IT Fundamental

Unit - 1
Introduction to Computers

Computers are electronic devices designed to perform a wide range of tasks by executing
instructions given through software. The history of computers spans from mechanical calculating
machines to the powerful, multipurpose machines we use today. A computer system is
composed of both hardware (physical components) and software (programs and data), and
understanding its components, operations, and the way it processes information is vital for
anyone interested in the field of computing.

1. Computer System Concepts

A computer system can be defined as a complete unit that combines both hardware and
software components to perform tasks, ranging from simple calculations to complex simulations.
It includes not just the computer itself but also input devices (like a keyboard and mouse),
output devices (like a monitor and printer), storage devices (like hard drives), and software
programs (including the operating system and applications).

A computer system follows the basic input-process-output-storage (IPOS) cycle, where it takes
inputs from the user, processes that information, stores it as needed, and provides output to the
user.

2. Characteristics of Computers

Computers are widely regarded for their superior capabilities when compared to human
performance. Here are some of the core characteristics:

•​ Speed: Computers can process data at incredible speeds, performing millions or

even billions of operations per second. This enables them to complete tasks like complex
calculations, data analysis, and multimedia processing almost instantaneously.

•​ Accuracy: Unlike humans, computers are capable of performing repetitive tasks

with consistent accuracy. They do not suffer from errors due to fatigue or distractions, which
makes them highly reliable.

•​ Automation: Once programmed, computers can execute tasks automatically

without further human intervention. This is especially useful for tasks that require repetition and
precision.
 •​ Storage: Computers can store vast amounts of data in both temporary (RAM)
and permanent (hard drives, SSDs) memory. This allows users to store files, run applications,
and access data as needed.

•​ Versatility: Computers can perform a wide variety of tasks, from scientific

research and engineering to entertainment and social communication. With the right software, a
single computer can serve many different purposes.

•​ Diligence: Computers can perform tasks endlessly without experiencing fatigue

or loss of performance, unlike humans who may grow tired after long hours of work.

3. Generations of Computers

Generations of Computers

The development of computers can be categorized into five generations, with each generation
representing a significant technological leap.

•​ First Generation (1940-1956): These computers were based on vacuum tubes,

which were large, fragile, and produced a lot of heat. Notable machines from this era include the
ENIAC and UNIVAC. These systems were large, consumed a lot of power, and were used
primarily for scientific and military purposes.

•​ Second Generation (1956-1963): The introduction of transistors replaced the

vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, more reliable, and energy-efficient. These computers
were faster and more cost-effective. Examples include the IBM 1401 and UNIVAC 1108.

•​ Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits (ICs), which combined multiple

transistors on a single chip, replaced individual transistors. This allowed for further
miniaturization and speed improvements. The IBM System/360 and PDP-8 are examples of
third-generation computers.

•​ Fourth Generation (1971-present): Microprocessors, which integrated thousands

of transistors onto a single chip, led to the development of personal computers (PCs). This
generation saw the emergence of computers like the Apple II, IBM PC, and later, powerful
desktop and laptop computers.

•​ Fifth Generation (Future): This generation focuses on artificial intelligence (AI),

quantum computing, and machine learning. While still in its infancy, these technologies promise
to revolutionize computing, enabling computers to perform tasks that currently require human
intelligence, such as natural language processing and advanced data analysis.

4. Types of Computers

Computers can be categorized based on their processing power, size, and functionality.
 •​ Analog Computers: These computers process continuous data and are typically
used for specialized tasks such as monitoring physical variables (e.g., temperature, speed,
voltage). An example is a thermometer or speedometer.

•​ Digital Computers: These handle discrete data and are the most common type of
computer today. Digital computers process data in binary form (0s and 1s) and are used in
everything from personal laptops to high-performance supercomputers.

•​ Hybrid Computers: These combine both analog and digital technology. Hybrid
computers are used in specialized fields such as medical diagnostics, where continuous data
(e.g., heart rate) needs to be processed alongside discrete data (e.g., test results).

