The structural-functionalist perspective, rooted in sociology, focuses on understanding

society as a system of interconnected parts, each with a specific function that

contributes to the stability and equilibrium of the whole. It originated from the works
of sociologists like Émile Durkheim and later expanded by theorists such as Talcott
Parsons and Robert K. Merton. This perspective views social institutions—such as
family, education, government, and religion—as structures with essential roles in
maintaining societal harmony.

Key Concepts in Structural-Functionalism

1.

Structure and Function: Structural-functionalism emphasizes that society

has various structures (institutions, norms, and customs) that serve essential
functions. Each part of society is interdependent, contributing to the overall
functioning of society. For example, education transmits knowledge and skills
necessary for economic participation, while religion may provide moral
guidelines and community cohesion.

2.
3.

Social Order and Stability: This perspective is grounded in the belief that
societies seek stability and order. Structures work together to minimize
conflict, promote cooperation, and maintain societal equilibrium. Social
disruptions (e.g., unemployment, crime) are viewed as issues that must be
addressed to restore balance.

4.
5.

Manifest and Latent Functions: Robert K. Merton expanded on

functionalism by distinguishing between manifest functions (intended and
recognized) and latent functions (unintended or unrecognized). For example, a
manifest function of schools is to educate, while a latent function may be to
promote social networks or prevent youth unemployment by keeping people in
education.

6.
7.

Equilibrium and Adaptation: According to Talcott Parsons, social systems

aim for equilibrium, where social structures adapt to maintain stability. When
one part of society changes, other parts adjust to re-establish balance. Parsons
proposed that all societies must address four functional prerequisites:
adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and latency (pattern maintenance).

8.
Key Theories Related to Structural-Functionalism

1.

Talcott Parsons’ AGIL Framework: Parsons suggested that for any society
to survive, it must fulfill four functional imperatives:

2.

1. Adaptation: Societies must adapt to their environment (e.g., through economic

activities).
2. Goal Attainment: Societies need to set and achieve goals (e.g., through political
structures).
3. Integration: Different parts of society need to coordinate and work together (e.g.,
through legal systems).
4. Latency (Pattern Maintenance): Societies need to sustain values and norms over
time (e.g., through family and educational systems).

3.

Robert K. Merton's Functional Analysis: Merton’s functional analysis

introduced the idea of manifest and latent functions, emphasizing that not all
functions are positive. Dysfunctional structures may contribute to social
problems, and societies may have to modify or eliminate these structures to
restore harmony.

4.
5.

Émile Durkheim's Theory of Social Solidarity: Durkheim introduced the

concepts of mechanical and organic solidarity. In traditional societies,
mechanical solidarity (a shared consciousness among people with similar
lives) is prevalent, while in modern societies, organic solidarity
(interdependence among diverse individuals with specialized roles) is more
common. Both forms of solidarity maintain social cohesion.

6.
7.

Critiques of Structural-Functionalism: Critics argue that structural-

functionalism is overly deterministic and static, often neglecting the role of
individual agency and failing to address social inequalities and power
dynamics. Conflict theorists, for example, argue that this perspective
overlooks how structures can perpetuate inequality.

8.

Applications of Structural-Functionalism
The structural-functionalist perspective has been applied in fields such as criminology
(viewing crime as a social issue with both functional and dysfunctional aspects),
education (understanding how schools socialize individuals), and family studies
(examining how family roles contribute to societal stability).

Conflict perspective

The conflict perspective is a sociological approach that views society as a complex

system characterized by inequality, power struggles, and competition for limited
resources. Originating primarily from the works of Karl Marx, this perspective
suggests that social order is maintained not through consensus and harmony but
through domination and coercion. The conflict perspective examines how power,
privilege, and inequality shape social structures, institutions, and relationships,
focusing on the dynamics of class, race, gender, and other social divisions.

Core Ideas of the Conflict Perspective

1.

Power and Inequality: Society is structured in a way that benefits certain

groups at the expense of others. Those with power—often due to economic,
racial, or gender advantages—create and uphold institutions that reinforce
their dominance.

2.
3.

Social Change through Conflict: Conflict theorists argue that social change
is inevitable and often arises from class struggles or conflicts between
competing groups with divergent interests.

4.
5.

Control over Resources: Economic resources, social capital, and authority

are unequally distributed in society, creating a hierarchy where those at the top
maintain control over resources, while others face limited access.

6.
7.

Ideology and False Consciousness: Ideologies are promoted by those in

power to legitimize the social order. Marx, for example, introduced the idea of
"false consciousness," a state where individuals in the working class may not
be fully aware of their own exploitation due to the influence of dominant
ideologies.
 8.
9.

Social Institutions as Tools of Control: Institutions such as education,

religion, family, and law enforce norms and values that support the status quo,
often maintaining the power of dominant groups.

10.

Key Theories within the Conflict Perspective

1.

Marxist Theory:

2.

1. Karl Marx argued that all historical development is rooted in class conflict between
the bourgeoisie (owners of production) and the proletariat (working class).
2. Marx predicted that this struggle would ultimately lead to the collapse of capitalism
and the rise of a classless society.
3. Surplus Value: Marx theorized that the exploitation of the working class occurs
when workers produce more value than they are compensated for, with the surplus
value going to the capitalists.

