Wireless Communication and Mobile Computing

Chapter 3
Wireless Network Principles

By Mengistu Estifanos (MSc in Computer Science)

1
 Outline

1. Wireless Basics
2. Frequency allocation & regulation
3. Antennas
4. Signal propagation
5. Multiplexing
6. Modulation
7. Media access control
8. Classifications of wireless networks

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 1. Wireless Basics
 Wireless technology is used in many types of communication, offering cost
savings and flexibility compared to wired systems.
While wireless networks can be just as fast_and powerful as wired networks, they d
o have some drawbacks.
 Advantages: Speed, flexibility, cost-effectiveness.
 Drawbacks: Signal interference, security risks, range limitations, line-of-sight
dependency (in some cases).
 Wireless signals, devices, Wi-Fi modes, signal strength, antennas, receiver
sensitivity are considered as a key concepts in wireless networking.

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 Wireless Signals
 It is an electromagnetic waves carrying audio, video, voice, and data through
the air, generated by electrical energy passing through conductive materials
(e.g., antennas).

 These waves can travel some distance depending on the strength of that
energy.

 Wireless signals are important because they can transfer information audio,
video, our voices, data without the use of wires, and that makes them very
useful.

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 2. Frequency allocation & Regulation
 Frequency (spectrum) allocation is the process of regulating the use of the
electromagnetic spectrum and dividing it among various & sometimes competing
organizations and interests.
 This ensures that there is little competition when using a specific frequency band,
which can cause interference if the same frequency band is used for different and
unregulated purposes.
 This regulation is controlled by governmental & international organizations.
 Spectrum allocation came to be because of the emerging & convergence of wireless
telecommunications technology which created huge demands on the radio
frequency spectrum for various services such as:
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 high-speed data transfer & communication.
Frequency allocation and Regulation (… cont.)
 Spectrum allocation is done to prevent major interference and chaos (disorder) in the
airwaves, which would serve no one at all.

 Some standardization organizations working on spectrum allocation and

regulation:

 European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations

(CEPT)

 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

 Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL)

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Types of spectrum allocation
I. No one may transmit: Spectrum band is reserved for a specific use such as radio

astronomy. So that, there is no interference with radio telescopes.

II. Anyone may transmit: As long as transmission power limits are respected.

III. Only licensed users/organizations of the specific band may transmit:

 Examples are cellular & television spectrums as well as amateur radio frequency

allocations.

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 3. Antenna
An antenna is a transducer (translator) that converts radio frequency (RF) fields into
alternating current or vice versa.
 There are both receiving & transmission antennas for sending or receiving radio
transmissions.
 Antennas play an important role in the operation of all radio equipment.
 They are used in wireless LAN, mobile telephony & satellite communication.
 Antennas have an arrangement of metallic conductors with an electrical connection to
receivers or transmitters.
 Current is forced through these conductors by radio transmitters to create alternating
magnetic fields.
 These fields induce voltage at the antenna terminals, which are connected to the
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 Antenna (… cont.)
 The oscillating magnetic field is coupled with a similar oscillating electric field,
which defines electromagnetic waves capable of propagating the signal for
long distances.
Different types of antennas can be found anywhere from small office settings
to outdoor camping grounds, all of them have the same purpose:
i.e., Producing radio waves to send information through the air.
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves that carry signals through air at the
speed of light without any transmission loss.
 Antennas can be omni-directional, directional or arbitrary.
Three main types are omnidirectional, semi-directional, & highly directional.
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 Types of Antenna
1. Omnidirectional: designed to radiate (emit) a signal in all directions.
 Perfectly radiate a signal in all directions at equal strength, an antenna of this
type is an attempt to provide general coverage in all directions.
 The most common type found for client adapters and access points.
 Have a good coverage to spherical area around the antenna is desirable.
2. Semi directional: designed to direct the RF signal in a specific direction for
point-to-point communication.
 Used for short to medium distance communication indoors or outdoors.
 A good way to think of how the semi-directional antenna radiates RF is to
think of it as a street lamp shining down on the street.
 It is common in a campus like environment since they can provide a
network bridge between two buildings.
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3. Highly-directional: used for long distant point-to-point communication.
 They are used to bridge networks between two buildings that are far apart.
 Bcz, antennas are high gain, they provide the most focused and narrow beam width.
 Instead of a street light shining down, it is more of a spotlight shining in a specific
direction.
 The two main highly directional antennas are:
A. Dish antennas look similar to the TV dish antennas that
you would find in a home but are often much larger in size.
B. Grid antennas can vary in size, but they look like a grill.
 Designed for outdoor environments with higher winds.

