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 ‫דניאל‬
Daniel
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12

THE BOOK OF DANIEL, probably written in its final version in 164 BCE, is thought to be the latest
composition of the Hebrew Bible. Its narrative, however, is set much earlier, during the
reigns of the powerful kings of Babylonia, Media, and Persia in the 6th century BCE. The
figure of Daniel may have been influenced by Danel, a legendary ancient hero known from
the Aqhat Epic found at Ugarit and mentioned in Ezek. 14.14; 28.3. Here, however, Daniel
and his three friends provide a less elevated, more “Everyman” model of Jewish faithfulness
to God. A member of the exile community in Babylonia, Daniel soon rises to become an
important Jewish courtier. The anonymous author thus uses the period of exile as a setting to
address the challenging issues of Jews living under foreign kings.

Problems in the Text and Structure of Daniel

DANIEL IS COMPRISEDof two equal halves of different genres and different origins. Chs 1–6
consist of six “court legends” that utilize third-person narration to recount the adventures of
wise Jewish heroes in the highest court in the land (cf. the Joseph story in Gen. chs 37–50;
Esther). The legends reflect an entertaining, humorous, even satirical side. Chs 7–12 are
made up of four apocalyptic visions, told in the first person, that are revelations of the events
that lead to the cataclysmic end and transformation of history. The two halves of the book
appear to arise at different times in Israel’s history. Chs 1–6, probably originally oral,
circulated most likely in the 4th to 2nd centuries BCE, when they were collected into a cycle of
Daniel legends. Chs 7–12 are most likely written compositions, datable to the last year of the
Maccabean revolt (164 BCE). In editing chs 1–12 together, the author of the visions made the
whole into an apocalyptic book. (Apocalypses often mix different genres.) Several themes
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hold the two halves of the book of Daniel together: God’s sovereignty over history and
foreign monarchs, the special wisdom and insight of the one devoted to God, and the ideal of
heroic obedience, even to the point of death. Dan. chs 7–12 is the only apocalypse in the
Hebrew Bible; Ezekiel and Zechariah both have apocalyptic elements but are still within the
genre of prophetic books. Jewish apocalypses were written earlier than Daniel (parts of 1
Enoch; Jub.), and after Daniel (other parts of 1 Enoch, 4 Ezra [2 Esd. chs 3–14], and in the
New Testament, Revelation), but these were not incorporated into the Hebrew Bible.
Another peculiar characteristic of Daniel is its use of two languages (also present in Ezra
and Neh.): 1.1–2.4a and 8.1–12.13 are in Heb, while 2.4b–7.28 are in Aram. (This does not
correspond to the division by genre noted above.) Scholars have proposed two explanations
for this: Either two languages were used in the original work, a combination that was retained
in the multilingual world of the land of Israel in the 2nd century BCE; or the whole work was

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 originally composed in one language, and one part was later translated into the other
language. In this latter theory, Aram., the common international language of the ancient Near
East at that time, is usually suggested as the original language of the whole. Neither
explanation has met with complete scholarly agreement, but the most likely reconstruction is
that chs 2–6 and separately, ch 7, were written in Aram., and chs 8–12, at a date slightly later
than ch 7, in Heb. Ch 1 may have been written in Heb, or translated from Aram. into Heb as a
more appropriate language for the introduction.

Historical and Political Context of Daniel

THE BOOK OF DANIEL, like many texts of the Jewish Bible, reflects a strong interest in the
surrounding empires. Familiarity with the political history of the entire region is assumed in
both the court legends of chs 1–6 and the apocalyptic visions of chs 7–12. The narrative of
Daniel begins during the Neo-Babylonian empire. It was Nebuchadnezzar (also called
Nebuchadrezzar), king of the Babylonians, who conquered Jerusalem and destroyed the first
Temple in 586 BCE, and exiled many Judeans to Babylonia (2 Kings chs 24–25; Jer.).
Contemporary with the Babylonian empire was the empire of the Medes, east of Babylonia.
Cyrus of Persia arose in the mid-6th century BCE and conquered first the Medes and then the
Babylonians in 539. In Judea the Medes and Persians were sometimes perceived as a joint
kingdom, and at other times as following one after the other.
The Persian kings—the first four were Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius, and Xerxes—ruled the
Jews more benevolently than did the Babylonians. Cyrus, encouraged the Judeans to return
from their exile in 538, and allowed them to rebuild their Temple, which was constructed in
520–515 BCE. This state of affairs—very limited autonomy under Persian rule—continued
until the rise of Alexander the Great (356–323), the Macedonian-Greek king who defeated
the Persians to found a new empire. Alexander conquered the land of Israel in 332. He died
young, however, and his vast empire split into several Greek-ruled kingdoms, the most
important of which for the book of Daniel were the Seleucid, centered in Syria and
Babylonia, and the Ptolemaic in Egypt. Judea lay at the intersection between the two
empires, and the influences of these empires over Jerusalem ebbed and flowed; Jews were
often split in their allegiances to one or the other. After gaining control of Judea at the
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beginning of the 2nd century BCE, the Seleucid kings suffered reversals, and their king
Antiochus IV Epiphanes turned his attention to the control of the Jerusalem Temple and the
gold that was stored there.
Because of the detailed nature of apocalyptic timetables, the dating of at least the last chs
of Daniel can be established precisely. Scholars consider the predictions in this book, as in
other apocalypses, to be prophecies after the fact, purportedly written down centuries earlier
and kept secret in order to give credence to other predictions about the end of history. The
recounting of history, then, though symbolic, can be matched quite easily with the history of
the ancient Near East in the Greek period. The predictions are detailed and accurate until near
the end of the Maccabean revolt in 164. At that point they veer dramatically from what we
know of the actions of the Seleucid king (see annotations to ch 11), and scholars assume that
the author lived and wrote at the precise time when the predictions are no longer accurate.

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 The scribal visionaries who produced Daniel were strongly opposed to Antiochus IV
Epiphanes (whose name meant “god manifest”), yet they were probably not closely aligned
with the Maccabees. The group is probably to be identified with those who are
“knowledgeable” in 11.33, 12.3. (The same word in its verbal form, “to give understanding,”
is used at 9.22.) Their instruction includes the knowledge of future events that is contained in
the visions, and their role is one of guardian to the “many.”

Daniel in Jewish Tradition

THE BOOK OF DANIEL has been evaluated differently in Jewish and Christian tradition. Daniel was
evidently considered a prophet at Qumran and elsewhere in early Judaism (Ant. 10.266–68),
but because prefigurations of Jesus and Christian resurrection were seen in Daniel by the
early church, the rabbinic tradition hesitated to embrace the visions of Daniel. The Rabbis
denied that Daniel was predicting events after the Maccabean revolt, and especially not the
end of time, and assigned him a role as seer, not prophet (b. Meg. 3a; b. Sanh. 94a). Jewish
tradition was also sometimes critical of what appeared to be a positive relationship between
Daniel and Nebuchadnezzar. The different status of Daniel in Judaism and Christianity is
thus reflected in the position of the book in the two canons. In the Christian Old Testament
Daniel is placed with the major prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, while in the Jewish
Scriptures it is placed with the Kethuvim, or Writings. (Additional factors, including the late
date of the book, may have also played a role in the book’s placement in Kethuvim rather
than in Prophets.) Although the book of Daniel has not held central importance in Jewish
tradition, it has had an influence on Jewish liturgy—probably because of its late date, when
proto-liturgy was being formed—and it is significant in revealing a great deal about the
social and theological world of Jews at the end of the biblical era.
[LAWRENCE M. WILLS]

1 In the third year of the reign of King Jehoiakim of Judah, King Nebuchadnezzar of
1

Babylon came to Jerusalem and laid siege to it. 2The Lord delivered King Jehoiakim of
Judah into his power, together with some of the vessels of the House of God, and he brought
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them to the land of Shinar to the house of his god; he deposited the vessels in the treasury of
his god. 3Then the king ordered Ashpenaz, his chief officer, to bring some Israelites of royal
descent and of the nobility—4youths without blemish, handsome, proficient in all wisdom,
knowledgeable and intelligent, and capable of serving in the royal palace—and teach them
the writings and the language of the Chaldeans. 5The king allotted daily rations to them from
the king’s food and from the wine he drank. They were to be educated for three years, *at the
end of which they-a were to enter the king’s service.
6Among them were the Judahites Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah. 7The chief

officer gave them new names; he named Daniel Belteshazzar, Hananiah Shadrach, Mishael
Meshach, and Azariah Abed-nego. 8Daniel resolved not to defile himself with the king’s food
or the wine he drank, so he sought permission of the chief officer not to defile himself, 9and

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 God disposed the chief officer to be kind and compassionate toward Daniel. 10The chief
officer said to Daniel, “I fear that my lord the king, who allotted food and drink to you, will
notice that you look out of sorts, unlike the other youths of your age—and you will put my
life* in jeopardy with the king.” 11Daniel replied to the guard whom the chief officer had put
in charge of Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah, 12“Please test your servants for ten
days, giving us legumes to eat and water to drink. 13Then compare our appearance with that
of the youths who eat of the king’s food, and do with your servants as you see fit.” 14He
agreed to this plan of theirs, and tested them for ten days. 15When the ten days were over,
they looked better and healthier than all the youths who were eating of the king’s food. 16So
the guard kept on removing their food, and the wine they were supposed to drink, and gave
them legumes. 17God made all four of these young men intelligent and proficient in all
writings and wisdom, and Daniel had understanding of visions and dreams of all
kinds.18When the time the king had set for their presentation had come, the chief officer
presented them to Nebuchadnezzar.19The king spoke with them, and of them all none was
equal to Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah; so these entered the king’s service.
20Whenever the king put a question to them requiring wisdom and understanding, he found

them to be ten times better than all the magicians and exorcists throughout his realm.
21Daniel was there until the first year of King Cyrus.

2 In the second year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadnezzar had a dream; his
1

spirit was agitated, *yet he was overcome by-b sleep. 2The king ordered the magicians,
exorcists, sorcerers, and Chaldeans to be summoned in order to tell the king what he had
dreamed. They came and stood before the king, 3and the king said to them, “I have had a
dream and I am full of anxiety to know what I have dreamed.” 4The Chaldeans spoke to the
king in Aramaic, “O king, live forever! Relate the dream to your servants, and we will tell its
meaning.” 5The king said in reply to the Chaldeans, “I hereby decree: If you will not make
the dream and its meaning known to me, you shall be torn limb from limb and your houses
confiscated.* 6But if you tell the dream and its meaning, you shall receive from me gifts,
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presents, and great honor; therefore, tell me the dream and its meaning.” 7Once again they
answered, “Let the king relate the dream to his servants, and we will tell its meaning.” 8The
king said in reply, “It is clear to me that you are playing for time, since you see that I have
decreed 9that if you do not make the dream known to me, there is but one verdict for you.
You have conspired to tell me something false and fraudulent until circumstances change; so
relate the dream to me, and I will then know that you can tell its meaning.” 10The Chaldeans
said in reply to the king, “There is no one on earth who can *satisfy the king’s demand,-a for
great king or ruler—none has ever asked such a thing of any magician, exorcist, or Chaldean.
11The thing asked by the king is difficult; there is no one who can tell it to the king except the

gods whose abode is not among mortals.”* 12Whereupon the king flew into a violent rage,
and gave an order to do away with all the wise men of Babylon.