3.

Neo-Marxist Theories:

4.

1. Antonio Gramsci introduced the concept of hegemony, where the ruling class
maintains power not only through coercion but by controlling cultural and
ideological norms that make their dominance appear natural.
2. Frankfurt School theorists, such as Herbert Marcuse, Max Horkheimer, and Theodor
Adorno, explored how media, culture, and technology could perpetuate capitalist
ideologies and suppress revolutionary consciousness.

5.

C. Wright Mills and the Power Elite:

6.

1. Mills argued that a small group of elites controls major institutions (government,
economy, military) and influences society’s direction.
2. Power Elite Theory posits that these elite groups act in their self-interest and
maintain power by influencing policy, often at the expense of the general
population.
 7.

Feminist Theory:

8.

1. Many feminist theories align with the conflict perspective, viewing gender
inequalities as fundamental to the structure of society.
2. Radical Feminism examines how patriarchy functions as a system of power that
exploits and controls women, often intersecting with class and race-based
oppression.
3. Intersectionality (introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw) explores how overlapping
social identities (such as race, gender, and class) contribute to unique forms of
oppression.

9.

Critical Race Theory:

10.

1. Critical race theorists examine how race and racism are embedded in legal systems
and social institutions.
2. This theory highlights that racial inequalities are structural, sustained through both
conscious discrimination and unconscious biases within systems of power.

11.

Conflict Theory in Education:

12.

1. Sociologists in this area, such as Pierre Bourdieu, have argued that education
reproduces social inequalities through mechanisms like cultural capital (knowledge,
skills, education), which benefit those from more privileged backgrounds.
2. Tracking, standardized testing, and curriculum design can reinforce class
stratification by privileging certain students and disadvantaging others.

Applications of Conflict Perspective

The conflict perspective can be applied to study issues such as economic inequality,
social movements, labor disputes, racial and gender discrimination, and global power
relations. By focusing on power dynamics and social inequalities, conflict theory
challenges assumptions of harmony and consensus, highlighting the need for social
reform and structural change to achieve a more equitable society.
Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that emphasizes the role of
symbols, language, and social interactions in shaping human behavior and society.
Rooted in the work of scholars like George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer, this
theory focuses on how individuals create and interpret meaning through their
interactions with others.

Here’s a detailed overview of symbolic interactionism and related theories:

Core Principles of Symbolic Interactionism

Meaning: People act based on the meanings that things have for them. These
meanings are not inherent but are created through social interaction.

1. Example: A flag might symbolize national pride for one person but oppression for
another, depending on their experiences and social context.
2.

Language: Language is the medium through which individuals share and

negotiate meanings. Symbols (e.g., words, gestures) are fundamental to this
process.

Thought: The internal conversation or "mind" allows individuals to interpret

symbols and decide on actions. This connects the external social world with
internal cognition.

Self-Concept: The self is shaped through interactions with others. Concepts

like the "looking-glass self" (Charles Horton Cooley) describe how people
see themselves based on how they believe others perceive them.

Social Interaction: Society is seen as a product of ongoing social interactions.

Through repeated interactions, shared norms and roles emerge.

Key Theorists and Contributions

George Herbert Mead

1. Emphasized the development of the self through social interaction.

2. Introduced the concepts of the "I" (spontaneous, individual self) and the "Me"
(socially influenced self).

Herbert Blumer
 1. Coined the term symbolic interactionism.
2. Outlined three premises:

1. People act toward things based on their meanings.

2. Meanings arise through social interaction.
3. Meanings are modified through interpretation.

Erving Goffman

1. Developed dramaturgical analysis, viewing social life as a stage where individuals

perform roles.
2. Introduced concepts like "front stage" (public persona) and "back stage" (private
self).

Charles Horton Cooley

1. Developed the concept of the looking-glass self, emphasizing how individuals

develop self-awareness through the perceptions of others.

W.I. Thomas

1. Introduced the Thomas theorem: "If men define situations as real, they are real in
their consequences." This highlights how subjective perceptions can shape objective
reality.

Related Theories

Role Theory:

1. Focuses on the social roles individuals play in various contexts and how these roles
influence behavior and identity.
2. Labeling Theory:

1. Explores how societal labels (e.g., "criminal," "genius") influence self-concept and
behavior.
2. Commonly applied in criminology and deviance studies.

Social Constructionism:

1. Examines how social realities (e.g., gender, race, institutions) are constructed
through shared agreements and maintained through interaction.

Ethnomethodology:

1. Studies the methods people use to make sense of everyday social interactions and
maintain a sense of order.
Applications of Symbolic Interactionism

Education:

1. Explains teacher-student interactions and how labels (e.g., "gifted," "troublemaker")

affect student outcomes.

Media and Communication:

1. Analyzes how media symbols influence public perception and behavior.

Healthcare

1. Explores the patient-provider relationship and how cultural meanings affect health
behaviors.

Identity Formation:

1. Provides insight into how individuals construct and negotiate their identities in
social contexts.