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 4. Signal Propagation
 Signal Propagation is the movement of radio waves from a transmitter to a receiver.
 When the waves travel (propagate) from one point to another, they are, like light waves,
affected by different phenomena such as light reflection, absorption, or scattering.
 The propagation channel has the most impact on the design of a wireless receiver.
 The wireless channel causes the transmitted signal to lose power as it propagates from the
transmitter to the receiver.
 Reflections, diffraction, and scattering create multiple propagation paths between the
transmitter and the receiver, each with a different delay.
 The net result is that wireless propagation leads to a loss of received signal power as well
as the presence of multipath, which creates frequency selectivity in the channel.
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 Mechanisms of Propagation
A transmitted signal can reach the receiver via a number of propagation
mechanisms.
 When a signal reaches the receiver from the transmitter in a single path,
without suffering any reflections, diffractions, or scattering, called propagation
along the line-of-sight (LOS) path.
 An LOS component has the shortest time delay among all the received signals
and is usually the strongest signal received.
In non-line-of-sight (NLOS) propagation, a signal transmitted into a wireless
medium reaches the receiver via one or more indirect paths, each having
different attenuations and delays.
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 When a transmitted signal travels through communication paths other than the
LOS path to reach the receiver, it is said to have undergone NLOS propagation.
 NLOS propagation is responsible for coverage behind buildings and other
obstructions.
 The main NLOS propagation mechanisms are:
 Reflection, scattering, & diffraction

1. Reflection occurs when a wave imposes on an object that is smooth, which

means that any protrusions have dimensions much larger than a wavelength.
 It is accompanied by refraction (transmission of the wave through the object).
 The strengths of the reflected & refracted waves depend on the type of
material.
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2. Scattering is what happens when a wave imposes on an object that is rough or
has irregularities with dimensions on the order of the wavelength.
 It is similar to reflection but results in a smearing of the signal around the angle
of reflection.
 This leads to a larger loss of energy as the signal is spread over a wider area.
 It results in multiple paths arriving at the receiver from a similar location with
slight differences in delay.

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3. Diffraction is the “bending” of waves around sharp corners.
 examples: A waves bending over the tops of buildings, around street corners,
and through doorways.
 Diffraction to provide cellular coverage in cities and is one reason why lower
frequencies, say less than 3GHz, are considered beachfront property in the
world of cellular spectrum.

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Multipath Propagation

1. Reflection – occurs when signal encounters

large surfaces. The surface is large relative
to the wavelength of the signals.
2. Diffraction – occurs at the edge of an
impenetrable body that is large compared
to the wavelength of the radio wave.
3. Scattering – occurs when incoming signal
hits an object whose size is in the order of
the wavelength of the signal or less.

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 Signal

Transmission Receiving
Antenna Antenna
Earth
a) Ground Wave Propagation
Ionosphere

Signal
b) Sky Wave Propagation
Earth

Signal
c) Line-of-Sight Propagation
Earth
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A. Transmission range
– communication possible
– low error rate
B. Detection range
– detection of the signal possible
– no communication possible
C. Interference range
– signal may not be detected
– signal adds to the background noise
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 5. Multiplexing (Muxing)
Multiplexing is a way of sending multiple signals or streams of information
over a communications link at the same time in the form of a single, complex
signal.
 When the signal reaches its destination, a process called demultiplexing, or
demuxing, recovers the separate signals and outputs them to individual lines.
Multiplexing is a method used by networks to consolidate multiple signals
(digital or analog) into a single composite signal that is transported over a
common medium, such as a fiber optic cable or radio wave.
 When the composite signal reaches its destination, it is demultiplexed, and
the individual signals are restored and
By Mengistu Estifanos (MSc inmade available for processing.
Computer Science) 20
The individual network signals are input into a multiplexer (mux) that combines
them into a composite signal, which is then transmitted through a shared medium.
 When the composite signal reaches its destination, a demultiplexer (demux) splits
the signal back into the original component signals and outputs them into separate
lines for use by other operations.

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 Organizations implement multiplexing on their networks for
two reasons:
 To enable network devices to communicate with each other
without needing a dedicated connection b\n each device pair.
 To better utilize scarce or expensive network resources.