5. Components of a Computer System

A computer system consists of multiple components that work together to perform computing
tasks. These components include both hardware and software:

•​ Hardware Components:

•​ Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the brain of the computer,
responsible for executing instructions. It consists of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), which
performs calculations, and the Control Unit (CU), which directs the flow of instructions.

•​ Memory: This refers to storage units that temporarily hold data and instructions.
The main types of memory are RAM (Random Access Memory), which is fast and temporary,
and ROM (Read-Only Memory), which is permanent and stores essential boot-up instructions.

•​ Input Devices: Devices like the keyboard, mouse, scanner, and microphone allow
users to provide data to the computer.

•​ Output Devices: Devices like monitors, printers, and speakers display or produce
the results of computer processing.

•​ Software Components:

•​ System Software: The most important example of system software is the

operating system (OS), which manages hardware resources and provides a user interface.
Examples of OS include Windows, macOS, and Linux.

•​ Application Software: These are programs designed to help users perform

specific tasks, such as word processors (Microsoft Word), web browsers (Google Chrome), or
video editing software (Adobe Premiere).

•​ Firmware: A type of software that is embedded into hardware, providing low-level

control for specific hardware functions, such as BIOS (Basic Input/Output System).

6. Booting Process
The booting process refers to the series of steps a computer takes from the moment it is
powered on to the point where the operating system (OS) is loaded and ready for use. The goal
of booting is to initialize hardware components, load the necessary software, and provide a user
interface for interaction. This process is critical for ensuring that a computer system starts up
correctly and is ready to execute programs and tasks.

These are two main types of booting process -

•​ Cold Boot: Also known as a “hard boot,” this occurs when the computer is turned
on from a completely off state. The computer’s hardware checks and initializes all components,
and the operating system is loaded from storage into RAM.

•​ Warm Boot: Also known as a “soft boot,” this happens when the computer is
restarted without being completely powered off. This process is typically faster than cold booting
because the system does not need to initialize hardware components again.

Steps of the Booting Process:

1.​ When power is applied, the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) runs a POST
(Power-On Self-Test) to check if all necessary hardware components (e.g., memory, processor,
keyboard) are functioning properly.

2.​ The bootloader loads the operating system into memory.

3.​ The operating system initializes its components, such as device drivers and user
interface, to make the system ready for use.

7. Input and Output Devices

(1)​ Input Devices: These devices allow users to enter data into a computer system.
Common input devices include:

•​ Keyboard: Used for typing text and entering commands.

•​ Mouse: A pointing device used to interact with graphical elements on the screen.

•​ Scanner: Used to input physical documents into a digital form.

•​ Microphone: Captures sound and converts it into digital form.

•​ Webcam: Captures images or video for use in communication or content

creation.

(2)​ Output Devices: These devices allow a computer to communicate information to the
user. Common output devices include:
 •​ Monitor: Displays visual output from the computer, such as text, images, and
videos.

•​ Printer: Converts digital documents into physical form.

•​ Speakers: Output sound and audio signals from the computer.

•​ Projector: Displays output on a large surface, typically used for presentations.

8. Storage Devices

Storage devices are hardware components used to store data digitally. These devices play a
critical role in the functioning of computers, smartphones, tablets, and other electronic devices.
They provide a means for users to save data and access it as needed, both for short-term and
long-term use. Storage devices are essential for running software, saving files, and backing up
important information.

•​ Primary Storage (Volatile):

•​ RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary storage used to hold data that is
actively being processed by the CPU. It is fast but loses all data when the power is turned off.

•​ Cache Memory: A small, high-speed memory located inside or near the CPU that
stores frequently used data for faster access.

•​ Secondary Storage (Non-Volatile):

•​ Hard Disk Drive (HDD): The most common type of secondary storage, using
magnetic disks to store data. It offers large storage capacities but is relatively slower than
solid-state drives.

•​ Solid-State Drive (SSD): A faster and more reliable alternative to HDDs that uses
flash memory for storage, which results in quicker data access and lower power consumption.

•​ Optical Discs (CDs, DVDs): Use laser technology to read and write data.
Commonly used for media distribution and backup storage.