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 13The decree condemning the wise men to death was issued. Daniel and his companions
were about to be put to death 14when Daniel remonstrated with Arioch, the captain of the
royal guard who had set out to put the wise men of Babylon to death. 15He spoke up and said
to Arioch, the royal officer, “Why is the decree of the king so urgent?” Thereupon Arioch
informed Daniel of the matter. 16So Daniel went to ask the king for time, that he might tell
the meaning to the king. 17Then Daniel went to his house and informed his companions,
Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, of the matter,18that they might implore the God of Heaven
for help regarding this mystery, so that Daniel and his colleagues would not be put to death
together with the other wise men of Babylon.
19The mystery was revealed to Daniel in a night vision; then Daniel blessed the God of

Heaven. 20Daniel spoke up and said:

“Let the name of God be blessed forever and ever,

For wisdom and power are His.
21 He changes times and seasons,
Removes kings and installs kings;
He gives the wise their wisdom
And knowledge to those who know.
22 He reveals deep and hidden things,
Knows what is in the darkness,
And light dwells with Him.
23 I acknowledge and praise You,
O God of my fathers,
You who have given me wisdom and power,
For now You have let me know what we asked of You;
You have let us know what concerns the king.”

24Thereupon Daniel went to Arioch, whom the king had appointed to do away with the
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wise men of Babylon; he came and said to him as follows, “Do not do away with the wise
men of Babylon; bring me to the king and I will tell the king the meaning!” 25So Arioch
rushed Daniel into the king’s presence and said to him, “I have found among the exiles of
Judah a man who can make the meaning known to the king!” 26The king said in reply to
Daniel (who was called Belteshazzar), “Can you really make known to me the dream that I
saw and its meaning?” 27Daniel answered the king and said, “The mystery about which the
king has inquired—wise men, exorcists, magicians, and diviners cannot tell to the king. 28But
there is a God in heaven who reveals mysteries, and He has made known to King
Nebuchadnezzar what is to be at the end of days. This is your dream and the vision that
entered your mind in bed: 29O king, the thoughts that came to your mind in your bed are
about future events; He who reveals mysteries has let you know what is to happen. 30Not

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 because my wisdom is greater than that of other creatures has this mystery been revealed to
me, but in order that the meaning should be made known to the king, and that you may know
the thoughts of your mind.
31“O king, as you looked on, there appeared a great statue. This statue, which was huge

and its brightness surpassing, stood before you, and its appearance was awesome. 32The head
of that statue was of fine gold; its breast and arms were of silver; its belly and thighs, of
bronze; 33its legs were of iron, and its feet part iron and part clay. 34As you looked on, a stone
was hewn out, not by hands, and struck the statue on its feet of iron and clay and crushed
them. 35All at once, the iron, clay, bronze, silver, and gold were crushed, and became like
chaff of the threshing floors of summer; a wind carried them off until no trace of them was
left. But the stone that struck the statue became a great mountain and filled the whole earth.
36“Such was the dream, and we will now tell the king its meaning. 37You, O king—king

of kings, to whom the God of Heaven has given kingdom, power, might, and glory; 38into
whose hands He has given men, wild beasts, and the fowl of heaven, wherever they may
dwell; and to whom He has given dominion over them all—you are the head of gold. 39But
another kingdom will arise after you, inferior to yours; then yet a third kingdom, of bronze,
which will rule over the whole earth. 40But the fourth kingdom will be as strong as iron; just
as iron crushes and shatters everything—and like iron that smashes—so will it crush and
smash all these. 41You saw the feet and the toes, part potter’s clay and part iron; that means it
will be a divided kingdom; it will have only some of the stability of iron, inasmuch as you
saw iron mixed with common clay. 42And the toes were part iron and part clay; that [means]
the kingdom will be in part strong and in part brittle. 43You saw iron mixed with common
clay; that means: *they shall intermingle with the offspring of men,-a but shall not hold
together, just as iron does not mix with clay. 44And in the time of those kings, the God of
Heaven will establish a kingdom that shall never be destroyed, a kingdom that shall not be
transferred to another people. It will crush and wipe out all these kingdoms, but shall itself
last forever—45just as you saw how a stone was hewn from the mountain, not by hands, and
crushed the iron, bronze, clay, silver, and gold. The great God has made known to the king
what will happen in the future. The dream is sure and its interpretation reliable.”
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46Then King Nebuchadnezzar prostrated himself and paid homage to Daniel and ordered

that a meal offering and pleasing offerings be made to him. 47The king said in reply to
Daniel, “Truly your God must be the God of gods and Lord of kings and the revealer of
mysteries to have enabled you to reveal this mystery.” 48The king then elevated Daniel and
gave him very many gifts, and made him governor of the whole province of Babylon and
chief prefect of all the wise men of Babylon. 49At Daniel’s request, the king appointed
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego to administer the province of Babylon; while Daniel
himself was at the king’s court.

3 King Nebuchadnezzar made a statue of gold sixty cubits high and six cubits broad. He set
1

it up in the plain of Dura in the province of Babylon. 2King Nebuchadnezzar then sent

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 word to gather the satraps, prefects, governors, counselors, treasurers, judges, officers, and all
the provincial officials to attend the dedication of the statue that King Nebuchadnezzar had
set up. 3So the satraps, prefects, governors, counselors, treasurers, judges, officers, and all the
provincial officials assembled for the dedication of the statue that King Nebuchadnezzar had
set up, and stood before the statue that Nebuchadnezzar had set up. 4The herald proclaimed in
a loud voice, “You are commanded, O peoples and nations of every language, 5when you
hear the sound of the horn, pipe, zither, lyre, psaltery, bagpipe, and all other types of
instruments, to fall down and worship the statue of gold that King Nebuchadnezzar has set
up. 6Whoever will not fall down and worship shall at once be thrown into a burning fiery
furnace.” 7And so, as soon as all the peoples heard the sound of the horn, pipe, zither, lyre,
psaltery, and all other types of instruments, all peoples and nations of every language fell
down and worshiped the statue of gold that King Nebuchadnezzar had set up.
8Seizing the occasion, certain Chaldeans came forward to slander the Jews. 9They spoke

up and said to King Nebuchadnezzar, “O king, live forever! 10You, O king, gave an order that
everyone who hears the horn, pipe, zither, lyre, psaltery, bagpipe, and all types of instruments
must fall down and worship the golden statue, 11and whoever does not fall down and worship
shall be thrown into a burning fiery furnace. 12There are certain Jews whom you appointed to
administer the province of Babylon, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego; those men pay no
heed to you, O king; they do not serve your god or worship the statue of gold that you have
set up.”
13Then Nebuchadnezzar, in raging fury, ordered Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego to

be brought; so those men were brought before the king. 14Nebuchadnezzar spoke to them and
said, “Is it true, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, that you do not serve my god or
worship the statue of gold that I have set up? 15Now if you are ready to fall down and
worship the statue that I have made when you hear the sound of the horn, pipe, zither, lyre,
psaltery, and bagpipe, and all other types of instruments, [well and good]; but if you will not
worship, you shall at once be thrown into a burning fiery furnace, and what god is there that
can save you from my power?” 16Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego said in reply to the
king, “O Nebuchadnezzar, we have no need to answer you in this matter, 17for if so it must
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be, our God whom we serve is able to save us from the burning fiery furnace, and He will
save us from your power, O king. 18But even if He does not, be it known to you, O king, that
we will not serve your god or worship the statue of gold that you have set up.”
19Nebuchadnezzar was so filled with rage at Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego that his
visage was distorted, and he gave an order to heat up the furnace to seven times its usual
heat. 20He commanded some of the strongest men of his army to bind Shadrach, Meshach,
and Abed-nego, and to throw them into the burning fiery furnace. 21So these men, in their
shirts, trousers, hats, and other garments, were bound and thrown into the burning fiery
furnace. 22Because the king’s order was urgent, and the furnace was heated to excess, a
tongue of flame killed the men who carried up Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego. 23But
those three men, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, dropped, bound, into the burning fiery

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 furnace.
24Then King Nebuchadnezzar was astonished and, rising in haste, addressed his
companions, saying, “Did we not throw three men, bound, into the fire?” They spoke in
reply, “Surely, O king.” 25He answered, “But I see four men walking about unbound and
unharmed in the fire and the fourth looks like a divine being.” 26Nebuchadnezzar then
approached the hatch of the burning fiery furnace and called, “Shadrach, Meshach, Abed-
nego, servants of the Most High God, come out!” So Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego
came out of the fire. 27The satraps, the prefects, the governors, and the royal companions
gathered around to look at those men, on whose bodies the fire had had no effect, the hair of
whose heads had not been singed, whose shirts looked no different, to whom not even the
odor of fire clung. 28Nebuchadnezzar spoke up and said, “Blessed be the God of Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abed-nego, who sent His angel to save His servants who, trusting in Him,
flouted the king’s decree at the risk of their lives rather than serve or worship any god but
their own God. 29I hereby give an order that [anyone of] any people or nation of whatever
language who blasphemes the God of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego shall be torn limb
from limb, and his house confiscated, for there is no other God who is able to save in this
way.”
30Thereupon the king promoted Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego in the province of
Babylon.

31“King Nebuchadnezzar to all people and nations of every language that inhabit the
whole earth: May your well-being abound! 32The signs and wonders that the Most High God
has worked for me I am pleased to relate. 33How great are His signs; how mighty His
wonders! His kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and His dominion endures throughout the
generations.”

