4.

1 THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF A CHEMICAL PROCESS

4.1.1 Explain the meaning of Chemical Engineering.
Chemical engineering is a discipline influencing numerous areas of technology. In broad terms, chemical
engineers conceive and design processes to produce, transform, and transport materials — beginning with
experimentation in the laboratory followed by the implementation of the technology in full-scale production
Chemical engineering involves the production and manufacturing of products through chemical processes.
This includes designing equipment, systems, and processes for refining raw materials and for mixing,
compounding, and processing chemicals.
Chemical engineers translate processes developed in the lab into practical applications for the commercial
production of products, and then work to maintain and improve those processes. They rely on the main
foundations of engineering: math, physics, and chemistry. Biology also plays an increasingly important role.

4.1.2 Describe the general components of a chemical processing plant i.e.

Stage 1. Raw material storage

Unless the raw materials (also called essential materials, or feed stocks) are supplied as
intermediate products (intermediates) from a neighbouring plant, some provision will have to be made to
hold several days, or weeks, storage to smooth out fluctuations and interruptions in supply. Even when the
materials come from an adjacent plant some provision is usually made to hold a few hours, or even days,
supply to decouple the processes. The storage required will depend on the nature of the raw materials, the
method of delivery, and what assurance can be placed on the continuity of supply. If materials are delivered
by ship (tanker or bulk carrier) several weeks stocks may be necessary; whereas if they are received by road
or rail, in smaller lots, less storage will be needed.
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Stage 2. Feed preparation

Some purification, and preparation, of the raw materials will usually be necessary before they are
sufficiently pure, or in the right form, to be fed to the reaction stage. For example, acetylene generated by
the carbide process contains arsenic and sulfur compounds, and other impurities, which must be removed by
scrubbing with concentrated sulfuric acid (or other processes) before it is sufficiently pure for reaction with
hydrochloric acid to produce dichloromethane. Liquid feeds will need to be vaporized before being fed to
gas phase reactors, and solids may need crushing, grinding and screening.

Stage 3. Reactor

The reaction stage is the heart of a chemical manufacturing process. In the reactor the raw materials are
brought together under conditions that promote the production of the desired product; invariably, by-
products and unwanted compounds (impurities) will also be formed.
Stage 4. Product separation
In this first stage after the reactor the products and by-products are separated from any unreacted material. If
in sufficient quantity, the unreacted material will be recycled to the reactor. They may be returned directly to
the reactor, or to the feed purification and preparation stage. The by-products may also be separated from the
products at this stage.

Stage 5. Purification
Before sale, the main product will usually need purification to meet the product specification. If produced in
economic quantities, the by-products may also be purified for sale.

Stage 6. Product storage

Some inventory of finished product must be held to match production with sales. Provision for product
packaging and transport will also be needed, depending on the nature of the product. Liquids will normally
be dispatched in drums and in bulk tankers (road, rail and sea), solids in sacks, cartons or bales. The stock
held will depend on the nature of the product and the market.
Ancillary processes

In addition to the main process stages shown in Figure 1.3, provision will have to be made for the supply of
the services (utilities) needed; such as, process water, cooling water, compressed air, steam. Facilities will
also be needed for maintenance, firefighting, offices and other accommodation, and laboratories.

Raw materials
Processing Chemicals
Chemical processing is a method of altering a compound. Chemical processing is done to change the
chemical structure of raw (bulk) materials in order to obtain products that are valuable to other
industries/daily life.

Chemical process industry is where raw (bulk) materials are chemically transformed in the process of being
processed into finished products or products of value to other industries. The chemical processing industry
includes manufacturing facilities whose products are derived from

Preparation stage
Reactors
The reaction stage is the heart of a chemical manufacturing process. In the reactor the raw materials are
brought together under conditions that promote the production of the desired product; invariably, by-
products and unwanted compounds (impurities) will also be formed.
Stage 4. Product separation
In this first stage after the reactor the products and by-products are separated from any unreacted material. If
in sufficient quantity, the unreacted material will be recycled to the reactor. They may be returned directly to
the reactor, or to the feed purification and preparation stage. The by-products may also be separated from the
products at this stage.