•​ Tertiary Storage: These are used for long-term archival storage and typically
involve removable

9.Computer Software

Computer software refers to the collection of programs, data, and instructions that tell a
computer what to do and how to perform tasks. Software can be classified into system software,
application software, and firmware. Here’s a breakdown:
1. System Software

System software is designed to manage and control the hardware components of a computer
and provide a platform for running application software. It is the foundational software that
allows users and applications to interact with the hardware.

•​ Examples: Operating systems (Windows, Linux, macOS), device drivers, utility

programs (e.g., antivirus, disk management tools), and system libraries.

2. Application Software

Application software refers to programs designed to perform specific tasks or applications that
users interact with directly. These tasks can range from productivity, entertainment,
communication, and more.

•​ Examples: Word processors (Microsoft Word), web browsers (Google Chrome),

media players, games, and accounting software.

3. Firmware

Firmware is specialized software that provides low-level control for hardware devices. It is
typically stored on hardware components (like ROM chips) and is not intended to be modified by
end users. Firmware operates at a lower level than application software and system software.

•​ Examples: BIOS/UEFI in computers, firmware on printers, routers, and

embedded systems like washing machines or refrigerators.

10.Programming Languages Classification

Programming languages can be classified into three main types based on their level of
abstraction from the hardware: Machine Language, Assembly Language, and High-Level
Language.

1. Machine Language (First Generation Language - 1GL)

Machine language is the lowest-level programming language, consisting of binary code (1s and
0s) that the computer’s central processing unit (CPU) can directly understand. Each instruction
corresponds to a specific operation for the hardware.

•​ Characteristics: Machine-specific, fast execution, but difficult to program and

debug.

2. Assembly Language (Second Generation Language - 2GL)

Assembly language is a symbolic representation of machine language. It uses mnemonics

(human-readable symbols) for operations (e.g., ADD for addition, MOV for moving data). Each
assembly instruction corresponds directly to a machine-level instruction.
 •​ Characteristics: Easier to understand than machine language, but still low-level
and machine-specific. Requires an assembler to convert the assembly code to machine code.

3. High-Level Language (Third and Fourth Generation Languages - 3GL and 4GL)

High-level languages are closer to human languages and abstract away hardware details.
These languages are more user-friendly, portable (can run on different hardware), and are
easier to write, read, and maintain.

•​ Examples of 3GL: C, Java, Python, Ruby, Fortran, and COBOL.

•​ Examples of 4GL: SQL (Structured Query Language), MATLAB, and Visual

Basic. 4GLs are designed to be even more user-friendly, often closer to natural language or
designed for specific tasks (e.g., database manipulation).

11.Evolution of Programming Languages

Programming languages have evolved over time to improve ease of use, portability, and
efficiency. They are categorized into generations based on their features and abstraction level.

1. First Generation (1GL): Machine Language

The first generation consisted of machine code, which directly interacted with the hardware. It
was written in binary code (0s and 1s), and each machine had its own set of instructions,
making it difficult to write and debug.

2. Second Generation (2GL): Assembly Language

Assembly language emerged as a step forward from machine language. It used mnemonics to
represent instructions and was still hardware-dependent. Programmers wrote code in a more
human-readable form but still had to work closely with hardware.

3. Third Generation (3GL): High-Level Programming Languages

The third generation brought languages like C, Java, Python, and Fortran, which abstracted
away hardware details and provided greater portability across different systems. These
languages use more understandable syntax, reducing the complexity of programming and
allowing the creation of larger, more complex applications.

4. Fourth Generation (4GL): Specialized High-Level Languages

Fourth-generation languages are designed to be even more user-friendly, focusing on high

productivity with less code. They often include features that help developers build applications
quickly, such as database query languages, report generators, and GUI-building tools.

•​ Examples: SQL (for database queries), MATLAB (for mathematical

computations), and AutoCAD (for design automation).
12.Language Translators

A language translator is software that converts high-level programming code into machine code
(or intermediate code) so that a computer can execute the program. There are three primary
types of language translators:

1. Compiler

A compiler translates the entire source code of a program into machine code or intermediate
code in one go. The translated code is saved as a separate file (e.g., .exe on Windows). The
compilation process is done before the program runs, and the program is executed afterward.