4dream
1
I, Nebuchadnezzar, was living serenely in my house, flourishing in my palace. I had a
that frightened me, and my thoughts in bed and the vision of my mind alarmed me.
2

3I gave an order to bring all the wise men of Babylon before me to let me know the meaning
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of the dream. 4The magicians, exorcists, Chaldeans, and diviners came, and I related the
dream to them, but they could not make its meaning known to me. 5Finally, Daniel, called
Belteshazzar after the name of my god, in whom the spirit of the holy gods was, came to me,
and I related the dream to him, [saying], 6“Belteshazzar, chief magician, in whom I know the
spirit of the holy gods to be, and whom no mystery baffles, tell me the meaning of my dream
vision that I have seen. 7In the visions of my mind in bed

I saw a tree of great height in the midst of the earth;

8 The tree grew and became mighty;
Its top reached heaven,
And it was visible to the ends of the earth.

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 9 Its foliage was beautiful
And its fruit abundant;
There was food for all in it.
Beneath it the beasts of the field found shade,
And the birds of the sky dwelt on its branches;
All creatures fed on it.
10Inthe vision of my mind in bed, I looked and saw a holy Watcher coming down from
heaven. 11He called loudly and said:

‘Hew down the tree, lop off its branches,

Strip off its foliage, scatter its fruit.
Let the beasts of the field flee from beneath it
And the birds from its branches,
12 But leave the stump with its roots in the ground.
In fetters of iron and bronze
In the grass of the field,
Let him be drenched with the dew of heaven,
And share earth’s verdure with the beasts.
13 Let his mind be altered from that of a man,
And let him be given the mind of a beast,
And let seven seasons pass over him.
14 This sentence is decreed by the Watchers;
This verdict is commanded by the Holy Ones
So that all creatures may know
That the Most High is sovereign over the realm of man,
And He gives it to whom He wishes
And He may set over it even the lowest of men.’
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15“I,King Nebuchadnezzar, had this dream; now you, Belteshazzar, tell me its meaning,
since all the wise men of my kingdom are not able to make its meaning known to me, but you
are able, for the spirit of the holy gods is in you.”
16Then Daniel, called Belteshazzar, was perplexed for a while, and alarmed by his

thoughts. The king addressed him, “Let the dream and its meaning not alarm you.”
Belteshazzar replied, “My lord, would that the dream were for your enemy and its meaning
for your foe! 17The tree that you saw grow and become mighty, whose top reached heaven,
which was visible throughout the earth,18whose foliage was beautiful, whose fruit was so
abundant that there was food for all in it, beneath which the beasts of the field dwelt, and in
whose branches the birds of the sky lodged—19it is you, O king, you who have grown and

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 become mighty, whose greatness has grown to reach heaven, and whose dominion is to the
end of the earth. 20The holy Watcher whom the king saw descend from heaven and say,

Hew down the tree and destroy it,

But leave the stump with its roots in the ground.
In fetters of iron and bronze
In the grass of the field,
Let him be drenched with the dew of heaven,
And share the lot of the beasts of the field
Until seven seasons pass over him—
21this is its meaning, O king; it is the decree of the Most High which has overtaken my lord
the king. 22You will be driven away from men and have your habitation with the beasts of the
field. You will be fed grass like cattle, and be drenched with the dew of heaven; seven
seasons will pass over you until you come to know that the Most High is sovereign over the
realm of man, and He gives it to whom He wishes. 23And the meaning of the command to
leave the stump of the tree with its roots is that the kingdom will remain yours from the time
you come to know that Heaven is sovereign. 24Therefore, O king, may my advice be
acceptable to you: Redeem your sins by beneficence and your iniquities by generosity to the
poor; then your serenity may be extended.”
25All this befell King Nebuchadnezzar. 26Twelve months later, as he was walking on the

roof of the royal palace at Babylon, 27the king exclaimed, “There is great Babylon, which I
have built by my vast power to be a royal residence for the glory of my majesty!” 28The
words were still on the king’s lips, when a voice fell from heaven, “It has been decreed for
you, O King Nebuchadnezzar: The kingdom has passed out of your hands. 29You are being
driven away from men, and your habitation is to be with the beasts of the field. You are to be
fed grass like cattle, and seven seasons will pass over you until you come to know that the
Most High is sovereign over the realm of man and He gives it to whom He wishes.” 30There
and then the sentence was carried out upon Nebuchadnezzar. He was driven away from men,
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he ate grass like cattle, and his body was drenched with the dew of heaven until his hair grew
like eagle’s [feathers] and his nails like [the talons of] birds.
31“When the time had passed, I, Nebuchadnezzar, lifted my eyes to heaven, and my
reason was restored to me. I blessed the Most High, and praised and glorified the Ever-Living
One,

Whose dominion is an everlasting dominion

And whose kingdom endures throughout the generations.
32 All the inhabitants of the earth are of no account.
He does as He wishes with the host of heaven,
And with the inhabitants of the earth.

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 There is none to stay His hand
Or say to Him, ‘What have You done?’
33There and then my reason was restored to me, and my majesty and splendor were restored
to me for the glory of my kingdom. My companions and nobles sought me out, and I was
reestablished over my kingdom, and added greatness was given me. 34So now I,
Nebuchadnezzar, praise, exalt, and glorify the King of Heaven, all of whose works are just
and whose ways are right, and who is able to humble those who behave arrogantly.”

5 King Belshazzar gave a great banquet for his thousand nobles, and in the presence of the
1

thousand he drank wine. 2Under the influence of the wine, Belshazzar ordered the gold
and silver vessels that his father Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the temple at Jerusalem to
be brought so that the king and his nobles, his consorts, and his concubines could drink from
them. 3The golden vessels that had been taken out of the sanctuary of the House of God in
Jerusalem were then brought, and the king, his nobles, his consorts, and his concubines drank
from them. 4They drank wine and praised the gods of gold and silver, bronze, iron, wood,
and stone. 5Just then, the fingers of a human hand appeared and wrote on the plaster of the
wall of the king’s palace opposite the lampstand, so that the king could see the hand as it
wrote. 6The king’s face darkened, and his thoughts alarmed him; the joints of his loins were
loosened and his knees knocked together. 7The king called loudly for the exorcists,
Chaldeans, and diviners to be brought. The king addressed the wise men of Babylon,
“Whoever can read this writing and tell me its meaning shall be clothed in purple and wear a
golden chain on his neck, and shall rule as *one of three-a in the kingdom.”
8Then all the king’s wise men came, but they could not read the writing or make known

its meaning to the king. 9King Belshazzar grew exceedingly alarmed and his face darkened,
and his nobles were dismayed. 10Because of the state of the king and his nobles, the queen
came to the banquet hall. The queen spoke up and said, “O king, live forever! Let your
thoughts not alarm you or your face darken. 11There is a man in your kingdom who has the
spirit of the holy gods in him; in your father’s time, illumination, understanding, and wisdom
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like that of the gods were to be found in him, and your father, King Nebuchadnezzar,
appointed him chief of the magicians, exorcists, Chaldeans, and diviners. 12Seeing that there
is to be found in Daniel (whom the king called Belteshazzar) extraordinary spirit, knowledge,
and understanding to interpret dreams, to explain riddles and solve problems, let Daniel now
be called to tell the meaning [of the writing].”
13Daniel was then brought before the king. The king addressed Daniel, “You are Daniel,

one of the exiles of Judah whom my father, the king, brought from Judah. 14I have heard
about you that you have the spirit of the gods in you, and that illumination, knowledge, and
extraordinary wisdom are to be found in you. 15Now the wise men and exorcists have been
brought before me to read this writing and to make known its meaning to me. But they could
not tell what it meant. 16I have heard about you, that you can give interpretations and solve

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 problems. Now if you can read the writing and make known its meaning to me, you shall be
clothed in purple and wear a golden chain on your neck and rule as one of three in the
kingdom.”
17Then Daniel said in reply to the king, “You may keep your gifts for yourself, and give
your presents to others. But I will read the writing for the king, and make its meaning known
to him. 18O king, the Most High God bestowed kingship, grandeur, glory, and majesty upon
your father Nebuchadnezzar. 19And because of the grandeur that He bestowed upon him, all
the peoples and nations of every language trembled in fear of him. He put to death whom he
wished, and whom he wished he let live; he raised high whom he wished and whom he
wished he brought low. 20But when he grew haughty and willfully presumptuous, he was
deposed from his royal throne and his glory was removed from him. 21He was driven away
from men, and his mind made like that of a beast, and his habitation was with wild asses. He
was fed grass like cattle, and his body was drenched with the dew of heaven until he came to
know that the Most High God is sovereign over the realm of man, and sets over it whom He
wishes. 22But you, Belshazzar his son, did not humble yourself although you knew all this.
23You exalted yourself against the Lord of Heaven, and had the vessels of His temple brought

to you. You and your nobles, your consorts, and your concubines drank wine from them and
praised the gods of silver and gold, bronze and iron, wood and stone, which do not see, hear,
or understand; but the God who controls your lifebreath and every move you make—Him
you did not glorify! 24He therefore made the hand appear, and caused the writing to be
inscribed. 25This is the writing that is inscribed: MENE MENE TEKEL UPHARSIN. 26And this is its
meaning: MENE—God has numbered* [the days of] your kingdom and brought it to an end;
27TEKEL—*you have been weighed-b in the balance and found wanting; 28PERES—your kingdom
*has been divided-c and given to the Medes and the Persians.” 29Then, at Belshazzar’s

command, they clothed Daniel in purple, placed a golden chain on his neck, and proclaimed
that he should rule as one of three in the kingdom.
6 30That very night, Belshazzar, the Chaldean king, was killed, and 1Darius the Mede

received the kingdom, being about sixty-two years old. 2It pleased Darius to appoint over
the kingdom one hundred and twenty satraps to be in charge of the whole kingdom; 3over
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them were three ministers, one of them Daniel, to whom these satraps reported, in order that
the king not be troubled. 4This man Daniel surpassed the other ministers and satraps by virtue
of his extraordinary spirit, and the king considered setting him over the whole kingdom. 5The
ministers and satraps looked for some fault in Daniel’s conduct in matters of state, but they
could find neither fault nor corruption, inasmuch as he was trustworthy, and no negligence or
corruption was to be found in him. 6Those men then said, “We are not going to find any fault
with this Daniel, unless we find something against him in connection with the laws of his
God.” 7Then these ministers and satraps came thronging in to the king and said to him, “O
King Darius, live forever! 8All the ministers of the kingdom, the prefects, satraps,
companions, and governors are in agreement that a royal ban should be issued under sanction
of an oath that whoever shall address a petition to any god or man, besides you, O king,

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 during the next thirty days shall be thrown into a lions’ den. 9So issue the ban, O king, and
put it in writing so that it be unalterable as a law of the Medes and Persians that may not be
abrogated.” 10Thereupon King Darius put the ban in writing.
11When Daniel learned that it had been put in writing, he went to his house, in whose

upper chamber he had had windows made facing Jerusalem, and three times a day he knelt
down, prayed, and made confession to his God, as he had always done. 12Then those men
came thronging in and found Daniel petitioning his God in supplication. 13They then
approached the king and reminded him of the royal ban: “Did you not put in writing a ban
that whoever addresses a petition to any god or man besides you, O king, during the next
thirty days, shall be thrown into a lions’ den?” The king said in reply, “The order stands firm,
as a law of the Medes and Persians that may not be abrogated.” 14Thereupon they said to the
king, “Daniel, one of the exiles of Judah, pays no heed to you, O king, or to the ban that you
put in writing; three times a day he offers his petitions [to his God].” 15Upon hearing that, the
king was very disturbed, and he set his heart upon saving Daniel, and until the sun set made
every effort to rescue him. 16Then those men came thronging in to the king and said to the
king, “Know, O king, that it is a law of the Medes and Persians that any ban that the king
issues under sanction of oath is unalterable.” 17By the king’s order, Daniel was then brought
and thrown into the lions’ den. The king spoke to Daniel and said, “Your God, whom you
serve so regularly, will deliver you.” 18A rock was brought and placed over the mouth of the
den; the king sealed it with his signet and with the signet of his nobles, so that nothing might
be altered concerning Daniel.
19The king then went to his palace and spent the night fasting; no diversions were brought

to him, and his sleep fled from him. 20Then, at the first light of dawn, the king arose and
rushed to the lions’ den. 21As he approached the den, he cried to Daniel in a mournful voice;
the king said to Daniel, “Daniel, servant of the living God, was the God whom you served so
regularly able to deliver you from the lions?” 22Daniel then talked with the king, “O king,
live forever! 23My God sent His angel, who shut the mouths of the lions so that they did not
injure me, inasmuch as I was found innocent by Him, nor have I, O king, done you any
injury.” 24The king was very glad, and ordered Daniel to be brought up out of the den. Daniel
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was brought up out of the den, and no injury was found on him, for he had trusted in his God.
25Then, by order of the king, those men who had slandered Daniel were brought and,

together with their children and wives, were thrown into the lions’ den. They had hardly
reached the bottom of the den when the lions overpowered them and crushed all their bones.
26Then King Darius wrote to all peoples and nations of every language that inhabit the

earth, “May your well-being abound! 27I have hereby given an order that throughout my
royal domain men must tremble in fear before the God of Daniel, for He is the living God
who endures forever; His kingdom is indestructible, and His dominion is to the end of time;
28He delivers and saves, and performs signs and wonders in heaven and on earth, for He

delivered Daniel from the power of the lions.” 29Thus Daniel prospered during the reign of
Darius and during the reign of Cyrus the Persian.