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Types of multiplexing
Organizations can select from multiple forms of multiplexing.
 Their choices will depend in large part on the types of signals being
transmitted (analog vs. digital) & the media used to carry those transmissions,
such as coaxial cable, fiber optic cable or microwave link.
The following is an overview of several common multiplexing techniques.
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
 Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
 Space-division multiplexing (SDM)
 Polarization-division multiplexing (PDM)
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A. Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
The total bandwidth is divided to a set of frequency bands that do not overlap.
 Each of these bands is a carrier of a different signal that is generated and
modulated by one of the sending devices.
The frequency bands are separated from one another by strips of unused
frequencies called the guard bands, to prevent overlapping of signals.
The modulated signals are combined together using a MUX in the sending end.
 The combined signal is transmitted over the communication channel, thus
allowing multiple independent data streams to be transmitted simultaneously.
 At the receiving end, the individual signals are extracted from the combined
signal by the process of demultiplexing (DEMUX).
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B. Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
The data flow of each input stream is divided into units.
 One unit may be 1 bit, 1 byte, or a block of few bytes.
 Each input unit is allotted an input time slot.
 One input unit corresponds to one output unit and is allotted an output time slot.
During transmission, one unit of each of the input streams is allotted one-time
slot, periodically, in a sequence, or in a rotational basis;
 This system called round-robin system.
 TDM operates at the temporal level, unlike FDM and WDM, which operate at
the frequency or wavelength level.
 TDM has its roots in telegraphy, it is used in digital telephony to transmit
multiple conversations across a Estifanos
By Mengistu common medium.
(MSc in Computer Science) 25
C. Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
CDM uses spread spectrum communication.
In spread spectrum communications, a narrowband signal is spread over a
larger band of frequency or across multiple channels via division.
 It does not constrict bandwidth‟s digital signals or frequencies.
 It is less susceptible to interference, thus providing better data communication
capability & a more secure private line.
 When CDM is used to allow multiple signals from multiple users to share a
common communication channel, the technology is called Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA).
 Each group of users is given a shared code and individual conversations are
encoded in a digital sequence.
 Data is available on the shared channel, but only those users associated with a
particular code can access Bythe data.
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Generally, in CDM, a sequence of bits called the spreading code is assigned to
each signal to distinguish one signal from another.

The spreading code is combined with the original signal to produce a new
stream of encoded data, which is then transmitted on a shared medium.

A demux that knows the code can then retrieve the original signals by
subtracting out the spreading code, a process called dispreading.

CDM is used in digital television and radio broadcasting, in 3G mobile

cellular networks, 4G and 5G.

 CDM can support multiple signals from multiple sources, a technique known as
code-division multiple access.
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 6. Modulation

 Modulation is the process of converting data into electrical signals optimized for transmission.
 Modulation is the process of converting data into radio waves by adding information to an
electronic or optical carrier signal.
 A carrier signal is one with a steady waveform constant height, or amplitude, and frequency.
 There are three aspects of a signal that can be modulated: amplitude, frequency, and phase.
1. The amplitude is the power or intensity of the signal,
2. The frequency is how often the signal repeated itself, and
3. The phase describes where in the cycle the waveform is with respect to time.
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Types of modulation
There are two types of modulation: Analog modulation and digital
modulation.

A. Analog modulation
The process of transferring an analog baseband (low frequency) signal, like
an audio or TV signal over a higher frequency signal such as a radio
frequency band.
 Three parameters modulated in analog modulation:
1. Amplitude,
2. Frequency, and
3. Phase By Mengistu Estifanos (MSc in Computer Science) 29
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The three kinds of analog modulations in the figure below:

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B. Digital Modulation
 For a better quality & efficient communication, digital modulation technique is employed.
 The main advantages of the digital modulation over analog modulation include available
bandwidth, high noise immunity and permissible power.
 In digital modulation, a message signal is converted from analog to digital message,
and then modulated by using a carrier wave.
 The carrier wave is switched on and off to create pulses such that the signal is
modulated.
 Similar to the analog, in this system, the type of the digital modulation is decided by the
variation of the carrier wave parameters like amplitude, phase and frequency.

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 The most important digital modulation techniques are based on keying such as
Amplitude Shift Keying, Frequency Shift Keying and Phase Shift Keying.

1. In an Amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier wave changes based on
the message signal in digital format.  It is sensitive to noise and used for low-
band requirements.

2. In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier wave is varied for each
symbol in the digital data. It needs larger bandwidths.