Purification and
Before sale, the main product will usually need purification to meet the product specification. If produced in
economic quantities, the by-products may also be purified for sale.

storage.
Some inventory of finished product must be held to match production with sales. Provision for product
packaging and transport will also be needed, depending on the nature of the product. Liquids will normally
be dispatched in drums and in bulk tankers (road, rail and sea), solids in sacks, cartons or bales. The stock
held will depend on the nature of the product and the market.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF REACTORS

4.2.1 Classify reactors as follows:
- homogenous and heterogenous reactors.

Difference Between Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Reactions

The key difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions is that the reactants and products that
take part in homogeneous reactions are in the same phase whereas the reactants and products in
heterogeneous reactions are in different phases.
The homogeneity and heterogeneity are two chemical concepts that we describe regarding the uniformity of
a subject. The subject can be a mixture of components, reactions, etc. The term homogeneous refers to
“same”, and heterogeneous refers to “different”.

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Reaction

In order to understand the reactions and mechanisms of homogeneous as well as heterogeneous reactions, it
is important to develop a basic understanding of the terms homogeneous and heterogeneous and how they
are different from each other. A heterogeneous reaction is a class of reaction that happens between two or
more reactants that are present in two or more different phases, for instance, the phases of the reactants can
be solid-liquid, solid-gas or two immiscible liquids. There are certain reactions that take place on the surface
of another substance. To be more specific, when two reactants undergo a chemical change on the interface
of a catalyst that can be in solid or liquid form (studies suggest mostly solid) also falls under the category of
heterogeneous reactions. Heterogeneous reactions can be defined as that class of reactions which occurs
between two or more reactants which are present in two or more different phases. For example, the phases of
the reactants can be either liquid and solid, gaseous or solid or two liquids which cannot be mixed. There are
many reactions which take place on the surface of other substances which means that when two reactants
undergo a chemical change then the interface of the catalyst is either solid or liquid forms. All of these also
come under heterogeneous reactions. Some Examples of Heterogeneous Reactions are The reaction of solid
metals with acids, the corrosion of iron, the electrochemical reaction occurring in batteries and electrolytic
cells are all subjected to a heterogeneous reaction. Most of the research and studies regarding heterogeneous
reactions are done for heterogeneous catalysts such as the reaction between liquids or gases that happens on
the surface of a solid catalyst that helps in initiating the reaction or increasing the reaction rate. The most
important reactions are between gases and reactions happen between liquids or substances which are
dissolved in these liquids. Examples of such reactions are the reaction between oxygen and natural gas
which leads to the production of flame or the reaction of solutions of acid and bases in aqueous solutions.
 Reaction Between Salt and Water is Heterogeneous
Examples:

 Coal burning in air

 The reaction between salt and water
 Iron rusting underwater
 The reaction between sodium metal and water

On the other hand, a homogeneous reaction is a class of reactions where the reactants are present in a single
phase, that is, either solid, liquid, or gas. Homogeneous, unlike heterogeneous reaction, is based on the
physical state of the reactants. The important homogeneous reactions are the reactions between gases and
reactions happening between liquids or substances dissolved in liquids. Examples of homogeneous reactions
are the combination of natural gas and oxygen to produce flame or a reaction of aqueous solutions of acid
and bases. Out of the two homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions, the former is easy to understand as the
nature of homogeneous reactions solely depends upon the nature of the interaction of the reactants.

Examples:

 The reaction between carbon monoxide and oxygen in the air

 The reaction between HCl and NaOH in water
- batch reactors and continuous reactors.

A batch reactor is like a giant washing machine. There is a big vat where all of the reagents are put and a big
agitator that keeps them stirring. A batch reactor is great if a company wants to make small amounts of
specialty chemicals one "batch" at a time, but not if they want to make the same thing over and over. This is
because the reactor must be emptied and cleaned after every batch is made. This takes a lot of time and
money, and every batch can be just a little bit different due to small changes in reaction conditions,
equipment aging, or because the operator drops a little bit of something foreign into the reactor.

In a continuous process, the reactor is basically a long tube. The raw materials go in one end, react on their
way through the tube, not stopping along the way, and the finished product comes out the other end. A
continuous process works well, because it can easily make large amounts of a product with little attention
from a careless factory worker, and the product usually tends to be of similar quality throughout the process.
The down side is, like in the initial production of Butyl rubber, if the tube gets clogged, the whole system
has to be shut down for cleaning, which can cost a lot of time and money.