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 7 In the first year of King Belshazzar of Babylon, Daniel saw a dream and a vision of his
1

mind in bed; afterward he wrote down the dream. Beginning the account, 2Daniel related
the following:
“In my vision at night, I saw the four winds of heaven stirring up the great sea. 3Four
mighty beasts different from each other emerged from the sea. 4The first was like a lion but
had eagles’ wings. As I looked on, its wings were plucked off, and it was lifted off the ground
and set on its feet like a man and given the mind of a man. 5Then I saw a second, different
beast, which was like a bear but raised on one side, and with three fangs in its mouth among
its teeth; it was told, ‘Arise, eat much meat!’ 6After that, as I looked on, there was another
one, like a leopard, and it had on its back four wings like those of a bird; the beast had four
heads, and dominion was given to it. 7After that, as I looked on in the night vision, there was
a fourth beast—fearsome, dreadful, and very powerful, with great iron teeth—that devoured
and crushed, and stamped the remains with its feet. It was different from all the other beasts
which had gone before it; and it had ten horns. 8While I was gazing upon these horns, a new
little horn sprouted up among them; three of the older horns were uprooted to make room for
it. There were eyes in this horn like those of a man, and a mouth that spoke arrogantly. 9As I
looked on,

Thrones were set in place,

And the Ancient of Days took His seat.
His garment was like white snow,
And the hair of His head was like lamb’s* wool.
His throne was tongues of flame;
Its wheels were blazing fire.
10 A river of fire streamed forth before Him;
Thousands upon thousands served Him;
Myriads upon myriads attended Him;
The court sat and the books were opened.
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11I looked on. Then, because of the arrogant words that the horn spoke, the beast was killed
as I looked on; its body was destroyed and it was consigned to the flames. 12The dominion of
the other beasts was taken away, but an extension of life was given to them for a time and
season. 13As I looked on, in the night vision,

One like a human being

Came with the clouds of heaven;
He reached the Ancient of Days
And was presented to Him.
14 Dominion, glory, and kingship were given to him;

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 All peoples and nations of every language must serve him.
His dominion is an everlasting dominion that shall not pass away,
And his kingship, one that shall not be destroyed.
15As for me, Daniel, my spirit was disturbed within me and the vision of my mind alarmed
me. 16I approached one of the attendants and asked him the true meaning of all this. He gave
me this interpretation of the matter: 17‘These great beasts, four in number [mean] four
kingdoms* will arise out of the earth; 18then holy ones of the Most High will receive the
kingdom, and will possess the kingdom forever—forever and ever.’ 19Then I wanted to
ascertain the true meaning of the fourth beast, which was different from them all, very
fearsome, with teeth of iron, claws of bronze, that devoured and crushed, and stamped the
remains; 20and of the ten horns on its head; and of the new one that sprouted, to make room
for which three fell—the horn that had eyes, and a mouth that spoke arrogantly, and which
was more conspicuous than its fellows. 21(I looked on as that horn made war with the holy
ones and overcame them, 22until the Ancient of Days came and judgment was rendered in
favor of the holy ones of the Most High, for the time had come, and the holy ones took
possession of the kingdom.) 23This is what he said: ‘The fourth beast [means]—there will be
a fourth kingdom upon the earth which will be different from all the kingdoms; it will devour
the whole earth, tread it down, and crush it. 24And the ten horns [mean]—from that kingdom,
ten kings will arise, and after them another will arise. He will be different from the former
ones, and will bring low three kings. 25He will speak words against the Most High, and will
harass the holy ones of the Most High. He will think of changing times and laws, and they
will be delivered into his power for a *time, times, and half a time.-a 26Then the court will sit
and his dominion will be taken away, to be destroyed and abolished for all time. 27The
kingship and dominion and grandeur belonging to all the kingdoms under Heaven will be
given to the people of the holy ones of the Most High. Their kingdom shall be an everlasting
kingdom, and all dominions shall serve and obey them.’” 28Here the account ends.
I, Daniel, was very alarmed by my thoughts, and my face darkened; and I could not put
the matter out of my mind.
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8 In the third year of the reign of King Belshazzar, a vision appeared to me, to me, Daniel,
1

after the one that had appeared to me earlier. 2I saw in the vision—at the time I saw it I
was in the fortress of Shushan, in the province of Elam—I saw in the vision that I was beside
the Ulai River. 3I looked and saw a ram standing between me and the river; he had two horns;
the horns were high, with one higher than the other, and the higher sprouting last. 4I saw the
ram butting westward, northward, and southward. No beast could withstand him, and there
was none to deliver from his power. He did as he pleased and grew great. 5As I looked on, a
he‑goat came from the west, passing over the entire earth without touching the ground. The
goat had a conspicuous horn on its forehead. 6He came up to the two-horned ram that I had
seen standing between me and the river and charged at him with furious force. 7I saw him

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 reach the ram and rage at him; he struck the ram and broke its two horns, and the ram was
powerless to withstand him. He threw him to the ground and trampled him, and there was
none to deliver the ram from his power. 8Then the he‑goat grew very great, but at the peak of
his power his big horn was broken. In its place, four conspicuous horns sprouted toward the
four winds of heaven. 9From one of them emerged a small horn, which extended itself greatly
toward the south, toward the east, and toward the beautiful land. 10It grew as high as the host
of heaven and it hurled some stars of the [heavenly] host to the ground and trampled them.
11It vaunted itself against the very chief of the host; on its account the regular offering was

suspended, and His holy place was abandoned. 12*An army was arrayed iniquitously against
the regular offering;-a it hurled truth to the ground and prospered in what it did.
13Then I heard a holy being speaking, and another holy being said to whoever it was who

was speaking, “How long will [what was seen in] the vision last—a-the regular offering be
forsaken because of transgression; the sanctuary be surrendered and the [heavenly] host be
trampled?”-a 14He answered me,* “For twenty-three hundred evenings and mornings; then
the sanctuary shall be cleansed.” 15While I, Daniel, was seeing the vision, and trying to
understand it, there appeared before me one who looked like a man. 16I heard a human voice
from the middle of Ulai calling out, “Gabriel, make that man understand the vision.” 17He
came near to where I was standing, and as he came I was terrified, and fell prostrate. He said
to me, “Understand, O man, that the vision refers to the time of the end.” 18When he spoke
with me, I was overcome by a deep sleep as I lay prostrate on the ground. Then he touched
me and made me stand up, 19and said, “I am going to inform you of what will happen when
wrath is at an end, for [it refers] to the time appointed for the end.
20“The two-horned ram that you saw [signifies] the kings of Media and Persia; 21and the

buck, the he‑goat—the king of Greece; and the large horn on his forehead, that is the first
king. 22One was broken and four came in its stead—that [means]: four kingdoms will arise
out of a nation, but without its power. 23When their kingdoms are at an end, when the
measure of transgression* has been filled, then a king will arise, impudent and versed in
intrigue. 24He will have great strength, but not through his own strength. He will be
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extraordinarily destructive; he will prosper in what he does, and destroy the mighty and the
people of holy ones. 25By his cunning, he will use deceit successfully. He will make great
plans, will destroy many, taking them unawares, and will rise up against the chief of chiefs,
but will be broken, not by [human] hands. 26What was said in the vision about evenings and
mornings is true. Now you keep the vision a secret, for it pertains to far-off days.” 27So I,
Daniel, was stricken,* and languished many days. Then I arose and attended to the king’s
business, but I was dismayed by the vision and no one could explain it.

9 In the first year of Darius son of Ahasuerus, of Median descent, who was made king over
1

the kingdom of the Chaldeans—2in the first year of his reign, I, Daniel, consulted the
books concerning the number of years that, according to the word of the LORD that had come

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 to Jeremiah the prophet, were to be the term of Jerusalem’s desolation—seventy years. 3I
turned my face to the Lord God, devoting myself to prayer and supplication, in fasting, in
sackcloth and ashes. 4I prayed to the LORD my God, making confession thus: “O Lord, great
and awesome God, who stays faithful to His covenant with those who love Him and keep His
commandments! 5We have sinned; we have gone astray; we have acted wickedly; we have
been rebellious and have deviated from Your commandments and Your rules, 6and have not
obeyed Your servants the prophets who spoke in Your name to our kings, our officers, our
fathers, and all the people of the land. 7With You, O Lord, is the right, and the shame is on us
to this very day, on the men of Judah and the inhabitants of Jerusalem, all Israel, near and far,
in all the lands where You have banished them, for the trespass they committed against You.
8The shame, O LORD, is on us, on our kings, our officers, and our fathers, because we have

sinned against You. 9To the Lord our God belong mercy and forgiveness, for we rebelled
against Him, 10and did not obey the LORD our God by following His teachings that He set
before us through His servants the prophets. 11All Israel has violated Your teaching and gone
astray, disobeying You; so the curse and the oath written in the Teaching of Moses, the
servant of God, have been poured down upon us, for we have sinned against Him. 12He
carried out the threat that He made against us, and against our rulers who ruled us, to bring
upon us great misfortune; under the whole heaven there has never been done the like of what
was done to Jerusalem. 13All that calamity, just as is written in the Teaching of Moses, came
upon us, yet we did not supplicate the LORD our God, did not repent of our iniquity or become
wise through Your truth. 14Hence the LORD was intent upon bringing calamity upon us, for the
LORD our God is in the right in all that He has done, but we have not obeyed Him.
15“Now, O Lord our God—You who brought Your people out of the land of Egypt with a
mighty hand, winning fame for Yourself to this very day—we have sinned, we have acted
wickedly. 16O Lord, as befits Your abundant benevolence, let Your wrathful fury turn back
from Your city Jerusalem, Your holy mountain; for because of our sins and the iniquities of
our fathers, Jerusalem and Your people have become a mockery among all who are around
us.
17“O our God, hear now the prayer of Your servant and his plea, and show Your favor to
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Your desolate sanctuary, for the Lord’s sake. 18Incline Your ear, O my God, and hear; open
Your eyes and see our desolation and the city to which Your name is attached. Not because of
any merit of ours do we lay our plea before You but because of Your abundant mercies. 19O
Lord, hear! O Lord, forgive! O Lord, listen, and act without delay for Your own sake, O my
God; for Your name is attached to Your city and Your people!”
20While I was speaking, praying, and confessing my sin and the sin of my people Israel,

and laying my supplication before the LORD my God on behalf of the holy mountain of my
God—21while I was uttering my prayer, the man Gabriel, whom I had previously seen in the
vision, was sent forth in flight and reached me about the time of the evening offering. 22He
made me understand by speaking to me and saying, “Daniel, I have just come forth to give
you understanding. 23A word went forth as you began your plea, and I have come to tell it,

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 for you are precious; so mark the word and understand the vision.
24“Seventy weeks* have been decreed for your people and your holy city until the
measure of transgression is filled and that of sin complete, until iniquity is expiated, and
eternal righteousness ushered in; and prophetic vision ratified,* and the Holy of Holies
anointed. 25You must know and understand: From the issuance of the word to restore and
rebuild Jerusalem until the [time of the] anointed leader is seven weeks; and for sixty-two
weeks it will be rebuilt, square and moat, but in a time of distress. 26And after those sixty-
two weeks, the anointed one will disappear and vanish.* The army of a leader who is to come
will destroy the city and the sanctuary, but its end will come through a flood. Desolation is
decreed until the end of war. 27During one week he will make a firm covenant with many.
For half a week he will put a stop to the sacrifice and the meal offering. At the *corner [of the
altar]-d will be an appalling abomination until the decreed destruction will be poured down
upon the appalling thing.”