3. The phase shift keying changes the phase of the carrier for each symbol and it is
less sensitive to noise.

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 Demodulation
Demodulation is the reverse process (to modulation) to recover the message
signal at the receiver.
 Is the act of extracting digital data from the signal once it reaches its destination.
 A common example of a demodulating device is a modem.
Modulator Vs. Demodulator

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 7. Media Access Control (MAC)
A media access control is a network data transfer policy.
 Determines how data is transmitted between two computer terminals
through a network cable.
 The MAC policy involves sub-layers of the data link layer (layer 2) in the OSI
reference model.
 The essence of the MAC protocol is to ensure non-collision and eases the
transfer of data packets b/n two computer terminals.
 A collision takes place when two or more terminals transmit data/information
simultaneously.
 This leads to a breakdown of communication
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Media Access Control Methods
 The network channel through which data is transmitted between terminal
nodes to avoid collision. Thes ways of accomplishing this purpose:
… includes:
 Token passing
 Demand priority
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD)
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA)

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1. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
 Collision avoidance means that when a computer node transmitting data states
its intention, the other waits at a specific length of time before resending the data.
 It regulates how data packets are transmitted between two computer nodes.
 This method avoids collision by configuring each computer terminal to make a
signal before transmission.
 The signal is carried out by the transmitting computer to avoid a collision.
 Multiple access implies that many computers are attempting to transmit data.
 CSMA/CA is data traffic regulation is slow and adds cost in having each
computer node signal its intention before transmitting data.
 It used only on Apple networks.
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2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
ISMA/CD is the opposite of CSMA/CA.
 Instead of detecting data to transmit signal intention to prevent a collision, it
observes the media to detect the signal before transmitting.
 CD means that when a collision is detected by the media access control policy,
transmitting by the network stations stops at a random length of time before
transmitting starts again.
 It is faster than CSMA/CA as it functions in a network station that involves fewer
data frames being transmitted.
 CSMA/CD is not as efficient as CSMA/CA in preventing network collisions.
 This is because it only detects huge data traffic in the network cable.
 Huge data traffic increases the possibility of a collision taking place.
 It is used on the Ethernet network.
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 3. Demand Priority (DP)
Demand priority is an improved version of the Carrier sense multiple access
with collision detection (CSMA/CD).
 This policy uses an „active hub‟ in regulating how a network is accessed.
DP requires that the network terminals obtain authorization from the active
hub before data can be transmitted.
Another distinct feature of this MAC, DP control policy is that data can be
transmitted between the two network terminals at the same time without
collision. (Check, How?)

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 4. Token Passing
It uses free token passing to prevent a collision.
 Only a computer that possesses a free token, which is a small data frame, is authorized to
transmit.
 Transmission occurs from a network terminal that has a higher priority than one with a low priority.
 Token passing flourishes in an environment where a large number of short data frames are
transmitted.
 This MAC policy is highly efficient in avoiding a collision.
 Possession of the free token is the only key to transmitting data by a network node.
 Each terminal holds this free token for a specific amount of time:
 If the network with the high priority does not have data to transmit, the token is passed to the
adjoining station in the network.
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 Wireless Networks Classifications of Wireless Networks

Wireless MANs Wireless WANs

Wireless LANs

Wireless Local Cellular Satellite Paging

Personal Business Loops Networks Systems Networks
Area LANs (Fixed Wireless)
Networks

Example1: Example1: Example1: Example1: GSM, 9.6 Example1: Example1:

Bluetooth 1 802.11b LMDS Kbps, Motorola Iridium FLEX,
Mbps, 11 Mbps, 37 Mbps, wide coverage up to 64 Mbps
10 Meters 100 Meters 1.2 Kbps
2-4 Km globally
Example2: 3G, 2
Other examples: Other Example2: Mbps, wide Example 2: Deep
Example2:
wireless sensor examples: FSO coverage space communication ReFLEX,
networks, UWB 802.11g, 1.25 Gbps 6.4Kbps
HiperLAN2 1-2 KM

Mengistu Estifanos (MSc)

8. Classifications of Wireless Networks
There are four basic types of wireless networks. Those are:

I. Wireless LAN
 Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology provides internet access within a building
or a limited outdoor area.
 First used within offices and homes, WLAN technology is now also used in
stores and restaurants.
 A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short
distance using a wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection
through an access point for Internet access.
 The use of spread-spectrum technologies may allow users to move around
within a local coverage area, and still remain connected to the network.
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II. Wireless MAN
 Wireless metropolitan area networks have been installed in cities worldwide to
provide access for people outside an office or home network.
 These networks cover a wider area than office or home networks, but the
principles are the same.
 Several Wireless LANs are connected together in Wireless MAN.

III. Wireless PAN

 Wireless personal area networks cover a very limited area typically a maximum
of 100 meters for most applications using protocols like Bluetooth and ZigBee.
 Bluetooth enables hands-free phone calls, connects a phone to earpieces or
transmits signals b/n smart devices.
 Zigbee connects stations along an IoT network.
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IV. Wireless WAN
 Wireless WANs use cellular technology to provide access outside the range of
a wireless LAN or metropolitan network.
 These networks enable users to make phone calls to others connecting either
through a wireless WAN or a wired telephone system.
 Users can connect to the internet to access websites or server-based
applications.

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