Types of Reactors
Types of Reactors:- A chemical reactor is a process equipment where in chemicals are fed in order to make
them chemically react with each other for the purpose of making a desired product. Chemical reactors are
designed in such a way to increase the net present value for a given reaction and it is done by ensuring
highest efficiency to output the desired product.

Types of Reactors
1. Batch Reactor
2. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (C.S.T.R)
3. Plug Flow Reactor (P.F.R)
4. Semi-Batch Reactor
1. Batch Reactor
A batch reactor is a closed vessel in which reactions happen and it is a non-continuous type of reactor. The
reactants are fed in to the reactor all at once initially. The vessel contains an agitator. The purpose of the
agitator is to mix the reactants thoroughly so that the contact makes them react together efficiently and
produce products.
Types of Reactors:- Batch Reactor

Types of Reactors:- Batch Reactor

In order to handle exothermic reactions the batch reactor is often equipped with cooling coils. In order to
work with endothermic reactions the batch reactor has provisions for heating the reaction mixture.

The batch reactor is a non-steady, transient reactor. It means the extent of conversion within the reactor
depends on time. Due to agitator the batch reactor is highly uniform in nature. It means the extent of
conversion does not depend on location within the reactor. At a given time the extent of reaction at any
location of the volume of the reactor will be equal to each other.

Advantage

The greatest advantage of operating a batch reactor is its versatility. Same batch reactor can be used to
chemically react quite different variety of reactants. Batch reactors are especially used in cases where the
reaction produces lots of products. Batch reactors are often used in labs to study kinetics of the liquid phase
reaction systems.

Disadvantage

The disadvantage of batch reactor is that it requires lots of labour force to constantly charge reactants,
discharge products and then to clean the reactor for the next batch.

2. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (C.S.T.R)

A continuous stirred tank reactor (C.S.T.R) is also often called a mixed flow reactor (M.F.R). In this reactor
also the reaction occurs in a closed tank. The tank also has agitator in order to mix the reactants thoroughly.
It is different from batch reactor in the sense that the name itself indicates it is continuous type of equipment.

Types of Reactors:- Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor

The reactants enter the reactor at a certain mass flow rate, the react inside the vessel for sometime dictated
by the space time of the reactor and then they form products. The products flow out of the reactor at the
same mass flow rate. One space time is the time required to process one reactor volume.
The C.S.T.R is steady sate equipment. It means the extent of conversion does not depend on the time. The
agitator makes the concentration uniform throughout the reactor. It means the extent of conversion does not
depend on the location also. The extent of conversion depends on the volume of the reactor.

Advantage

The biggest advantage of using a C.S.T.R in industries is that it can produce a large amount of products and
being a continuous steady state reactor the reactor can keep on operating hours on end.

Disadvantage

The disadvantage is that a C.S.T.R cannot be used for reactions which have very slow kinetics because it
will require a reactor of very large volume. The fabrication and operational cost of the reactor may make it
infeasible. Batch reactor is used in this case.

3. Plug Flow Reactor (P.F.R)

A plug flow reactor (P.F.R) is also sometime called a continuous tubular reactor (C.T.R). In an idealised
model, the profile of the reaction mixture can be considered to be made up of a number of plugs and each
plug having a uniform concentration.

Types of Reactors:- Plug Flow Reactor (P.F.R)

The idealized P.F.R model has an assumption that there is no axial mixing. It means that there is no back
mixing inside the reactor.

Advantage

The advantage of P.F.R over C.S.T.R is that for same space time and same level of conversion, the volume
of the P.F.R is relatively smaller than a C.S.T.R, It means a smaller space is needed for the reactor also for
same volume of reactor the level of conversion is higher in P.F.R than in C.S.T.R. Often the P.F.R are used
to study kinetics of gas phase catalytic reactions.

Disadvantage

The disadvantage is that if we carry out an exothermic reaction in a P.F.R then the temperature gradients are
difficult to control. The operational and maintenance cost of a P.F.R are also greater than a C.S.T.R.

4. Semi-Batch Reactor
A semi-batch reactor is a semi-flow reactor. It is a modification of batch reactor. It is also a closed vessel
which contains agitator for the purpose of mixing the reactants thoroughly. The difference is that one of the
reactants is charged completely initially in the reactor and the other reactant is charged continuously in the
reactor as the time progresses.