10 In the third year of King Cyrus of Persia, an oracle was revealed to Daniel, who was
1

called Belteshazzar. That oracle was true, *but it was a great task to understand the
prophecy; understanding came to him through the vision.-a
2At that time, I, Daniel, kept three full weeks of mourning. 3I ate no tasty food, nor did

any meat or wine enter my mouth. I did not anoint myself until the three weeks were over. 4It
was on the twenty-fourth day of the first month, when I was on the bank of the great river—
the Tigris—5that I looked and saw a man dressed in linen, his loins girt in *fine gold.-b 6His
body was like beryl, his face had the appearance of lightning, his eyes were like flaming
torches, his arms and legs had the color of burnished bronze, and the sound of his speech was
like the noise of a multitude.
7I, Daniel, alone saw the vision; the men who were with me did not see the vision, yet

they were seized with a great terror and fled into hiding. 8So I was left alone to see this great
vision. I was drained of strength, my vigor was destroyed, and I could not summon up
strength. 9I heard him speaking; and when I heard him speaking, overcome by a deep sleep, I
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lay prostrate on the ground. 10Then a hand touched me, and shook me onto my hands and
knees. 11He said to me, “O Daniel, precious man, mark what I say to you and stand up, for I
have been sent to you.” After he said this to me, I stood up, trembling. 12He then said to me,
“Have no fear, Daniel, for from the first day that you set your mind to get understanding,
practicing abstinence before your God, your prayer was heard, and I have come because of
your prayer. 13However, the prince of the Persian kingdom opposed me for twenty-one days;
now Michael, a prince of the first rank, has come to my aid, after I was detained there with
the kings of Persia. 14So I have come to make you understand what is to befall your people in
the days to come, for there is yet a vision for those days.”
15While he was saying these things to me, I looked down and kept silent. 16Then one who

looked like a man touched my lips, and I opened my mouth and spoke, saying to him who

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 stood before me, “My lord, because of the vision, I have been seized with pangs and cannot
summon strength. 17How can this servant of my lord speak with my lord, seeing that my
strength has failed and no spirit is left in me?” 18He who looked like a man touched me
again, and strengthened me. 19He said, “Have no fear, precious man, all will be well with
you; be strong, be strong!” As he spoke with me, I was strengthened, and said, “Speak on,
my lord, for you have strengthened me!” 20Then he said, “Do you know why I have come to
you? Now I must go back to fight the prince of Persia. When I go off, the prince of Greece
will come in. 21*No one is helping me against them except your prince, Michael. However, I
will tell you what is recorded in the book of truth.-a

11 “In the first year of Darius the Mede, I took my stand to strengthen and fortify him.
1
2And now I will tell you the truth: Persia will have three more kings, and the fourth will
be wealthier than them all; by the power he obtains through his wealth, he will stir everyone
up against the kingdom of Greece. 3Then a warrior king will appear who will have an
extensive dominion and do as he pleases. 4But after his appearance, his kingdom will be
broken up and scattered to the four winds of heaven, but not for any of his posterity, nor with
dominion like that which he had; for his kingdom will be uprooted and belong to others
beside these.
5“The king of the south will grow powerful; however, one of his officers will overpower

him and rule, having an extensive dominion. 6After some years, an alliance will be made, and
the daughter of the king of the south will come to the king of the north to effect the
agreement, but she will not maintain her strength, nor will his strength endure. She will be
surrendered together with those who escorted her and the one who begot her and helped her
during those times. 7A shoot from her stock will appear in his place, will come against the
army and enter the fortress of the king of the north; he will fight and overpower them. 8He
will also take their gods with their molten images and their precious vessels of silver and
gold back to Egypt as booty. For some years he will leave the king of the north alone, 9who
will [later] invade the realm of the king of the south, but will go back to his land.
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10“His sons will wage war, collecting a multitude of great armies; he will advance and

sweep through as a flood, and will again wage war as far as his stronghold. 11Then the king
of the south, in a rage, will go out to do battle with him, with the king of the north. He will
muster a great multitude, but the multitude will be delivered into his [foe’s] power. 12But
when the multitude is carried off, he will grow arrogant; he will cause myriads to perish, but
will not prevail. 13Then the king of the north will again muster a multitude even greater than
the first. After a time, a matter of years, he will advance with a great army and much
baggage. 14In those times, many will resist the king of the south, and the lawless sons of your
people will assert themselves to confirm the vision, but they will fail. 15The king of the north
will advance and throw up siege ramps and capture a fortress city, and the forces of the south
will not hold out; even the elite of his army will be powerless to resist. 16His opponent will
do as he pleases, for none will hold out against him; he will install himself in the beautiful

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 land with destruction within his reach. 17He will set his mind upon invading the strongholds
throughout his [foe’s] kingdom, but in order to destroy it he will effect an agreement with
him and give him a daughter in marriage; he will not succeed at it and it will not come about.
18He will turn to the coastlands and capture many; but a consul will put an end to his insults,

nay pay him back for his insults. 19He will head back to the strongholds of his own land, but
will stumble, and fall, and vanish. 20His place will be taken by one who will dispatch an
officer to exact tribute for royal glory, but he will be broken in a few days, not by wrath or by
war. 21His place will be taken by a contemptible man, on whom royal majesty was not
conferred; he will come in unawares and seize the kingdom through trickery. 22The forces of
the flood will be overwhelmed by him and will be broken, and so too the covenant leader.
23And, from the time an alliance is made with him, he will practice deceit; and he will rise to

power with a small band. 24He will invade the richest of provinces unawares, and will do
what his father and forefathers never did, lavishing on them* spoil, booty, and wealth; he will
have designs upon strongholds, but only for a time.
25“He will muster his strength and courage against the king of the south with a great

army. The king of the south will wage war with a very great and powerful army but will not
stand fast, for they will devise plans against him. 26Those who eat of his food will ruin him.
His army will be overwhelmed, and many will fall slain. 27The minds of both kings will be
bent on evil; while sitting at the table together, they will lie to each other, but to no avail, for
there is yet an appointed term. 28He will return to his land with great wealth, his mind set
against the holy covenant. Having done his pleasure, he will return to his land. 29At the
appointed time, he will again invade the south, but the second time will not be like the first.
30Ships from Kittim will come against him. He will be checked, and will turn back, raging
against the holy covenant. Having done his pleasure, he will then attend to those who forsake
the holy covenant. 31Forces will be levied by him; they will desecrate the temple, the fortress;
they will abolish the regular offering and set up the appalling abomination. 32He will flatter
with smooth words those who act wickedly toward the covenant, but the people devoted to
their God will stand firm. 33The knowledgeable among the people will make the many
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understand; and for a while they shall fall by sword and flame, suffer captivity and spoliation.
34In defeat, they will receive a little help, and many will join them insincerely. 35Some of the

knowledgeable will fall, that they may be refined and purged and whitened until the time of
the end, for an interval still remains until the appointed time.
36“The king will do as he pleases; he will exalt and magnify himself above every god,
and he will speak awful things against the God of gods. He will prosper until wrath is spent,
and what has been decreed is accomplished. 37He will not have regard for the god of his
ancestors or for the one dear to women; he will not have regard for any god, but will magnify
himself above all. 38He will honor the god of fortresses on his stand; he will honor with gold
and silver, with precious stones and costly things, a god that his ancestors never knew. 39He
will deal with fortified strongholds with the help of an alien god. He will heap honor on those
who acknowledge him, and will make them master over many; he will distribute land for a

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 price. 40At the time of the end, the king of the south will lock horns with him, but the king of
the north will attack him with chariots and riders and many ships. He will invade lands,
sweeping through them like a flood; 41he will invade the beautiful land, too, and many will
fall, but these will escape his clutches: Edom, Moab, and the chief part of the Ammonites.
42He will lay his hands on lands; not even the land of Egypt will escape. 43He will gain
control over treasures of gold and silver and over all the precious things of Egypt, and the
Libyans and Cushites will follow at his heel. 44But reports from east and north will alarm
him, and he will march forth in a great fury to destroy and annihilate many. 45He will pitch
his royal pavilion between the sea and the beautiful holy mountain, and he will meet his
doom with no one to help him.

12 “At that time, the great prince, Michael, who stands beside the sons of your people, will
1
appear. It will be a time of trouble, the like of which has never been since the nation
came into being. At that time, your people will be rescued, all who are found inscribed in the
book. 2Many of those that sleep in the dust of the earth will awake, some to eternal life,
others to reproaches, to everlasting abhorrence. 3And the knowledgeable will be radiant like
the bright expanse of sky, and those who lead the many to righteousness will be like the stars
forever and ever.
4“But you, Daniel, keep the words secret, and seal the book until the time of the end.

Many will range far and wide and knowledge will increase.”
5Then I, Daniel, looked and saw two others standing, one on one bank of the river, the

other on the other bank of the river. 6One said to the man clothed in linen, who was above the
water of the river, “How long until the end of these awful things?” 7Then I heard the man
dressed in linen, who was above the water of the river, swear by the Ever-Living One as he
lifted his right hand and his left hand to heaven: “For a *time, times, and half a time;-a and
when the breaking of the power of the holy people comes to an end, then shall all these
things be fulfilled.”
8I heard and did not understand, so I said, “My lord, what will be the outcome of these
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things?” 9He said, “Go, Daniel, for these words are secret and sealed to the time of the end.
10Many will be purified and purged and refined; the wicked will act wickedly and none of the

wicked will understand; but the knowledgeable will understand. (11From the time the regular
offering is abolished, and an appalling abomination is set up—it will be a thousand two
hundred and ninety days. 12Happy the one who waits and reaches one thousand three hundred
and thirty-five days.) 13But you, go on to the end; you shall rest, and arise to your destiny at
the end of the days.”