•​ Advantages: The resulting machine code runs faster because the translation
happens beforehand.

•​ Disadvantages: Errors are reported only after the entire program is compiled,
making debugging more difficult.

2. Interpreter

An interpreter translates and executes the program line-by-line or statement-by-statement. It

does not produce a separate file; instead, it reads the high-level code and executes it
immediately.

•​ Advantages: Easier to debug, as errors are reported line-by-line.

•​ Disadvantages: Slower execution, as the code is translated each time the

program is run.

3. Assembler

An assembler translates assembly language code into machine code. Assembly language is a
human-readable representation of machine language, and the assembler converts it into the
binary code that a computer’s CPU can execute.

•​ Example: The process of turning an assembly program into machine code using
an assembler.

13.Operating System (OS)

An Operating System (OS) is software that manages computer hardware and software
resources and provides a range of services for computer programs. It is the interface between
users and the computer hardware, controlling and coordinating activities such as memory
management, process scheduling, input/output operations, and file management.

Definition:
An operating system is a software program that enables communication between the user and
the hardware of a computer or device. It also manages the system’s resources and provides an
environment for application programs to run.

Job:

The primary functions or jobs of an OS include:

1.​ Memory Management: Allocating and deallocating memory for running

processes.

2.​ Process Management: Managing processes in terms of creation, scheduling, and

termination.

3.​ File Management: Organizing and managing files and directories on storage
devices.

4.​ Device Management: Managing hardware devices such as printers, monitors,

and storage devices.

5.​ Security and Access Control: Ensuring authorized access to data and resources
and protecting against malware.

6.​ User Interface: Providing a means for users to interact with the computer (e.g.,
graphical user interface (GUI) or command-line interface (CLI)).

Objective:

The objectives of an operating system include:

•​ Efficient Resource Utilization: Maximizing the use of hardware resources (CPU,

memory, etc.) to ensure optimal performance.

•​ Ease of Use: Providing a user-friendly interface to interact with the computer.

•​ Multitasking and Multi-user Support: Supporting the execution of multiple

processes and users simultaneously.

•​ Reliability and Stability: Ensuring the OS runs smoothly without errors or crashes.

12.Evolution of Operating Systems:

The evolution of operating systems can be divided into several stages:

1.​ First Generation (Batch Systems):

Early operating systems were simple batch systems where programs were executed in batches
without any interaction with the user. The OS controlled input/output operations and job
scheduling.

2.​ Second Generation (Multiprogramming):

These systems allowed multiple programs to run at the same time by sharing the CPU, a
concept known as multiprogramming. The OS was able to switch between programs,
maximizing resource utilization.

3.​ Third Generation (Time-Sharing):

Time-sharing systems allowed multiple users to interact with the computer simultaneously. The
OS managed tasks through time slices, giving each user or process a short period of time to
use the CPU.

4.​ Fourth Generation (Personal Computers and GUI):

With the advent of personal computers, operating systems like Windows and Mac OS
introduced graphical user interfaces (GUIs), making it easier for users to interact with their
computers. Operating systems became more user-friendly and supported multitasking and
networking.

5.​ Fifth Generation (Mobile and Cloud):

Modern operating systems support mobile devices (like Android and iOS), cloud computing, and
advanced multitasking. They are optimized for performance, touch interfaces, and connectivity.

13.Types of Operating Systems

There are several types of operating systems, each designed for specific purposes:

1.​ Batch Operating System: Executes batches of jobs without user interaction. Early
OS used this method.

2.​ Multi-tasking (Time-Sharing) OS: Allows multiple tasks or processes to be

executed concurrently by allocating CPU time to each task (e.g., Linux, Windows).

3.​ Distributed OS: Manages a group of computers working together as if they were
a single system (e.g., Google’s Android, Linux-based systems).

4.​ Real-time OS: Designed for systems that require immediate processing of data
(e.g., embedded systems, industrial control systems).