Types of Reactors:- Semi-Batch Reactor

Advantage

The advantage of using a semi-batch reactor is that if we are carrying out multiple reactions then we have a
greater control over yield or selectivity of the products. This reactor is extremely useful when we are
carrying out an exothermic reaction as the continuous flow of the other reactant can be varied to better
control the exothermic reaction

Disadvantage

If we want to scale up the semi-batch process then disadvantage over the continuous process reactors
(C.S.T.R and P.F.R) is that capital costs per unit scales up relatively a lot. Greater man power is required to
charge and discharge the contents of the reactor, to clean blades, to clean reactors etc.
Many reactors in the process industry can be characterized as combining these fundamental types. Main
process variables associated with the reactors include:

 Volume (V)
 Residence time (t)
 Temperature (T)
 Pressure (P)
 Concentrations of species (C1, C2, … Cn)
 Heat transfer coefficients (U, h)

- adiabatic and isothermal reactors.

Difference between Isothermal and Adiabatic process

Isothermal Adiabatic

Transfer of heat occurs. No transfer of heat occurs.

The pressure is more at a given The pressure is less at a given volume.

volume.

The temperature remains constant. The temperature changes due to internal

system variations.

Heat can be added or released to There is no addition of heat, nor is heat

the system just to keep the same released because maintaining constant
temperature. temperature doesn’t matter here.

The transformation is slow. The transformation is fast.

4.2.2 State the advantages and disadvantages of using batch reactors.

Advantage
The versatility of a batch reactor is its most significant advantage. A single batch reactor can deliver
different products. Batch reactors are very effective when a reaction produces a large number of products.

Disadvantage

A batch reactor has the drawback of requiring a lot of effort to charge reactants, release products, and clean
the reactor for the next batch. INTROTEACTORSCOULSON PAGE 35

4.2.3 Draw various configurations of tubular reactors and state their application:
INTROTEACTORSCOULSON PAGE 35

- simple cylindrical
a) Simple cylindrical shell: suitable only if packed with catalyst

- shallow cylinder
Shallow cylinder giving low pressure drop through catalyst bed

- tubes in parallel
Tubes in parallel: relatively low tube velocity

- tubes in series
Tubes in series: high tube velocity

4.2.4 Describe the continuous stirred tank reactors and their area of application.

A continuous stirred tank reactor (C.S.T.R) is also often called a mixed flow reactor (M.F.R). In this reactor
also the reaction occurs in a closed tank. The tank also has agitator in order to mix the reactants thoroughly.
It is different from batch reactor in the sense that the name itself indicates it is continuous type of equipment.
Types of Reactors:- Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor

The reactants enter the reactor at a certain mass flow rate, the react inside the vessel for sometime dictated
by the space time of the reactor and then they form products. The products flow out of the reactor at the
same mass flow rate. One space time is the time required to process one reactor volume.

The C.S.T.R is steady sate equipment. It means the extent of conversion does not depend on the time. The
agitator makes the concentration uniform throughout the reactor. It means the extent of conversion does not
depend on the location also. The extent of conversion depends on the volume of the reactor.

Advantage
The biggest advantage of using a C.S.T.R in industries is that it can produce a large amount of products and being a
continuous steady state reactor the reactor can keep on operating hours on end. Most for liquid phase reaction.
Greater constancy in operation and greater constancy in quality products. ;ow operating cost and little supervision.

Production of fertilizers.

4.2.5 Explain the applications of gas-liquid reactions.

4.2.6 Draw and describe the reactors used in gas-liquid reactions where each type is used.
4.3 SEPARATION PROCESSES
4.3.1 Distillation - Define distillation.
Distillation is the process of separating the components of a liquid mixture through selective evaporation
and condensation. The basis of separation is the difference in the vapor pressures (volatilities) of the
respective components. To improve the separation in a distillation, chemists often use a fractionating
column, which allows for multiple cycles of evaporation and condensation (this is known as fractional
distillation). Created by Sal Khan.
- Apply the vapour-liquid equilibrium relationships.

Equipment involved in gas-liquid equilibrium includes a reflux column, a condenser, and a pump. The reflux
column removes vaporise liquid from the reaction mixture and recondenses it on the top of the column. The
condenser then condenses this vaporise liquid, and the pump transfers the condensed liquid to a tank or
vessel.

There are a few pieces of equipment that are involved in gas-liquid equilibrium. The most important one is
the balance, which measures the amounts of gas and liquid present in a system. Other often-used equipment
includes a thermometer, a reflux pump, and a condenser.

