concept hierarchy generation for
categorical data
„ Specification of a partial ordering of attributes explicitly at
the schema level by users or experts
„ Specification of a portion of a hierarchy by explicit data
grouping
„ Specification of a set of attributes, but not of their partial
ordering
„ Specification of only a partial set of attributes

preprocessing 68
Specification of a set of attributes
Concept hierarchy can be automatically generated based on
the number of distinct values per attribute in the given
attribute set. The attribute with the most distinct values
is placed at the lowest level of the hierarchy.

country 15 distinct values

province_or_ state 65 distinct values

city 3567 distinct values

street 674,339 distinct values

preprocessing 69
 Outline

„ Introduction
„ Data cleaning
„ Data integration and transformation
„ Data reduction
„ Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
„ Summary
preprocessing 70
 Summary

„ Data preparation is a big issue for both warehousing and

mining
„ Data preparation includes
‰ Data cleaning and data integration
‰ Data reduction and feature selection
‰ Discretization

„ A lot a methods have been developed but still an active

area of research
preprocessing 71
Good data preparation is
key to producing valid and
reliable models

preprocessing 72