1.1–6.29: Collection of court legends. Chs 1–6 probably circulated as independent stories before being
collected and edited together (see the intro.). Chs 2, 4, and 5 demonstrate that Daniel is superior to the king’s other courtiers,
while chs 3 and 6 dramatically depict the persecution and vindication of the Jewish protagonists at the hands of the other
courtiers. Ch 1 serves as an introduction to this collection. The positive resolution of the narrative in chs 1–6 and the

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 sometimes humorous tone indicate that the tension did not result from the national crisis of the Maccabean revolt, but rather
from the more general conflict of loyalties that existed for Jews living in the Diaspora in the centuries preceding that.

1.1–21: Daniel and his three companions are introduced and tested. This ch introduces
the main Jewish characters—Daniel and his three friends—as well as Nebuchadnezzar and also the Temple vessels, which
will figure in ch 5. In addition, though God’s great power is emphasized, it is power that is exercised at a distance and
through intermediaries, a theme that will be developed in terms of God’s role in the court of the great foreign kings in chs 1–
6 and in world history in chs 7–12. 1–2: The fall of Judah and the beginnings of exile are introduced quickly. To establish
the pedigree of the hero, the book of Daniel does not dwell here on Nebuchadnezzar as the archvillain of ancient Jewish
history, or on the exile as tragedy. The Lord still controls human events, even the successes of foreign kings over Judah. The
dating of events is not accurate: The third year of King Jehoiakim was 606 BCE, but Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem in
597 BCE. Vessels, Ezra 1.7–8. Shinar, Babylonia. 3: The “history” of the exile quickly turns to the fortunes of the four
Jewish protagonists at the court of Nebuchadnezzar. They are heroic and aristocratic in bearing. Compare the treatment of
the fallen king Jehoiachin in 2 Kings 25.27–30; Jer. 52.31–34. 4: Chaldeans: A name for a region and language of
Babylonia, it was also associated with the wisdom and learning of Eastern courtiers. In some passages in Daniel it refers to
the ethnic group, in others it means courtiers. The language of the Chaldeans was Akkadian. 5: The training of courtiers in
languages, court protocol, and international relations was common in the ancient world. 7–8: Belteshazzar, see 4.5 n.
Prominent Jews sometimes took Babylonian names, and at Gen. 41.45 Joseph is given an Egyptian name. The names
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego have not been satisfactorily explained. Daniel and his friends refuse the king’s food,
presumably because it violated the food laws in Lev. ch 11 and Deut. ch 14. This v. also offers the only biblical indication of
the later rabbinic law that Jews should not drink pagan wine. 8: A stronger emphasis on dietary laws as a way of living a
pious life away from the Temple developed in the Diaspora, as reflected here and in many works in the Apocrypha (Tobit
1.10–11; Judith 10.5; 12.1–2; 1 Macc. 1.62–63; 2 Macc. 5.27).

2.1–49: Daniel is able to interpret the king’s dream. 1: Second year is inconsistent with 1.1–4.
2: Lists of court officers—and other items as well—occur often in chs 1–6. The humorous tone of the pretentiousness of
the list is meant to contrast with the understated power of Daniel’s abilities. Unlike 1.4, Chaldeans here means courtiers,
since the king would have been a Chaldean as well. 4: With the words O king, the text switches from Heb to Aram. The
interpretation of royal dreams was common in the ancient Near East (cf. ch 4; Gen. ch 41), but a twist is introduced when
the king demands that the courtiers tell him the content of his dream as well as its interpretation. The king’s threat indicates
the high stakes and potential danger to the life of the courtier (cf. 2.12). Although there are many records of dream
interpretation from the ancient Near East, there is no record of a courtier recounting the content of someone else’s dream.
The courtiers raise an objection on these grounds, setting the stage for Daniel, with the help of God (v. 30), to do what no
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ordinary human being could do. As in the other chs, Daniel serves as a vehicle for expressing God’s great power. 13–23:
It is possible that these vv. were added to tie the initial six chs together; the mention of the three friends connects this
episode with chs 1 and 3, and the prayer is similar to those in chs 3, 4, and 6; see also Neh. 9.5; 1 Sam. ch 2; Prov. ch 8. Cf.
5.11–12 n. 18: Mystery, “raz,” a Persian word, generally used in Jewish apocalypticism to mean the special, restricted
knowledge of the heavens and what is to happen in the future. Daniel’s wisdom and knowledge provides another connection
between chs 1–6 and chs 7–12. He is capable of receiving extraordinary revelations from God. 20: The central words of
the later Jewish kaddish prayer are based on the beginning of this v., whose theme, that ultimate wisdom only lies with God,
is common in wisdom literature, esp. Job. 31–45: Portentous dreams of the fate of kingdoms were common in the
ancient world; cf. Herodotus, Histories 1.108; 7.19. Here, however, the author uses an older prediction of four world
kingdoms—understood as Babylonia, Media, Persia, and Greece—and emphasizes their decreasing value. They are followed
by a mixed kingdom of iron and clay, which signifies the divided Greek kingdom and the Ptolemaic and Seleucid kings who
ruled in the eastern Mediterranean (see the intro.). Although Daniel predicts the demise of the Babylonian kingdom and its
ultimate replacement by the kingdom of the God of Heaven, Nebuchadnezzar nevertheless reveres Daniel for his insight.

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 46: Prostrated … paid homage implies that the king worshipped Daniel, but Jewish interpreters assumed that Daniel
declined this reverence (Gen. Rab. 96.5). The Rabbis were often quite critical of Daniel, however, for enjoying such a
positive relationship with the tyrant who destroyed the First Temple (see 4.16–24 n.). The original narratives in chs 1–6 were
probably oriented toward entertainment at the expense of the pagan kings.

3.1–33: Daniel’s three companions are tested in the fiery furnace. Daniel himself is not
mentioned in ch 3. The story about the three young men may have circulated as an independent oral legend, later
incorporated into the tradition of Daniel narratives because of thematic similarities. The religious intolerance depicted in the
ch is very atypical of the ancient Near Eastern world. Although the king’s demand that Jews worship a statue has parallels to
the events of the Maccabean revolt, the parallels are not close, and this section of Daniel is likely pre-Maccabean. It is
unclear whether this story is based on a real event or is created to illustrate the power of God. 1: Statue of gold: Herodotus
1.183 mentions a giant figure made of gold in the temple of Bel in Babylon. 2: In this ch, lists, which are characteristic of
Daniel, are used particularly often, perhaps for satirical effect. Even the names of the protagonists in their Babylonian form,
“Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego,” are repeated often. The comic effect of the lists is even more marked if the narrative
is read aloud, as it was probably originally recounted. The pomp and organization of officials, including the title satrap,
seem to be more indicative of Persian administration, when the story may have been composed, rather than the Neo-
Babylonian empire when the story is set. Ch 6 indicates that the editor of the collection is familiar with Persian
administration. 5: Some of the musical instruments mentioned are loanwords from Gk, the only certain Gk loanwords in
Daniel. 8: The threat from other courtiers, who are presumably jealous, is emphasized here and at 6.1–5; cf. also Esth. ch 3.
11: Being thrown into the fiery furnace appears in postbiblical literature in reference to Abraham, based on this passage
and the notice that he came from Ur of the Chaldeans; the Heb word “ur” also means fire (see e.g., Gen. Rab. 38.13). 15:
What god is there: Without realizing it, the king invokes the God who does have the power to save the three Jews, unlike the
many gods whom the king worships. 19: The bluster of the king is emphasized, perhaps also for comic effect. 25: The
fourth looks like a divine being, an angel. Angels become particularly important in this period; cf. 7.13–14 n.; 8.15–16 n.
31–33: The first doxology (praise of God) of the pagan kings; cf. 4.31–34; 6.27–28. The theme of all the doxologies is
that God’s kingship is superior to any earthly kingship. The implausibility of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar blessing
the God of Israel and making a decree of protection argues for a humorous interpretation of this ch. These vv. are sometimes
taken as the introduction to ch 4 rather than concluding ch 3.

4.1–34: Daniel predicts Nebuchadnezzar’s madness. 1: I, Nebuchadnezzar: The narrative

begins in the first person, recounted by Nebuchadnezzar himself, which is typical of Neo-Babylonian royal inscriptions and
of royal letters. Nebuchadnezzar was never absent from office for any extended period, but the king’s temporary absence
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here likely suggests that the model for this story is not Nebuchadnezzar but Nabonidus, the last Babylonian king (556–539
BCE), who spent ten years at Teima, in the Arabian peninsula, allowing his son Belshazzar to reign as viceroy in his stead
(see ch 5). The “Prayer of Nabonidus” (4Q242) from Qumran presents Nabonidus’s first-person account of being cured by
an unnamed Jewish seer after an affliction of seven years. The author’s confusion between Nebuchadnezzar and Nabonidus
suggests that he lived long after Babylonia had fallen. 5: Belteshazzar … the name of my god, see 1.7–8 n. Although the
author understandably assumes that the name is related to the Babylonian god Bel, it actually means “protect his life” or
perhaps “protects the prince’s life,” and is not based on the god Bel. 6: Mystery, see 2.18 n. 7: The “world-tree” is often
used in the ancient Near East as a symbol of a great empire; cf. Ezek. 17.1–10; 31.3–14; Herodotus 1.108; 7.19. 10:
Watcher, an angelic figure, common in Jewish apocalyptic literature (Jub. 4.15), who executes God’s justice. In some texts
watchers are fallen angels (1 Enoch chs 10–16). 16–24: The story slips into third-person narration with Daniel’s role, but
returns to first-person narration at v. 31. Daniel urges the king to reform his practices (v. 24), but in light of
Nebuchadnezzar’s conquest of Judah and the destruction of the Temple, his repentance could not have been seriously
maintained. Daniel’s concern for Nebuchadnezzar did not always meet with approval in rabbinic tradition (b. B. Bat. 4a);
some rabbis, however, assumed that “my lord” (v. 16) must refer to God and the “enemy” must be Nebuchadnezzar himself.

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 The point of these episodes, though told whimsically, seems to be that even Nebuchadnezzar could be forced to recognize
the sovereignty of the one true God (cf. the book of Jonah). 28: Voice, cf. Dan. ch 5. 31–34: Cf. 3.32–33; 6.27–28.