- Explain batch distillation and continuous distillation.

In general, batch distillation is used for small volume processing of specialty chemicals, pharmaceutical
intermediates and solvent recycling & recovery. Batch distillation is ideal for situations where the feed
composition changes on a routine basis. For example, solvent recovery systems where the feed composition
will change with each batch.

Continuous distillation is more commonly used for fractional distillation of petroleum, bulk petrochemicals,
and chemicals where the composition to the column does not change dramatically from day to day.

Batch Distillation: Keeping It Small

Many plants choose batch distillation out of a matter of ease. Batch distillation allows for a high level of
chemical purity and maximum flexibility. However, before you choose batch distillation, it can be useful to
examine its strengths and weaknesses.

The biggest advantage of batch processing is that it provides a large amount of flexibility. A single system
will handle a wide variety of chemicals and varying compositions. A single column can separate multiple
chemicals,with each going to it’s own receiver tank. Depending on the chemicals you are using, a batch
can be run daily for a week and then changed out for another completely different batch quickly and
efficiently. In addition, batch processes can be fully automated when combined with advanced process
control using ChemCad . In most cases, two (2) or three (3) receiver tanks and one column with a still pot is
needed to complete a job. If you make mistakes when switching from one distillation receiver to another,
then all the impurities in a given cut can be recycled back to the still pot for the next batch. Typically, the
primary control variables in operating the column will be the reflux ratio and the temperature of the still pot.

However, before committing to batch distillation, you should also be aware of the disadvantages that are a
part of batch processing.

Although batch processing comes with a high level of flexibility, it also comes with the risk of
contamination. Whenever you change from one distillation cut to another the intermediate material should
go to a slops receiver for recycling back to the distillation pot on the next batch. Whenever you change out a
batch, you must be aware that the new batch might be contaminated by the different chemicals used in the
previous process. If this is a possibility, a cleaning process using Clean In Place (CIP) technology must be
installed to ensure that there are no leftovers from the previous batch.
Continuous Distillation: Scaling up to Meet Demand

The main two advantages of a continuous process are efficiency and quantity. With batch distillation, the
batch size is dictated by the size of the still pot. Continuous processes do not have this limitation. The
quantity that can be processed is limited only by the amount of upstream feed storage. A higher level of
efficiency is inherent in the lack of needing to continually clean and adjust the system.

A continuous distillation process will typically be more expensive than a batch system. A rule of thumb for
continuous distillation is that the number of columns required is N-1 where N is the number of components
to be separated. Therefore, a multicomponent feed will require multiple columns, each with its own reboiler,
condenser and reflux system.

- Construct the material balances for continuous distillation and apply them in calculations.
- Explain rectification and its application in distillation.
Rectification is the process of purifying alcohol by repeatedly or fractionally distilling it to remove water
and undesirable compounds. As mentioned above, a fermentation mixture primarily contains water and ethyl
alcohol and distillation involves increasing the percentage of ethyl alcohol in the mixture. Water vaporizes
very easily, however, and, unless care is taken, the distillate of a fermentation mixture will contain
unacceptably large quantities of water. The fermentation mixture furthermore contains small quantities of
complex constituents that can contribute to the flavour of the product even if they are present only in parts
per million. It is important to retain those components that make a positive contribution to the product and to
remove those that are unwanted, primarily some organic aldehydes, acids, esters, and higher alcohols. The
ones that remain in the product are called congeners, and the congener level is controlled by the particular
rectification system and by the system’s method of operation.

The multicolumn rectifying system usually consists of three to five columns. The first column is always a
preliminary separation column called the beer still, or analyzer. It usually consists of a series of metal plates
with holes punched in them and baffles to control the liquid levels on the plates. The product coming from
this column is between 55 and 80 percent ethyl alcohol. A 95 percent product can be produced on a two-
column system consisting of a beer column and a rectifying column. The bulk of congener removal is
accomplished in the rectifier—esters and higher alcohols, for example, being drawn off as side streams.
However, a multicolumn system of several specialized rectifiers allows better control of the finished
product. An aldehyde column, or purifier, is frequently used to separate these highly volatile low-boiling
components, and sometimes ethyl alcohol is recovered in an extractive column and returned to the rectifier.