5.​ Network OS: Provides services to allow different devices on a network to

communicate with
14.classifications of digital computer system

Digital computer systems can be classified based on different criteria such as their size,
functionality, processing power, or application domain. Here’s an overview of how digital
computers are generally classified:

1. Based on Size and Capability

a. Microcomputers (Personal Computers):

•​ Size: Small, typically used by individuals or small businesses.

•​ Components: Consists of a microprocessor, memory, input/output devices, and

storage.

•​ Examples: Desktops, laptops, smartphones.

•​ Applications: General-purpose use, such as web browsing, office tasks, gaming,

and personal use.

b. Minicomputers (Mid-Range Computers):

•​ Size: Larger than microcomputers but smaller than mainframes.

•​ Components: Multi-user systems capable of supporting several simultaneous

users.

•​ Examples: PDP-11, VAX systems.

•​ Applications: Used in small to medium-sized businesses for tasks such as

process control, data management, and scientific applications.

c. Mainframe Computers:

•​ Size: Large, powerful systems capable of handling and processing massive

amounts of data.

•​ Components: Can support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously, with

high levels of reliability and storage.

•​ Examples: IBM Z-series, UNIVAC.

•​ Applications: Large enterprises, government agencies, financial institutions for

transaction processing, database management, and scientific calculations.

d. Supercomputers:
 •​ Size: Extremely large and powerful computers designed for high-speed
calculations.

•​ Components: Often consist of parallel processing units and advanced cooling

systems.

•​ Examples: IBM Blue Gene, Cray XT5.

•​ Applications: Weather forecasting, scientific simulations, space exploration,

nuclear research, and complex data modeling.

2. Based on Purpose/Functionality

a. General-purpose Computers:

•​ Description: These computers are designed to perform a wide range of tasks by

running various types of software.

•​ Examples: Personal computers, laptops, tablets, and smartphones.

•​ Applications: Suitable for general tasks like word processing, browsing the web,
gaming, etc.

b. Special-purpose Computers:

•​ Description: These computers are designed to perform specific tasks or

functions.

•​ Examples: Embedded systems, control systems, gaming consoles, digital

watches.

•​ Applications: Often used in appliances, automobiles, robotics, and other devices

where specialized computing is required.

3. Based on Data Handling

a. Analog Computers:

•​ Description: Analog computers process continuous data (e.g., voltage, current)

that varies smoothly over time.

•​ Applications: Primarily used in scientific and engineering fields, such as weather

modeling or simulating physical systems.

b. Digital Computers:
 •​ Description: Digital computers process discrete data in binary form (0s and 1s).
All modern computers are digital computers.

•​ Applications: General-purpose computing, business, education, gaming, etc.

c. Hybrid Computers:

•​ Description: Hybrid computers combine features of both analog and digital

systems. They can process continuous (analog) data but also perform discrete (digital)
computations.

•​ Examples: Used in complex simulation systems, industrial automation, and

medical instrumentation.

4. Based on Architecture

a. Von Neumann Architecture:

•​ Description: This is the traditional architecture used in most digital computers. It

uses a single memory space for both data and instructions. It has a control unit, arithmetic logic
unit (ALU), memory, and input/output devices.

•​ Applications: Found in most personal computers, servers, and mainframes.

b. Harvard Architecture:

•​ Description: In this architecture, there are separate memory spaces for data and
instructions, allowing for faster processing since both can be accessed simultaneously.

•​ Applications: Used in specialized applications like embedded systems,

microcontrollers, and signal processing.

5. Based on Computing Power

a. Parallel Computers:

•​ Description: These computers use multiple processors to perform computations

simultaneously, improving processing speed and handling large-scale computations.

•​ Examples: Supercomputers, multi-core processors in personal computers.

•​ Applications: Scientific research, high-performance computing, simulations, big

data analytics.

b. Distributed Computers:
 •​ Description: Distributed computing systems consist of multiple independent
computers connected via a network, working together to perform tasks.

•​ Examples: Cloud computing systems, grid computing.

•​ Applications: Web hosting, cloud services, distributed databases.

जय हिन्द