5.1–29: Daniel interprets the writing on the wall. 1–2: Belshazzar was the son of Nabonidus. He
was never king, and only reigned as viceroy during his father’s absence. Great banquet: Babylonian and Persian royal feasts
were notorious for their excess; cf. Esth. ch 1. It is the sacrilege of drinking from the Temple vessels, however, especially by
the concubines, that is most emphasized. According to rabbinic tradition (b. Meg. 11b–12a), Belshazzar was celebrating
because he thought that the prediction of the demise of the Babylonian kingdom after seventy years (Jer. 25.11; cf. Dan. ch
9) had been proven wrong. He had miscalculated, however, by one year. Vessels, see 1.2. 4: Gods of gold and silver: A
common feature of Judaism at this time was the “parody of idols,” usually focusing on their material origin and their
inability to respond to prayer; cf. 5.23; Isa. 44.9–20; Ps. 115.4–8; in the Apocrypha, Wisdom of Solomon 13.1–15.17; Bel
and the Dragon; and at Qumran, 4QPrNab ar. 5: The fingers of a human hand: Compare the finger of God that brings the
plagues in Exod. 8.19, or writes the ten commandments in Exod. 31.18. 10: Queen, probably the queen-mother, the wife of
Nebuchadnezzar. 11–12: Daniel’s wisdom is spelled out by the queen-mother. Evidently she alone remembers his service
to Nebuchadnezzar and his extraordinary abilities. This is one of the few places in chs 1–6 that connects the individual
stories, and it is likely a redactional addition to make the book more coherent. See 2.13–23 n. 23: Because of the sacrilege
of the Temple vessels, the sins of Belshazzar are more pointedly against the Lord of Heaven than was the case with
Nebuchadnezzar. 25–28: The words are interpreted on two levels. They are weights: MENE in Aram. is a mina (a little
more than half a kg, about 20 oz); TEKEL is a shekel (11 g or less than half an oz); and UPHARSIN (a dual form of “peres”) is
two half-minas. They also sound like verbs: MENE sounds like the verb “to number,” TEKEL “to weigh,” and UPHARSIN “to
divide.” The last is also similar to the word “Persians.” It is possible that the words originally referred only to the decreasing
“weight” or importance of particular Babylonian monarchs, and the dynasty was thereby condemned. A more explicit level
of prophetic condemnation was then added in terms of the verbal meanings.

5.30–6.29: Daniel in the lions’ den. 5.30–6.1: These vv. were likely added to provide a smooth transition
between the separate stories in chs 5 and 6. 1: Darius the Mede is unhistorical. Darius was a famous Persian king (522–486
BCE) responsible for organizing his empire into provinces headed by “satraps” or governors. According to Herodotus,
Histories 3.89, Darius established twenty satrapies; contrast the exaggerated tradition of Esth. 1.1. The four-empires schema
requires that Media be represented in chs 2 and 7, and it is possible that a story originally involving Darius of Persia has
been altered to fit this schema. The events of 5.30 are likewise ahistorical. 3: In the stories of court conflict, an initial
balance among the courtiers is disturbed when one of them is promoted above the others; cf. 2.49 (in reference to ch 3);
Esth. 3.1. 8: The interdict is historically implausible. No king of this period who claimed divine status forbade the worship
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of other gods. Darius the Persian was supportive of local religions, including that of the Jews. The exclusive worship of one
god was a Jewish view, and this exclusive notion is projected onto an Eastern divine monarch. The narrative thus reflects
Jewish tensions about remaining monotheistic in a mixed Diaspora culture. 9: Some ancient authors believed that the law
of the Persian king, once enacted, could not be altered (Esth. 1.19; 8.8; Diodorus Siculus 17.30). This is likely only a
popular tradition, however, and is emphasized for dramatic effect (cf. 6.14–17). 11: Praying three times a day became a
common Jewish practice by the mishnaic period, though it has earlier precedents (Ps. 55.18; Jdt. 9.1). Likewise, the Mishnah
legislates praying toward Jerusalem (m. Ber. 4.5). 25: The importance of family identity in the ancient Near East could
result in family members receiving the punishment of the male heads; cf. Num. 16.25–33; 2 Sam. 21.1–9; Esth. 9.13–14; but
in contrast to this, Jer. 31.28–29; Ezek. ch 18. 26–28: A concluding doxology similar to 3.28, 32–33; 4.31–34. The story
is told for dramatic effect. It is unlikely that Darius would invoke Daniel’s God, although this has been the theme of chs 1–6,
as it was in “Prayer of Nabonidus” (4QPrNab ar) and Bel and the Dragon from the Apocrypha. Keeping lions in an
underground den is unknown; this and the sealing of the stone with the king’s ring heighten the drama. 29: Cyrus the
Persian was the first Persian king (559–530 BCE). He was followed by Cambyses, Darius, and Xerxes; see 9.1.

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 7.1–12.13: Daniel’s apocalyptic visions. This is the second half of the book; see the intro. on the difference
in genre, date, and political situation of chs 7–12, and the difference in language between ch 7 and chs 8–12.

7.1–28: Vision of the four beasts. Ch 7, in Aram., may have been composed before chs 8–12. Like ch 2, it
involves a dream interpretation and a four-kingdom schema, and like chs 2–6 it is in Aram. The depiction of the end of time
in apocalyptic visions is often similar to biblical depictions of the beginning of time, that is, creation. The sea and monsters
here are paralleled in many stories of creation (Gen. ch 1; Job 26.12–13; Pss. 33.6–7; 74.12–14; Isa. 27.1). 1: First year of
King Belshazzar, 553 BCE. The author of ch 7, like the author of ch 5, incorrectly thinks of Belshazzar as king. 2–3: Four
winds … four mighty beasts: The tumult of all four winds blowing at once and the violence of the sea portend threatening
events. The recurrence of the number four evokes the four kingdoms of ch 2, and ch 7 will develop a four-kingdom schema
further. 4–8: The animals are like the mythological figures of ancient Near Eastern art, but are also ferocious predators
known to Israelite imagery, e.g., Hos. 13.7–8. (On the empires symbolized here, see the intro.) The winged lion represents
the Babylonian kingdom, the ravenous bear the Medes, the winged leopard the Persians, and the last beast the Greek empire
of Alexander the Great, with the ten horns representing the Seleucid successors of Alexander in the Near East. The last beast
is the most fearsome and chaotic, and the last horn represents the Seleucid Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who killed some of his
rivals. The human transformation of the first beast may be an allusion to ch 4. The general cast of this scene is also like
Ezek. ch 1, with its composite creatures and symbolic weight. 9–14: The chaos and destructive power of the beasts is
followed by an even more awesome judgment scene. The model for the judgment scene is the ancient Near Eastern council
of gods in heaven, often utilized in the Bible to depict God’s council (Ps. 82.1; Job ch 1). The throne formed from tongues of
flame echoes Isa. ch 6; Ezek. 1.25–28. 9: Ancient of Days: God is described in corporeal terms in the way that El is
pictured in Canaanite myth, with the warrior-god Baal coming before him after slaying the sea monster. It is significant,
however, that combat is not mentioned here in Daniel, only judgment. As in Gen. ch 1, God has absolute sovereignty over
the world, and does not need to establish authority through conflict. Cf. the role of angels in 10.20–21. 10: As befits a
great and absolute king, the divine retinue is large, comprised of thousands upon thousands and myriads upon myriads. 11:
The arrogance of the last horn is now seen as provocation for the most severe punishment. In ch 5 it was the arrogance and
sacrilege of the latecomer Belshazzar, not the destructive history of Nebuchadnezzar, that provoked the strongest
condemnation. 13–14: Human being, lit. “son of man,” which in the Bible is idiomatic for human being (Dan. 8.17;
Ezek. 2.1; Job 25.6). Here, however, the celestial being is like a human being, i.e., has a human countenance. For the author
it most likely represents a heavenly figure who will exercise judgment, perhaps Michael (see 10.13 n.). Christian tradition,
especially in the Gospels, saw this as a prediction of Jesus as a heavenly “son of man.” This messianic use of this title is a
Jewish idea as well (1 Enoch 46.1; 48.10; 4 Ezra [2 Esd.] ch 13; b. Sanh. 98a). Some Rabbis rejected the future messianic
interpretation by arguing either that the predictions had all been fulfilled in the past (b. Sanh. 97b), or that Daniel’s
predictions did not include the end of time (Gen. Rab. 98.2). Later in Jewish tradition the messianic interpretation faded and
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the one like a human being was seen as representing Israel (Ibn Ezra, Rashi). 14: Dominion … peoples and nations: The
tone and the words used here and in 7.27 tie this ch to the doxologies of chs 1–6 (see 3.31–33 n.). 16: In chs 2 and 4
Daniel’s extraordinary spiritual insights, bestowed by God, allowed him to interpret the dreams successfully, but the
apocalyptic genre typically included a divine interpreter; cf. 8.15–16; 9.21–23; chs 10–12; Zech. chs 1–6. Interpretation:
The word used here (“peshar”) is the Aram. form of the word “pesher” used later at Qumran for a type of interpretation of
prophetic literature, where the biblical book was seen as fulfilled in the time of the interpreter. (It is translated as “meaning”
at 4.13; 5.15, 26.) 18: Holy ones of the Most High: Some scholars see here a reference to the pious Jews of Daniel’s circle,
called “knowledgeable” in ch 12, but others argue, noting v. 27 and using the analogy of texts from Qumran, that the holy
ones are the angelic host.

8.1–27: Vision of the ram and the he-goat. With the beginning of ch 8, the language changes from
Aram. back to Heb, and continues in Heb to the end. The symbolic visions of chs 8–12 are less poetic, more detailed, and
more focused on recent events from the author’s perspective. 1: Third year … Belshazzar, see 7.1. 2: Shushan, Susa, the

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 winter capital of the Persian empire. Ulai River: Daniel twice has visions by a river (cf. 10.4), modeled after Ezekiel (Ezek.
1.1). Rivers create a natural boundary, and in the ancient world boundaries and crossroads were considered ideal locations
for communication with the divine. 3–14: Ram … he-goat: The traditional four-kingdom schema is abandoned here in
favor of one that is less compelling but better symbolizes the recent past from the author’s perspective. The two-horned ram
represents the Medes and Persians, and the he-goat represents Alexander the Great, who died at the peak of his power (v. 8).
The four conspicuous horns (v. 8) represent the four kingdoms that succeeded Alexander, one of which was the Seleucid,
over which Antiochus IV Epiphanes came to rule. This vision thus overlaps to a large extent with ch 7. 9: Beautiful land,
Judea. 11: Regular offering … abandoned: Antiochus IV suppressed the practice of Judaism and turned the Temple into a
non-Jewish worship site (1 Macc. 1.54–61; 2 Macc. 4.11–6.11). 14: Twenty-three hundred evenings and mornings, i.e.,
1,150 days, about the same as the three-and-a-half years of 7.25; 9.27; 12.7. 15–16: One who looked like a man: An
expression different from 7.13–14 is used here, which is a play on the name of Gabriel. Angels appear in the Bible, but only
in Daniel and postbiblical texts do they have names; see also 12.1. 17–19: Here and elsewhere (e.g., 8.26–27) a number
of literary devices are used, typical of apocalypses, that increase the sense of awe, secrecy, and mystery, even though the
events predicted seem very clear. The command to “keep the vision a secret” (v. 26) emphasizes that it was supposedly
received by Daniel centuries earlier, but was not known until now at the time of the end when it finds its realization. This
secret vision, though quite bizarre to us, would have been transparent to the author’s audience in the 2nd c. BCE.