Three characteristics determine the elimination or retention of flavouring compounds: (1) their boiling
points, (2) their solubilities in ethyl alcohol and water, and (3) their specific gravities. Some higher alcohols,
for example, are removed on the basis of their solubility and specific gravity. These higher alcohols have
limited solubility in water, and their specific gravities are less than that of water. Also, their boiling points
are higher than that of ethyl alcohol and lower than that of water. Since they tend to accumulate in the
rectifying column at the region where their boiling points cause them to condense, they can be drawn off as
a liquid side stream. This side stream also contains a considerable amount of water. The limited solubility in
water, plus the lower specific gravities, cause the higher alcohols to float to the top of the alcohol–water
mixture, from which they can be removed.
Maturation, blending, and packaging

- Explain reflux ratio and its significance.

It is the ratio of liquid flow rate (L) from the reflux drum to the flow rate of distillate (D) (also called top
product).
 R = L/D
Importance Of Reflux Ratio:

Any change in reflux ratio will modify the slope of operation line, as can be seen in figure, this will alter the
number of plates required for a given separation to be achieved.
Effect of Reflux Ratio On Distillation Operation:

Distillation process is done to achieve a specific level of enrichment. To achieve this enrichment level, one
must specify a reflux ratio. Decreasing that reflux ratio (i.e, increasing D), has an advantage that the duty of
condenser and reboiler decreases, since the load in distillation column decreases (more mass goes out as D
increases) . In other sense, the operating cost of distillation column decreases. However, it would be at
expense of less enrichment achieved than required.

Increasing reflux ratio would act in reverse i.e, it would have a disadvantage of increase in duty of condenser
and reboiler as load increases. This increases the operation cost of distillation column, however, more
enrichment is achieved.

- Apply the McCabe-Thiele method to determine the number of theoretical plates.

The McCabe-Thiele Method

This method uses the equilibrium curve diagram to determine the number of theoretical stages
(trays) required to achieve a desired degree of separation. It is a simplified method of analysis making use of
several assumptions, but nonetheless a very useful tool for the understanding of distillation operation. Click
here for more information on the analysis of this method.
- Apply plate efficiency in the determination of the real number of plates.
- Describe the importance of the location of a feed plate.
- Describe steam distillation.
- Explain azeotropic and Extractive distillation.
- Describe the different types of distillation columns (plate and packed); and factors considered in their
choice for application.
- Describe the type of plates used i.e sieve, bubble cap and valve plate.
- Describe the type of packing used.
- Draw a fully labelled sketch of a typical distillation column.
4.3.2 Gas Absorption
- Explain gas absorption.
- Explain conditions of equilibrium between liquid and gas.
- Explain the two-film theory.
- Derive equation for rate of absorption.
- Explain liquid film transfer coefficient and gas phase transfer coefficient and overall coefficients.
- Derive equation for absorption associated with chemical reaction.
- Describe packed absorption towers.
- Calculate height of the column using formulas and operating line and graphical integration - Describe
the various types of packing.
- Describe plate towers for absorption.
4.3.3 Filtration
- Explain filtration and its application.
- Describe the type of filters:
Clarifying filters,
Gas clearing filters,
Liquid clarification filters,
cake filters,
Filter press,
vacuum filters,
rotary drum filters and
horizontal belt filter.
- Explain nanofiltration and its application(s).
4.3.4 Drying
- Explain drying and its applications.
- Describe the types of dryers(i.e.
spray dryers,
rotary dryers and
tray dryers).
4.3.5 Extraction
- Explain extraction.
- Interpret equilibrium data for extraction.
- Calculate the number of theoretical stages in:
o Co-current contact with partially miscible solvents.
o Co-current contact with immiscible solvents.
o Countercurrent contact with immiscible solvents.
o Countercurrent contact with partially immiscible solvents.
- Describe extraction equipment.
4.4 MASS BALANCE
4.4.1 Classify process as batch, continuous or semi-batch.
4.4.2 Formulate material balances on a continuous steady state process and on a batch process.
4.4.3 Calculate conversion and yield (relative and plant yield).
4.4.4 Perform calculations for recycle process.
4.5 ENERGY BALANCE
4.5.1 Apply the general energy balance.
4.5.2 Calculate specific enthalpy, mean heat capacities, heats of reaction, standard heats of formation
and heats of combustion.
4.5.3 Interpret flow diagrams.