9.1–27: Daniel reinterprets Jeremiah’s prophecy of seventy years. 1: Darius …

Ahasuerus: On Darius, see 6.1 n. Ahasuerus is Xerxes, like Darius a Persian and not a Mede, and was the son, not father, of
Darius. Of Median descent, possibly an effort to harmonize the fact that Ahasuerus and Darius were Persian with the
statement in 6.1 that Darius was a Mede. 2: The author grapples with the prophetic prediction in Jer. 25.11–12 that Babylon
would fall after seventy years. This is one of the few explicit references in a biblical book to another biblical book; it does
not necessarily reflect the canonization of the Prophets as a corpus, but suggests that like the Torah, certain prophetic texts
were studied intensively at this time. 3: Fasting, sackcloth, and ashes were aspects of ritual mourning in the Bible, but were
also signs of penitence as well as preparation for fervent prayer and for visions (4 Ezra [2 Esd.] 5.13; 9.24). The rise of
penitential theology in postbiblical Judaism suggests that, although Daniel’s prayer is a response to particular historical
events, it also reflects in Judaism a new personal, penitential religious life that is taken up in various ways by the Qumran
sectarians, Pharisees, and Christians. This can also be found in some strands of rabbinic tradition (b. Taʿan. 11b–12a), but
there is also found in the Talmud a tendency to rein in excessive penitential asceticism (b. Taʿan. 11a; b. B. Bat. 60b). 5:
Later Jewish confessions, culminating in the lengthy, formulaic confessions in the Yom Kippur liturgy, share this structure of
listing words for various prohibited activities in the first-person plural. 15–19: The penitential prayer and confession of
Israel’s sins expresses Deuteronomistic theology, i.e., a view expressed often in the books from Deut. through 2 Kings: Israel
has sinned, and if it repents, God will act graciously once more (see e.g., Deut. ch 30; 2 Kings ch 17). 24: Seventy weeks
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[of years], that is, 490 years, the true prediction of Jeremiah according to this interpretation (see v. 2 and n.). This
interpretation is based on reading a single word in Jer. 25.11–12 in two different ways, as “shavʿuim” (weeks) and “shivʿim”
(seventy). This is facilitated by the writing system at that time, which indicated consonants only, and not vowels. Such close
textual study and revocalization of texts for interpretive purposes would characterize later rabbinic interpretation. Holy of
Holies anointed, finally accomplished by Judas Maccabee in 164 BCE (1 Macc. 4.26–59), shortly after the final editing of
Daniel. 25–26: Anointed leader …. anointed one: The word anointed in vv. 25 and 26 is the Heb “mashiaḥ” (Messiah);
thus these vv. have given rise to much Christian speculation. In the context of the other historical references, however, the
anointed leader probably refers to either Zerubbabel or the high priest Joshua (Ezra 3.2; Hag. ch 1; Zech. 6.9–15), while the
anointed one is most likely the high priest Onias III, killed in 171 BCE (2 Macc. 4.30–34). In the Bible, “mashiaḥ” never
refers to the future ideal Davidic king; this use is postbiblical. The prince is Antiochus IV Epiphanes. 27: Half a week, the
three-and-a-half years of the Maccabean revolt that had transpired to that time. See 7.25 translators’ note; cf. 8.14 and n.
Appalling abomination, probably new altar stones placed upon the altar in the Temple, upon which non-Jewish sacrifices
were offered to foreign deities (1 Macc. 1.54; 2 Macc. 6.5).

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 10.1–12.13: Vision of the last days. Chs 10–12 constitute one extended vision that is much more detailed and
focused on events contemporary with the author.

10.1–21: Daniel is strengthened by a heavenly being. 1: Third year … Cyrus, 536 BCE. 2–3:
Daniel’s preparation is common for fervent prayer or visions (see 9.3 n.); here, however, it is particularly lengthy and
detailed. 4: Bank … river, see 8.2 n. 5–6: The appearance of the man is described like other divine beings (Ezek. 1.4–14;
9.2–3). 7: Daniel’s ability to clearly see this angelic figure, while others only sense his presence, serves to legitimate him
and the visions he recounts. 12: Being told not to fear continues an earlier prophetic motif (e.g., Jer. 1.8). 13: Prince of
the Persian kingdom, the guardian angel of Persia. Michael was a warrior angel, found in later Jewish and Christian
literature (1 Enoch 9.1; 1QM 9.15–16; Revelation 12.7). See also 8.15–16 n. 20: Prince of Greece, the guardian angel of
the Seleucid empire. The guardian angels of Israel battle those of Persia and Greece in turn. The battle of the heavenly forces
is also found at Qumran.

11.1–45: The heavenly being reveals future events. A detailed description follows representing
events in the conflicted relations between the Seleucid empire of Syria and Babylonia and the Ptolemaic empire of Egypt.
The symbolic aspect of the vision is less compelling than ch 7 or even ch 8; it also sometimes bogs down in historical
correspondences. Apocalyptic writings, as well as some of those from the Dead Sea Scrolls, typically refer to historical
figures indirectly, in code, rather than by name. Daniel follows this practice. As the visions progress, and relate to the time of
the author rather than to earlier times, they become more detailed. Thus, the detail allows a precise dating of the final
composition and editing of Daniel. 1: First year of Darius the Mede, see 9.1 n. 2–4: It is unclear what Persian kings are
intended; the fourth may be the last Persian king, Darius III (336–331 BCE). The warrior king is Alexander the Great, whose
kingdom was broken up after his death, and ruled by various successor kingdoms. 5: The king of the south, Ptolemy I Soter
(323–285 BCE), who established the Ptolemaic kingdom in Egypt; one of his officers is Seleucus I, who founded the
Seleucid kingdom in Babylonia, which expanded into adjacent areas, including Syria. 6: An alliance based on marriage
was effected between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. The daughter of Ptolemy II and others were murdered. 7–8: Her
brother, Ptolemy III (246–221 BCE), a shoot from her stock, retaliated. 9: Seleucus II, the king of the north (v. 7), invaded
Egypt, the realm of the king of the south, but returned north. 10–13: The sons of Seleucus II grew in strength and
attacked Egypt. One of them, Antiochus III the Great (223–187 BCE), finally defeated Ptolemy V. There were Jews
sympathetic to both sides (2 Macc. chs 3–4). 14: The lawless sons of your people probably refers to the Seleucid
sympathizers. 15–16: The Battle of Paneas in 200 BCE gave Antiochus III control of the beautiful land, Judea. 17:
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Another marriage is arranged to normalize relations, but it did not achieve its end. 18–19: Antiochus III turns his
attentions elsewhere but is unsuccessful and ultimately dies. 20: Seleucus IV Philopator, who succeeded Antiochus III,
sent Heliodorus to rob the Jerusalem Temple treasury. According to 2 Macc. ch 3, this attempt was unsuccessful because
Heliodorus was chastised by a divine apparition, i.e., not by wrath or by war. 21–22: Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164
BCE) succeeds Seleucus IV. Under his rule the covenant leader, the high priest Onias III, was murdered (see 9.26). 24:
Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) was notoriously lavish with sacrifices. 25–27: Antiochus IV again defeats Egypt. 28: In the
midst of his constant campaigns, Antiochus IV had designs once again on the gold in the Jerusalem Temple (1 Macc. ch 1).
29–31: When Antiochus IV invades Egypt once more, he is opposed by ships from Kittim, or Rome, now a
Mediterranean power. Jewish sympathizers, along with Antiochus’s appointed high priest, will forsake the covenant and
introduce new sacrifices, including the apalling abomination. 32–35: Some faithful Jews resist, and those who are
knowledgeable will instruct the many (cf. 12.3). On the identity of the knowledgeable, see the intro. Many will, for the first
time in Jewish history, suffer martyrdom (1 Macc. 1.63), namely death due to their religious beliefs. The little help they
receive perhaps indicates the lack of an effective alliance between the militant Maccabees and Daniel’s circle (cf. 1 Macc.

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 2.29–38). 36–39: The author depicts the arrogance of Antiochus IV as conflict in the divine council (cf. Isa. 14.12–21;
Ezek. 28.1–10). The offense of Antiochus IV is not only against the God of gods, but also against his own ancestral god and
the one dear to women, the Mesopotamian god Tammuz (Ezek. 8.14). Scholars have thought that Antiochus elevated the cult
of Zeus Olympios above all other gods, but ancient authors depicted him as active in the worship of many deities and divine
heroes. To the author of Daniel, however, the installation of Zeus Olympios in the sanctuary was alien both to Jews and to
the Seleucid dynasty, which had previously favored Apollo as a patron deity. 40–45: From this point, the predictions do
not correspond to events as known from other sources, and scholars agree that the author must have been writing at the time
of the events described in the preceding vv. (see the intro.). What is described is a cataclysmic battle of the major powers
that would mark the end of the present age (cf. Ezek. chs 38–39), but the campaigns predicted here did not occur. This
indicates that the date of Daniel is in the middle of the persecutions of Antiochus IV, before his defeat and the purification of
the Jerusalem Temple, commemorated with Hanukkah.

12.1–13: Vision of the end. 1: A judgment scene similar to ch 7. Michael, see 8.15–16 n.; 10.13 n. Book: The
book of life, prominent in the Jewish liturgy of the high holidays, is borrowed from Mesopotamia and is found in the Bible
(e.g., Exod. 32.32–33; Isa. 4.3). Here it is more eschatological, i.e., oriented toward the end of time, and may have inscribed
only a small subset of the people Israel, as it does in other Jewish apocalyptic texts. 2–3: Many … will awake, i.e., not all;
presumably some who deserve eternal life, others who deserve everlasting abhorrence. The doctrine of resurrection and
judgment probably came about during the persecutions of Antiochus IV as a means to discern justice at a time when pious
people, the knowledgeable, were being martyred. Unlike Ezekiel’s vision of dry bones (Ezek. ch 37), the resurrection here is
not a metaphor for the rebirth of Israel, but individual resurrection for judgment. Whether bodily resurrection or some form
of spiritual resurrection is intended is not stated. This is the only certain biblical reference to this doctrine, a doctrine that
became central in Christian theology and remained a strong current in Judaism as well. It was a tenet of belief for the
Pharisees, and Maimonides, centuries later, included it among his thirteen principles of Jewish faith. 4: See 8.17–19 n.
11–12: Other time predictions are added, pushing the expected end slightly later than those that have come before. It is
possible that the failure of the end to come prompted successive adjustments.

* Or “and some of them.”

* Lit. “head.”
* Meaning of Heb. uncertain; others “and he could not.”
* Meaning uncertain; or “turned into ruins.”
* Lit. “tell the king’s matter.”
* Lit. “flesh.”
* Meaning uncertain.
* Cf. Dan. 6.3; or “third in rank.”
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* Aramaic mena.
* Aramaic tekilta.
* Aramaic perisat.
* Or “clean.”
* Lit. “kings.”
* I.e., a year, two years, and a half a year.
* Meaning of Heb. uncertain.
* Several ancient versions “him.”
* Lit. “transgressors.”
* Meaning of Heb. uncertain.
* Viz., of years.
* Lit. “sealed.”

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 * Meaning of Heb. uncertain.
* Meaning of Heb. uncertain.
* Meaning of Heb. uncertain.
* Or “gold of Uphaz.”
* Order of clauses inverted for clarity.
* I.e., his followers.
* See note at 7.25.
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